Exploration of Mars

A diagram of the Curiosity rover, landed on Mars in 2012.
Active missions at Mars from 2001 to present
Year Missions
2018 8 8
 
2017 8 8
 
2016 8 8
 
2015 7 7
 
2014 7 7
 
2013 5 5
 
2012 5 5
 
2011 4 4
 
2010 5 5
 
2009 5 5
 
2008 6 6
 
2007 5 5
 
2006 6 6
 
2005 5 5
 
2004 5 5
 
2003 3 3
 
2002 2 2
 
2001 2 2
 
Active spacecraft at Mars 1971–2000
Year Spacecraft
2000 1 1
 
1999 1 1
 
1998 1 1
 
1997 2 2
 
1990–1996 0
1989 1 1
 
1983–1988 0
1982 1 1
 
1981 1 1
 
1980 3 3
 
1979 3 3
 
1978 4 4
 
1976 4 4
 
1975 4 4
 
1974 3 3
 
1973 0
1972 3 3
 
1971 5 5
 

The planet Mars has been explored remotely by spacecraft. Probes sent from Earth, beginning in the late 20th century, have yielded a dramatic increase in knowledge about the Martian system, focused primarily on understanding its geology and habitability potential.[1] Engineering interplanetary journeys is complicated and the exploration of Mars has experienced a high failure rate, especially the early attempts. Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars failed before completing their missions and some failed before their observations could begin. Some missions have met with unexpected success, such as the twin Mars Exploration Rovers, which operated for years beyond their specification.[2]

Current status

As of 10 June 2018, two rovers were on the surface of Mars beaming signals back to Earth (Opportunity of the Mars Exploration Rover mission and Curiosity of the Mars Science Laboratory mission), with six orbiters surveying the planet: Mars Odyssey, Mars Express, Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter, Mars Orbiter Mission, MAVEN, and the Trace Gas Orbiter, which have contributed massive amounts of information about Mars. No sample return missions have been attempted for Mars and an attempted return mission for Mars' moon Phobos (Fobos-Grunt) failed.[3]

On 24 January 2014, NASA reported that current studies on the planet Mars by the Curiosity and Opportunity rovers will search for evidence of ancient life, including a biosphere based on autotrophic, chemotrophic and/or chemolithoautotrophic microorganisms, as well as ancient water, including fluvio-lacustrine environments (plains related to ancient rivers or lakes) that may have been habitable.[1][4][5][6] The search for evidence of habitability, taphonomy (related to fossils), and organic carbon on the planet Mars is now a primary NASA objective.[1]

Martian system

Mars has long been the subject of human interest. Early telescopic observations revealed color changes on the surface that were attributed to seasonal vegetation and apparent linear features were ascribed to intelligent design. Further telescopic observations found two moons, Phobos and Deimos, polar ice caps and the feature now known as Olympus Mons, the solar system's tallest mountain. The discoveries piqued further interest in the study and exploration of the red planet. Mars is a rocky planet, like Earth, that formed around the same time, yet with only half the diameter of Earth, and a far thinner atmosphere; it has a cold and desert-like surface.[7]

Launch windows

Opportunities 2013–2020[8]
Year Launch Spacecraft (launched or planned)
2013Nov 2013 MAVEN, Mars Orbiter Mission
2016Jan 2016 – Apr 2016ExoMars TGO
2018May 5, 2018 – June 8, 2018InSight
2020Jul 2020 – Sep 2020ExoMars rover, Mars 2020, Mars Hope,
2020 Chinese Mars Mission, Mars Orbiter Mission 2 (MOM-2)

The minimum-energy launch windows for a Martian expedition occur at intervals of approximately two years and two months (specifically 780 days, the planet's synodic period with respect to Earth).[9] In addition, the lowest available transfer energy varies on a roughly 16-year cycle.[9] For example, a minimum occurred in the 1969 and 1971 launch windows, rising to a peak in the late 1970s, and hitting another low in 1986 and 1988.[9]

Past and current missions

Launches to Mars
Decade
    1960s
    13
    1970s
    11
    1980s
    2
    1990s
    8
    2000s
    8
    2010s
    6

    Martian sunset by Spirit rover, 2005.
    North polar view by Phoenix lander, 2008.

    Starting in 1960, the Soviets launched a series of probes to Mars including the first intended flybys and hard (impact) landing (Mars 1962B).[10] The first successful fly-by of Mars was on 14–15 July 1965, by NASA's Mariner 4.[11] On November 14, 1971 Mariner 9 became the first space probe to orbit another planet when it entered into orbit around Mars.[12] The amount of data returned by probes increased dramatically as technology improved.[10]

    The first to contact the surface were two Soviet probes: Mars 2 lander on November 27 and Mars 3 lander on December 2, 1971—Mars 2 failed during descent and Mars 3 about twenty seconds after the first Martian soft landing.[13] Mars 6 failed during descent but did return some corrupted atmospheric data in 1974. [14] The 1975 NASA launches of the Viking program consisted of two orbiters, each with a lander that successfully soft landed in 1976. Viking 1 remained operational for six years, Viking 2 for three. The Viking landers relayed the first color panoramas of Mars.[15]

    The Soviet probes Phobos 1 and 2 were sent to Mars in 1988 to study Mars and its two moons, with a focus on Phobos. Phobos 1 lost contact on the way to Mars. Phobos 2, while successfully photographing Mars and Phobos, failed before it was set to release two landers to the surface of Phobos.[16]

    Roughly two-thirds of all spacecraft destined for Mars have failed without completing their missions, and it has a reputation as a difficult space exploration target.[17]

    Missions that ended prematurely after Phobos 1 & 2 (1988) include (see Probing difficulties section for more details):

    Following the 1993 failure of the Mars Observer orbiter, the NASA Mars Global Surveyor achieved Mars orbit in 1997. This mission was a complete success, having finished its primary mapping mission in early 2001. Contact was lost with the probe in November 2006 during its third extended program, spending exactly 10 operational years in space. The NASA Mars Pathfinder, carrying a robotic exploration vehicle Sojourner, landed in the Ares Vallis on Mars in the summer of 1997, returning many images.[18]

    Phoenix landed on the north polar region of Mars on May 25, 2008.[19] Its robotic arm dug into the Martian soil and the presence of water ice was confirmed on June 20, 2008.[20][21] The mission concluded on November 10, 2008 after contact was lost.[22] In 2008, the price of transporting material from the surface of Earth to the surface of Mars was approximately US$309,000 per kilogram.[23]

    Rosetta came within 250 km of Mars during its 2007 flyby. [24] Dawn flew by Mars in February 2009 for a gravity assist on its way to investigate Vesta and Ceres. [25]

    Acidalia PlanitiaAcidalia PlanitiaAlba MonsAmazonis PlanitiaAonia TerraArabia TerraArcadia PlanitiaArcadia PlanitiaArgyre PlanitiaElysium MonsElysium PlanitiaHellas PlanitiaHesperia PlanumIsidis PlanitiaLucas PlanumLyot CraterNoachis TerraOlympus MonsPromethei TerraRudaux CraterSolis PlanumTempe TerraTerra CimmeriaTerra SabaeaTerra SirenumTharsis MontesUtopia PlanitiaValles MarinerisVastitas BorealisVastitas BorealisMap of Mars
    The image above contains clickable linksInteractive imagemap of the global topography of Mars, overlain with locations of Mars landers and rovers (Red label = Rover; Blue label = Lander; bold red/blue = currently active). Hover your mouse to see the names of over 25 prominent geographic features, and click to link to them. Coloring of the base map indicates relative elevations, based on data from the Mars Orbiter Laser Altimeter on NASA's Mars Global Surveyor. Reds and pinks are higher elevation (+3 km to +8 km); yellow is 0 km; greens and blues are lower elevation (down to −8 km). Whites (>+12 km) and browns (>+8 km) are the highest elevations. Axes are latitude and longitude; Poles are not shown.
    (See also: Mars map & Mars Memorials & Mars Memorials map) (view • discuss)
    ← Beagle 2 (2003)
    Curiosity (2012) →
    Deep Space 2 (1999) →
    Mars 2 (1971) →
    ← Mars 3 (1971)
    Mars 6 (1973) →
    Polar Lander (1999) ↓
    ↑ Opportunity (2004)
    ← Phoenix (2008)
    Schiaparelli EDM (2016) →
    ← Sojourner (1997)
    Spirit (2004) ↑
    Viking 1 (1976) →
    Viking 2 (1976) →

    Recent missions

    Curiosity's self-portrait on the planet Mars at "Rocknest" (October 31, 2012).
    The Electra radio of the MAVEN orbiter

    NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter entered Mars orbit in 2001.[26] Odyssey's Gamma Ray Spectrometer detected significant amounts of hydrogen in the upper metre or so of regolith on Mars. This hydrogen is thought to be contained in large deposits of water ice.[27]

    The Mars Express mission of the European Space Agency (ESA) reached Mars in 2003. It carried the Beagle 2 lander, which was not heard from after being released and was declared lost in February 2004. Beagle 2 was located in January 2015 by HiRise camera on NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) having landed safely but failed to fully deploy its solar panels and antenna.[28][29] In early 2004, the Mars Express Planetary Fourier Spectrometer team announced the orbiter had detected methane in the Martian atmosphere, a potential biosignature. ESA announced in June 2006 the discovery of aurorae on Mars by the Mars Express.[30]

    In January 2004, the NASA twin Mars Exploration Rovers named Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity (MER-B) landed on the surface of Mars. Both have met and exceeded all their science objectives. Among the most significant scientific returns has been conclusive evidence that liquid water existed at some time in the past at both landing sites. Martian dust devils and windstorms have occasionally cleaned both rovers' solar panels, and thus increased their lifespan.[31] Spirit rover (MER-A) was active until 2010, when it stopped sending data because it got stuck in a sand dune and was unable to reorient itself to recharge its batteries.[3]

    On 10 March 2006, NASA's Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) probe arrived in orbit to conduct a two-year science survey. The orbiter began mapping the Martian terrain and weather to find suitable landing sites for upcoming lander missions. The MRO captured the first image of a series of active avalanches near the planet's north pole in 2008.[32]

    The Mars Science Laboratory mission was launched on November 26, 2011 and it delivered the Curiosity rover on the surface of Mars on August 6, 2012 UTC. It is larger and more advanced than the Mars Exploration Rovers, with a velocity of up to 90 meters per hour (295 feet per hour).[33] Experiments include a laser chemical sampler that can deduce the composition of rocks at a distance of 7 meters.[34]

    MAVEN orbiter was launched on 18 November 2013, and on 22 September 2014 it was injected into an areocentric elliptic orbit 6,200 km (3,900 mi) by 150 km (93 mi) above the planet's surface to study its atmosphere. Mission goals include determining how the planet's atmosphere and water, presumed to have once been substantial, were lost over time.[35]

    The Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO) launched their Mars Orbiter Mission (MOM) on November 5, 2013 and it was inserted into Mars orbit on 24 September 2014. India's ISRO is the fourth space agency to reach Mars, after the Soviet space program, NASA and ESA.[36] India became the first country to successfully place a spacecraft into Mars orbit on its maiden attempt.[37]

    The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter arrived at Mars in 2016 and deployed the Schiaparelli EDM lander, a test lander. Schiaparelli crashed on surface, but it transmitted key data during its parachute descent, so the test was declared a partial success.[38]

    Overview of missions

    The following entails a brief overview of Mars exploration, oriented towards orbiters and flybys; see also Mars landing and Mars rover.

    Early Soviet missions

    Mars 1M spacecraft.
    1960s

    Between 1960 and 1969, the Soviet Union launched nine probes intended to reach Mars. They all failed: three at launch; three failed to reach near-Earth orbit; one during the burn to put the spacecraft into trans-Mars trajectory; and two during the interplanetary orbit.

    The Mars 1M programs (sometimes dubbed Marsnik in Western media) was the first Soviet unmanned spacecraft interplanetary exploration program, which consisted of two flyby probes launched towards Mars in October 1960, Mars 1960A and Mars 1960B (also known as Korabl 4 and Korabl 5 respectively). After launch, the third stage pumps on both launchers were unable to develop enough pressure to commence ignition, so Earth parking orbit was not achieved. The spacecraft reached an altitude of 120 km before reentry.

    Mars 1962A was a Mars fly-by mission, launched on October 24, 1962 and Mars 1962B an intended first Mars lander mission, launched in late December of the same year (1962). Both failed from either breaking up as they were going into Earth orbit or having the upper stage explode in orbit during the burn to put the spacecraft into trans-Mars trajectory.[3]

    The first success
    Selected Soviet Mars probes
    SpacecraftOrbiter or flyby outcomeLander outcome
    Mars 1FailureFailure
    Mars 2SuccessFailure
    Mars 3Partial successPartial success
    Mars 4FailureN/A
    Mars 5Partial successN/A
    Mars 6SuccessFailure
    Mars 7SuccessFailure
    Phobos 1FailureNot deployed
    Phobos 2Partial successNot deployed

    Mars 1 (1962 Beta Nu 1), an automatic interplanetary spacecraft launched to Mars on November 1, 1962, was the first probe of the Soviet Mars probe program to achieve interplanetary orbit. Mars 1 was intended to fly by the planet at a distance of about 11,000 km and take images of the surface as well as send back data on cosmic radiation, micrometeoroid impacts and Mars' magnetic field, radiation environment, atmospheric structure, and possible organic compounds.[39][40] Sixty-one radio transmissions were held, initially at two-day intervals and later at 5 day intervals, from which a large amount of interplanetary data was collected. On 21 March 1963, when the spacecraft was at a distance of 106,760,000 km from Earth, on its way to Mars, communications ceased due to failure of its antenna orientation system.[39][40]

    In 1964, both Soviet probe launches, of Zond 1964A on June 4, and Zond 2 on November 30, (part of the Zond program), resulted in failures. Zond 1964A had a failure at launch, while communication was lost with Zond 2 en route to Mars after a mid-course maneuver, in early May 1965.[3]

    In 1969, and as part of the Mars probe program, the Soviet Union prepared two identical 5-ton orbiters called M-69, dubbed by NASA as Mars 1969A and Mars 1969B. Both probes were lost in launch-related complications with the newly developed Proton rocket.[41]

    1970s

    The USSR intended to have the first artificial satellite of Mars beating the planned American Mariner 8 and Mariner 9 Mars orbiters. In May 1971, one day after Mariner 8 malfunctioned at launch and failed to reach orbit, Cosmos 419 (Mars 1971C), a heavy probe of the Soviet Mars program M-71, also failed to launch. This spacecraft was designed as an orbiter only, while the next two probes of project M-71, Mars 2 and Mars 3, were multipurpose combinations of an orbiter and a lander with small skis-walking rovers that would be the first planet rovers outside the Moon. They were successfully launched in mid-May 1971 and reached Mars about seven months later. On November 27, 1971 the lander of Mars 2 crash-landed due to an on-board computer malfunction and became the first man-made object to reach the surface of Mars. On 2 December 1971, the Mars 3 lander became the first spacecraft to achieve a soft landing, but its transmission was interrupted after 14.5 seconds.[42]

    The Mars 2 and 3 orbiters sent back a relatively large volume of data covering the period from December 1971 to March 1972, although transmissions continued through to August. By 22 August 1972, after sending back data and a total of 60 pictures, Mars 2 and 3 concluded their missions. The images and data enabled creation of surface relief maps, and gave information on the Martian gravity and magnetic fields.[43]

    In 1973, the Soviet Union sent four more probes to Mars: the Mars 4 and Mars 5 orbiters and the Mars 6 and Mars 7 fly-by/lander combinations. All missions except Mars 7 sent back data, with Mars 5 being most successful. Mars 5 transmitted just 60 images before a loss of pressurization in the transmitter housing ended the mission. Mars 6 lander transmitted data during descent, but failed upon impact. Mars 4 flew by the planet at a range of 2200 km returning one swath of pictures and radio occultation data, which constituted the first detection of the nightside ionosphere on Mars.[44] Mars 7 probe separated prematurely from the carrying vehicle due to a problem in the operation of one of the onboard systems (attitude control or retro-rockets) and missed the planet by 1,300 kilometres (8.7×10−6 au).

    Mariner program

    The first close-up images taken of Mars in 1965 from Mariner 4 show an area about 330 km across by 1200 km from limb to bottom of frame.

    In 1964, NASA's Jet Propulsion Laboratory made two attempts at reaching Mars. Mariner 3 and Mariner 4 were identical spacecraft designed to carry out the first flybys of Mars. Mariner 3 was launched on November 5, 1964, but the shroud encasing the spacecraft atop its rocket failed to open properly, dooming the mission. Three weeks later, on November 28, 1964, Mariner 4 was launched successfully on a 7½-month voyage to Mars..

    Mariner 4 flew past Mars on July 14, 1965, providing the first close-up photographs of another planet. The pictures, gradually played back to Earth from a small tape recorder on the probe, showed impact craters. It provided radically more accurate data about the planet; a surface atmospheric pressure of about 1% of Earth's and daytime temperatures of −100 °C (−148 °F) were estimated. No magnetic field[45][46] or Martian radiation belts[47] were detected. The new data meant redesigns for then planned Martian landers, and showed life would have a more difficult time surviving there than previously anticipated.[48][49][50][51]

    Mariner Crater, as seen by Mariner 4. The location is Phaethontis quadrangle.

    NASA continued the Mariner program with another pair of Mars flyby probes, Mariner 6 and 7. They were sent at the next launch window, and reached the planet in 1969. During the following launch window the Mariner program again suffered the loss of one of a pair of probes. Mariner 9 successfully entered orbit about Mars, the first spacecraft ever to do so, after the launch time failure of its sister ship, Mariner 8. When Mariner 9 reached Mars in 1971, it and two Soviet orbiters (Mars 2 and Mars 3, see Mars probe program below) found that a planet-wide dust storm was in progress. The mission controllers used the time spent waiting for the storm to clear to have the probe rendezvous with, and photograph, Phobos. When the storm cleared sufficiently for Mars' surface to be photographed by Mariner 9, the pictures returned represented a substantial advance over previous missions. These pictures were the first to offer more detailed evidence that liquid water might at one time have flowed on the planetary surface. They also finally discerned the true nature of many Martian albedo features. For example, Nix Olympica was one of only a few features that could be seen during the planetary duststorm, revealing it to be the highest mountain (volcano, to be exact) on any planet in the entire Solar System, and leading to its reclassification as Olympus Mons.

    Viking program

    The Viking program launched Viking 1 and 2 spacecraft to Mars in 1975; The program consisted of two orbiters and two landers – these were the first two spacecraft to successfully land and operate on Mars.

    Viking 1 lander site (1st color, July 21, 1976).
    Viking 2 lander site (1st color, September 5, 1976).
    Viking 2 lander site (September 25, 1977).
    (False color image) Frost at Viking 2 site (May 18, 1979).
    Martian sunset over Chryse Planitia at Viking 1 site (August 20, 1976).

    The primary scientific objectives of the lander mission were to search for biosignatures and observe meteorologic, seismic and magnetic properties of Mars. The results of the biological experiments on board the Viking landers remain inconclusive, with a reanalysis of the Viking data published in 2012 suggesting signs of microbial life on Mars.[52][53]

    Flood erosion at Dromore crater.
    Tear-drop shaped islands at Oxia Palus.
    Streamlined islands in Lunae Palus.
    Scour patterns located in Lunae Palus.

    The Viking orbiters revealed that large floods of water carved deep valleys, eroded grooves into bedrock, and traveled thousands of kilometers. Areas of branched streams, in the southern hemisphere, suggest that rain once fell.[54][55][56]

    Mars Pathfinder

    Sojourner takes Alpha Proton X-ray Spectrometer measurements of the Yogi Rock.

    Mars Pathfinder was a U.S. spacecraft that landed a base station with a roving probe on Mars on July 4, 1997. It consisted of a lander and a small 10.6 kilograms (23 lb) wheeled robotic rover named Sojourner, which was the first rover to operate on the surface of Mars.[57][58] In addition to scientific objectives, the Mars Pathfinder mission was also a "proof-of-concept" for various technologies, such as an airbag landing system and automated obstacle avoidance, both later exploited by the Mars Exploration Rovers.[57]

    Mars Global Surveyor

    This image from Mars Global Surveyor spans a region about 1500 meters across. Gullies, similar to those formed on Earth, are visible from Newton Basin in Sirenum Terra.
    Gullies, similar to those formed on Earth, are visible on this image from Mars Global Surveyor.

    After the 1992 failure of NASA's Mars Observer orbiter, NASA retooled and launched Mars Global Surveyor (MGS). Mars Global Surveyor launched on November 7, 1996, and entered orbit on September 12, 1997. After a year and a half trimming its orbit from a looping ellipse to a circular track around the planet, the spacecraft began its primary mapping mission in March 1999. It observed the planet from a low-altitude, nearly polar orbit over the course of one complete Martian year, the equivalent of nearly two Earth years. Mars Global Surveyor completed its primary mission on January 31, 2001, and completed several extended mission phases.

    The mission studied the entire Martian surface, atmosphere, and interior, and returned more data about the red planet than all previous Mars missions combined. The data has been archived and remains available publicly.[59]

    This color-coded elevation map was produced from data collected by Mars Global Surveyor. It shows an area around Northern Kasei Valles, showing relationships among Kasei Valles, Bahram Vallis, Vedra Vallis, Maumee Vallis, and Maja Valles. Map location is in Lunae Palus quadrangle and includes parts of Lunae Planum and Chryse Planitia.
    A color-coded elevation map produced from data collected by Mars Global Surveyor indicating the result of floods on Mars.

    Among key scientific findings, Global Surveyor took pictures of gullies and debris flow features that suggest there may be current sources of liquid water, similar to an aquifer, at or near the surface of the planet. Similar channels on Earth are formed by flowing water, but on Mars the temperature is normally too cold and the atmosphere too thin to sustain liquid water. Nevertheless, many scientists hypothesize that liquid groundwater can sometimes surface on Mars, erode gullies and channels, and pool at the bottom before freezing and evaporating.

    Magnetometer readings showed that the planet's magnetic field is not globally generated in the planet's core, but is localized in particular areas of the crust. New temperature data and closeup images of the Martian moon Phobos showed that its surface is composed of powdery material at least 1 metre (3 feet) thick, caused by millions of years of meteoroid impacts. Data from the spacecraft's laser altimeter gave scientists their first 3-D views of Mars' north polar ice cap. On November 5, 2006 MGS lost contact with Earth.[60] NASA ended efforts to restore communication on January 28, 2007.[61]

    Mars Odyssey and Mars Express

    Animation of 2001 Mars Odyssey's trajectory around Mars from 24 October 2001 to 24 October 2002
       2001 Mars Odyssey ·   Mars
    Animation of Mars Express's trajectory around Mars from 25 December 2003 to 1 January 2010
       Mars Express ·   Mars

    In 2001, NASA's Mars Odyssey orbiter arrived at Mars. Its mission is to use spectrometers and imagers to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on Mars. In 2002, it was announced that the probe's gamma-ray spectrometer and neutron spectrometer had detected large amounts of hydrogen, indicating that there are vast deposits of water ice in the upper three meters of Mars' soil within 60° latitude of the south pole.

    On June 2, 2003, the European Space Agency's Mars Express set off from Baikonur Cosmodrome to Mars. The Mars Express craft consists of the Mars Express Orbiter and the stationary lander Beagle 2. The lander carried a digging device and the smallest mass spectrometer created to date, as well as a range of other devices, on a robotic arm in order to accurately analyze soil beneath the dusty surface to look for biosignatures and biomolecules.

    The orbiter entered Mars orbit on December 25, 2003, and Beagle 2 entered Mars' atmosphere the same day. However, attempts to contact the lander failed. Communications attempts continued throughout January, but Beagle 2 was declared lost in mid-February, and a joint inquiry was launched by the UK and ESA. The Mars Express Orbiter confirmed the presence of water ice and carbon dioxide ice at the planet's south pole, while NASA had previously confirmed their presence at the north pole of Mars.

    The lander's fate remained a mystery until it was located intact on the surface of Mars in a series of images from the Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter.[62][63] The images suggest that two of the spacecraft's four solar panels failed to deploy, blocking the spacecraft's communications antenna. Beagle 2 is the first British and first European probe to achieve a soft landing on Mars.

    MER and Phoenix

    Polar surface as seen by the Phoenix lander.

    NASA's Mars Exploration Rover Mission (MER), started in 2003, is an ongoing robotic space mission involving two rovers, Spirit (MER-A) and Opportunity, (MER-B) exploring the Martian surface geology. The mission's scientific objective is to search for and characterize a wide range of rocks and soils that hold clues to past water activity on Mars. The mission is part of NASA's Mars Exploration Program, which includes three previous successful landers: the two Viking program landers in 1976; and Mars Pathfinder probe in 1997.

    Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter

    Slope streaks as seen by HiRise[64]

    The Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter (MRO) is a multipurpose spacecraft designed to conduct reconnaissance and exploration of Mars from orbit. The $720 million USD spacecraft was built by Lockheed Martin under the supervision of the Jet Propulsion Laboratory, launched August 12, 2005, and entered Mars orbit on March 10, 2006.[65]

    The MRO contains a host of scientific instruments such as the HiRISE camera, CTX camera, CRISM, and SHARAD. The HiRISE camera is used to analyze Martian landforms, whereas CRISM and SHARAD can detect water, ice, and minerals on and below the surface. Additionally, MRO is paving the way for upcoming generations of spacecraft through daily monitoring of Martian weather and surface conditions, searching for future landing sites, and testing a new telecommunications system that enable it to send and receive information at an unprecedented bitrate, compared to previous Mars spacecraft. Data transfer to and from the spacecraft occurs faster than all previous interplanetary missions combined and allows it to serve as an important relay satellite for other missions.

    Rosetta and Dawn swingbys

    The ESA Rosetta space probe mission to the comet 67P/Churyumov-Gerasimenko flew within 250 km of Mars on February 25, 2007, in a gravitational slingshot designed to slow and redirect the spacecraft.[66]

    The NASA Dawn spacecraft used the gravity of Mars in 2009 to change direction and velocity on its way to Vesta, and tested out Dawn's cameras and other instruments on Mars.[67]

    Fobos-Grunt

    On November 8, 2011, Russia's Roscosmos launched an ambitious mission called Fobos-Grunt. It consisted of a lander aimed to retrieve a sample back to Earth from Mars' moon Phobos, and place the Chinese Yinghuo-1 probe in Mars' orbit. The Fobos-Grunt mission suffered a complete control and communications failure shortly after launch and was left stranded in low Earth orbit, later falling back to Earth.[68] The Yinghuo-1 satellite and Fobos-Grunt underwent destructive re-entry on January 15, 2012, finally disintegrating over the Pacific Ocean.[69][70][71]

    Curiosity rover

    Curiosity's view of Aeolis Mons ("Mount Sharp") foothills on August 9, 2012 EDT (white balanced image).

    The NASA Mars Science Laboratory mission with its rover named Curiosity, was launched on November 26, 2011,[72][73] and landed on Mars on August 6, 2012 on Aeolis Palus in Gale Crater. The rover carries instruments designed to look for past or present conditions relevant to the past or present habitability of Mars.[74][75][76][77]

    MAVEN

    NASA's MAVEN is an orbiter mission to study the upper atmosphere of Mars.[78] It will also serve as a communications relay satellite for robotic landers and rovers on the surface of Mars. MAVEN was launched 18 November 2013 and reached Mars on 22 September 2014.

    Mars Orbiter Mission

    The Mars Orbiter Mission, also called Mangalyaan, was launched on 5 November 2013 by the Indian Space Research Organisation (ISRO).[79] It was successfully inserted into Martian orbit on 24 September 2014. The mission is a technology demonstrator, and as secondary objective, it will also study the Martian atmosphere. This is India's first mission to Mars, and with it, ISRO became the fourth space agency to successfully reach Mars after the Soviet Union, NASA (USA) and ESA (Europe). It also made ISRO the second space agency to reach Mars orbit on its first attempt (the first national one, after the international ESA), and also the first Asian country to successfully send an orbiter to Mars. It was completed in a record low budget of $71 million,[80][81] making it the least-expensive Mars mission to date.[82]

    Trace Gas Orbiter and EDM

    The ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter is an atmospheric research orbiter built in collaboration between ESA and Roscosmos. It was injected into Mars orbit on 19 October 2016 to gain a better understanding of methane (CH
    4    ) and other trace gases present in the Martian atmosphere that could be evidence for possible biological or geological activity.[83]

    InSight

    In August 2012, NASA selected InSight, a $425 million lander mission, with a drill and seismometer to determine the interior structure of Mars.[84][85][86] Two flyby CubeSats called MarCO were launched with InSight to provide real-time telemetry during the entry and landing of InSight. The CubeSats separated from the Atlas V booster 1.5 hours after launch and are traveling their own trajectories to Mars.[87][88][89] The mission was launched on 5 May 2018 and is expected to reach Mars on 26 November 2018.[90]

    Future missions

    Computer-design drawing for NASA's 2020 Mars Rover.

    Proposals

    • The Finnish-Russian Mars MetNet concept would use multiple small meteorological stations on Mars to establish a widespread observation network to investigate the planet's atmospheric structure, physics and meteorology.[97] The MetNet precursor or demonstrator was considered for a piggyback launch on Fobos-Grunt,[98] and on the two proposed to fly on the 2016 and 2020 ExoMars spacecraft.[97]
    • The Mars-Grunt is a Russian mission concept to bring a sample of Martian soil to Earth.[99]
    • A ESA-NASA team produced a three-launch architecture concept for a Mars sample return, which uses a rover to cache small samples, a Mars ascent stage to send it into orbit, and an orbiter to rendezvous with it above Mars and take it to Earth.[100] Solar-electric propulsion could allow a one launch sample return instead of three.[101]
    • The Mars Scout Program's SCIM would involve a probe grazing the upper atmosphere of Mars to collect dust and air for return to Earth.[102]
    • Japan is working on a mission concept called MELOS rover that would look for biosignatures of extant life on Mars.[103]

    Other future mission concepts include polar probes, Martian aircraft and a network of small meteorological stations.[100] Longterm areas of study may include Martian lava tubes, resource utilization, and electronic charge carriers in rocks.[104][105] Micromissions are another possibility, such as piggybacking a small spacecraft on an Ariane 5 rocket and using a lunar gravity assist to get to Mars.[106]

    Human mission proposals

    Concept for NASA Design Reference Mission Architecture 5.0 (2009).

    Many people have long advocated a human mission to Mars, perhaps eventually leading to the permanent colonization of Mars, as the next logical step for a human space program after lunar exploration. Aside from the prestige such a mission would bring, advocates argue that humans would easily be able to outperform robotic explorers, justifying the expense. Aerospace engineer Bob Zubrin is one of the proponents of such missions. Various asteroids, moons, and places on Mars can be mined while crops are initially being planted.[107] This method will save lives on Earth, add potentially trillions of dollars to the world economy annually, and provide a stable colony on Mars. Some have also stated that persons should stay on Earth, but get food and resources from Mars and surrounding asteroids, moons, greenhouses in space and other structures. Some critics contend unmanned robots can perform better than humans at a fraction of the expense. If life exists on Mars, a human mission could contaminate it by introducing earthly microbes, so robotic exploration would be preferable.[108]

    NASA

    Artistic simulated photo looking out a portal spacecraft coming for a Mars landing.

    Human exploration by the United States was identified as a long-term goal in the Vision for Space Exploration announced in 2004 by then US President George W. Bush.[109] The planned Orion spacecraft would be used to send a human expedition to Earth's moon by 2020 as a stepping stone to a Mars expedition. On September 28, 2007, NASA administrator Michael D. Griffin stated that NASA aims to put a person on Mars by 2037.[110]

    On December 2, 2014, NASA's Advanced Human Exploration Systems and Operations Mission Director Jason Crusan and Deputy Associate Administrator for Programs James Reuthner announced tentative support for the Boeing "Affordable Mars Mission Design" including radiation shielding, centrifugal artificial gravity, in-transit consumable resupply, and a lander which can return.[111][112] Reuthner suggested that if adequate funding was forthcoming, the proposed mission would be expected in the early 2030s.[113]

    On October 8, 2015, NASA published its official plan for human exploration and colonization of Mars. They called it "Journey to Mars". The plan operates through three distinct phases leading up to fully sustained colonization.[114]

    • The first stage, already underway, is the "Earth Reliant" phase. This phase continues utilizing the International Space Station until 2024; validating deep space technologies and studying the effects of long duration space missions on the human body.
    • The second stage, "Proving Ground," moves away from Earth reliance and ventures into cislunar space for most of its tasks. This is when NASA plans to capture an asteroid (planned for 2020), test deep space habitation facilities, and validate capabilities required for human exploration of Mars. Finally, phase three is the transition to independence from Earth resources.
    • The last stage, the "Earth Independent" phase, includes long term missions on the lunar surface which leverage surface habitats that only require routine maintenance, and the harvesting of Martian resources for fuel, water, and building materials. NASA is still aiming for human missions to Mars in the 2030s, though Earth independence could take decades longer.[115]
    Journey to Mars – Science, Exploration, Technology.

    On August 28, 2015, NASA funded a year long simulation to study the effects of a year long Mars mission on six scientists. The scientists lived in a bio dome on a Mauna Loa mountain in Hawaii with limited connection to the outside world and were only allowed outside if they were wearing spacesuits.[116][117]

    NASAs human Mars exploration plans have evolved through the NASA Mars Design Reference Missions, a series of design studies for human exploration of Mars.

    Zubrin

    Mars Direct, a low-cost human mission proposed by Robert Zubrin, founder of the Mars Society, would use heavy-lift Saturn V class rockets, such as the Ares V, to skip orbital construction, LEO rendezvous, and lunar fuel depots. A modified proposal, called "Mars to Stay", involves not returning the first immigrant explorers immediately, if ever (see Colonization of Mars).[109][110][118][118] [119]

    Probing difficulties

    Deep Space 2 technology
    Mars Spacecraft 1988–1999
    SpacecraftOutcome
    Phobos 1Failure
    Phobos 2Failure
    Mars ObserverFailure
    Mars 96Failure
    Mars PathfinderSuccess
    Mars Global SurveyorSuccess
    Mars Climate OrbiterFailure
    Mars Polar LanderFailure
    Deep Space 2Failure
    NozomiFailure

    The challenge, complexity and length of Mars missions have led to many mission failures.[120] The high failure rate of missions launched from Earth attempting to explore Mars is informally called the "Mars Curse" or "Martian Curse".[121] The phrase "Galactic Ghoul"[122] or "Great Galactic Ghoul", referring to a fictitious space monster that subsists on a diet of Mars probes, was coined in 1997 by Time Magazine journalist Donald Neff, and is sometimes facetiously used to "explain" the recurring difficulties.[123][124][125][126]

    Two Soviet probes were sent to Mars in 1988 as part of the Phobos program. Phobos 1 operated normally until an expected communications session on 2 September 1988 failed to occur. The problem was traced to a software error, which deactivated attitude thrusters causing the spacecrafts' solar arrays to no longer point at the Sun, depleting Phobos 1 batteries. Phobos 2 operated normally throughout its cruise and Mars orbital insertion phases on January 29, 1989, gathering data on the Sun, interplanetary medium, Mars, and Phobos. Shortly before the final phase of the mission, during which the spacecraft was to approach within 50 m of Phobos' surface and release two landers, one a mobile 'hopper', the other a stationary platform, contact with Phobos 2 was lost. The mission ended when the spacecraft signal failed to be successfully reacquired on March 27, 1989. The cause of the failure was determined to be a malfunction of the on-board computer.

    Just a few years later in 1992 Mars Observer, launched by NASA, failed as it approached Mars. Mars 96, an orbiter launched on November 16, 1996 by Russia failed, when the planned second burn of the Block D-2 fourth stage did not occur.[127]

    Following the success of Global Surveyor and Pathfinder, another spate of failures occurred in 1998 and 1999, with the Japanese Nozomi orbiter and NASA's Mars Climate Orbiter, Mars Polar Lander, and Deep Space 2 penetrators all suffering various fatal errors. The Mars Climate Orbiter was noted for mixing up U.S. customary units with metric units, causing the orbiter to burn up while entering Mars' atmosphere.[128]

    The European Space Agency has also attempted to land two probes on the Martian surface; Beagle 2, a British-built lander that failed to deploy its solar arrays properly after touchdown in December 2003, and Schiaparelli, which was flown along the ExoMars Trace Gas Orbiter. Contact with the Schiaparelli EDM lander was lost 50 seconds before touchdown.[129] It was later confirmed that the lander struck the surface at a high velocity, possibly exploding.[130]

    Timeline of Mars exploration

    Overview of missions to Mars[131]
    Mission type Success rate Total attempts Success Partial success Launch failure Failed en route Failed to orbit/land
    Flyby 45% 11 5 0 4 2 0
    Orbiter 50% 23 10 2 5 3 3
    Lander 53% 15 7 1 0 3 4
    Rover 66% 6 4 0 0 0 2
    Total 53% 55 26 3 9 8 9
    Yearly statistics

    This chart lists launches to Mars, but it ignores how long the mission lasted. For example, few missions were launched in the late 1970s, but the Viking program had two orbiters and two landers active at Mars at this time, and one lander remained active until 1982.

    1
    2
    3
    4
    5
    1960
    1965
    1970
    1975
    1980
    1985
    1990
    1995
    2000
    2005
    2010
    2015
    2020
    •   failure
    •   partial success
    •   success
    •   in transit
    •   scheduled

    Timeline

    Mission (1960–1969) Launch Mars arrival Termination Elements Outcome Mission budget, bn USD Launch mass, t Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t
    Mars 1M No.110 October 196010 October 1960FlybyFailure (at launch)0.66[132]
    Mars 1M No.214 October 196014 October 1960FlybyFailure (at launch)0.66[132]
    Mars 2MV-4 No.124 October 196224 October 1962FlybyFailure (broke up during TMI burn)0.88[132]
    Mars 11 November 196219 June 196321 March 1963FlybyPartial success: some data collected, but lost contact before reaching Mars, flyby at approx. 193,000 km0.89[132]
    Mars 2MV-3 No.14 November 196219 January 1963LanderFailure (before leaving Earth's orbit)0.90[132]0.26[132]
    Mariner 35 November 19645 November 1964FlybyFailure (fairing separation ruined trajectory0.26[132]
    Mariner 428 November 196414 July 196521 December 1967FlybySuccess (21 images returned)[10]0.08[133]0.26[132]
    Zond 230 November 1964May 1965Flyby (intended lander)Failure (communication lost three months before reaching Mars)0.98[132]
    Mariner 625 February 196931 July 1969August 1969FlybySuccess0.41[132]
    Mariner 727 March 19695 August 1969August 1969FlybySuccess0.41[132]
    Mars 2M No.52127 March 196927 March 1969OrbiterFailure (at launch)3.55[132]2.10[132]
    Mars 2M No.5222 April 19692 April 1969OrbiterFailure (at launch)3.55[132]2.10[132]
    Mission (1970–1989) Launch Arrival at Mars Termination Elements Outcome Mission budget, bn USD Launch mass, t Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t
    Mariner 88 May 19718 May 1971OrbiterFailure (at launch)1.00[132]0.60[132]
    Kosmos 41910 May 197112 May 1971OrbiterFailure (at launch)3.80[132]2.50[132]
    Mariner 930 May 197114 November 197127 October 1972OrbiterSuccess (first successful orbit)1.00[132]0.52[132]
    Mars 2 19 May 1971 27 November 197122 August 1972OrbiterSuccess4.65[132]2.50[132]
    27 November 1971Lander, rover[57]Failure. Crashed on surface of Mars0.85[132]
    Mars 3 28 May 1971 2 December 197122 August 1972OrbiterSuccess4.65[132]2.50[132]
    2 December 1971Lander, rover[57]Partial success. First successful landing; landed softly but ceased transmission within 15 seconds0.85[132]
    Mars 421 July 197310 February 197410 February 1974OrbiterPartial success (could not enter orbit, made a close flyby)3.55[132]2.40[132]
    Mars 525 July 19732 February 197421 February 1974OrbiterPartial success. Entered orbit and returned data, but failed within 9 days[134]3.55[132]2.40[132]
    Mars 65 August 197312 March 197412 March 1974LanderPartial success. Data returned during descent but not after landing on Mars4.55[132]0.85[132]
    Mars 79 August 19739 March 19749 March 1974LanderFailure. Landing probe separated prematurely; entered heliocentric orbit4.55[132]0.85[132]
    Viking 1 20 August 1975 20 July 1976 17 August 1980OrbiterSuccess0.5[135]3.53[132]2.33[135]
    13 November 1982LanderSuccess0.61[135]
    Viking 2 9 September 1975 3 September 1976 25 July 1978OrbiterSuccess0.5[135]3.53[132]2.33[135]
    11 April 1980LanderSuccess0.61[135]
    Phobos 1 7 July 1988 2 September 1988OrbiterPartial success. Returned some data. Contact lost while en route to Mars[136]6.22[135]
    Lander Failure. Not deployed0.09 [135]
    Phobos 2 12 July 1988 29 January 198927 March 1989OrbiterPartial success: entered orbit and returned some data. Contact lost just before deployment of landers6.22[135]
    LandersFailure. Not deployed0.07 [135]
    Mission (1990–1999) Launch Arrival at Mars Termination Elements Outcome Mission budget, bn USD Launch mass, t Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t
    Mars Observer25 September 199224 August 199321 August 1993OrbiterFailure. Lost contact just before arrival0.8[137]2.5[132]
    Mars Global Surveyor7 November 199611 September 19975 November 2006OrbiterSuccess1.1[132]0.74[132]
    Mars 9616 November 199617 November 1996Orbiter, lander, penetratorFailure (at launch)6.83[132]2.59[132]
    Mars Pathfinder4 December 19964 July 199727 September 1997LanderSuccess0.89[132]0.36[132]
    SojournerRoverSuccess
    Nozomi (Planet-B)3 July 19989 December 2003OrbiterFailure. Complications while en route; Never entered orbit[138]0.54[132]0.26[132]
    Mars Climate Orbiter11 December 199823 September 199923 September 1999OrbiterFailure. Crashed on surface due to metric-imperial mix-up0.63[132]0.54[132]
    Mars Polar Lander 3 January 1999 3 December 1999 3 December 1999Lander Failure. Crash-landed on surface due to improper hardware testing0.58[132]0.29[132]
    Deep Space 2 (DS2)Hard landers
    Mission (2000–2009) Launch Arrival at Mars Termination Elements Outcome Mission budget, bn USD Launch mass, t Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t
    2001 Mars Odyssey7 April 200124 October 2001OperationalOrbiterSuccess0.3[139]0.73[140]0.33[140]
    Mars Express 2 June 2003 25 December 2003OperationalOrbiterSuccess0.3[141]1.12[142]0.60[142]
    Beagle 26 February 2004LanderFailure. Landed safely but failed to fully deploy. Could not return any data.[143]0.06[142]
    MER-A Spirit10 June 20034 January 200422 March 2011RoverSuccess
    MER-B Opportunity7 July 200325 January 2004OperationalRoverSuccess0.4[144]
    Rosetta2 March 200425 February 200730 September 2016Flyby/Gravity assist en route to comet 67P/Churyumov-GerasimenkoSuccess (successful Mars flyby).1.8[145]
    Mars Reconnaissance Orbiter12 August 200510 March 2006OperationalOrbiterSuccess0.7[146]
    Phoenix4 August 200725 May 200810 November 2008LanderSuccess0.4[147]
    Dawn27 September 200717 February 2009OperationalFlyby – gravity assist to VestaSuccess (successful Mars flyby).0.4[148]
    Mission (2010–2019) Launch Arrival at Mars Termination Elements Outcome Mission budget, bn USD Launch mass, t Mass of orbiter / lander / rover, t
    Fobos-Grunt 8 November 2011 8 November 2011Phobos lander, sample return Failure. Failed to leave Earth orbit.[149] Fell back to Earth.[150]0.2[151]13.5[152]2.30[152]
    Yinghuo-18 November 2011Orbiter0.12[152]
    MSL Curiosity26 November 20116 August 2012OperationalRoverSuccess2.5[153]3.89[154]2.91[154]
    Mars Orbiter Mission5 November 201324 September 2014OperationalOrbiterSuccess[155]0.07[156]1.34[157]0.50[158]
    MAVEN18 November 201322 September 2014OperationalOrbiterSuccess[79]0.7[159]2.45[160]0.81[160]
    ExoMars TGOMarch 14, 2016October 19, 2016OperationalOrbiterSuccess[161]1.2[162]4.33[163]1.43[164]
    SchiaparelliOctober 19, 2016LanderPartial success. Crash-landed on surface, but transmitted data during descent.[165][163][166]0.60
    InSight5 May 2018 [90]November 2018On routeLanderStudy interior structure of Mars.358 kg (789 lb)[167]
    Mars Cube OneNovember 2018On route2 probes, flybyTo provide telemetry during atmospheric entry and landing of InSight.13.5 kg (30 lb) each[167]

    Planned missions

    Name Estimated launch Elements Notes
    ExoMars2020Surface platformMeteorological tests, and deployment of rover.
    RoverSearch for the existence of past or present life on Mars.
    Mars 20202020RoverAstrobiology objectives; rover is based on the Curiosity rover.[168]
    Mars Hope2020OrbiterAtmospheric studies; would become the first Arab probe to Mars.[95]
    Mars Global Remote Sensing Orbiter and Small Rover2020Orbiter, roverTechnology demonstration; science [169][170]
    Mars Orbiter Mission 22020–2021[171]OrbiterTo be launched launched with a GSLV III.[172][173]

    Proposals under study

    Name Proposed launch Elements Notes
    Mars MetNet precursor2018 or later[97]Single impact lander testPrecursor for multi-lander network.[174]
    Mars MetNetafter precursor[97]Multi-lander networkSimultaneous meteorological measurements at multiple locations.[97][174]
    Mars Geyser Hopper2018LanderWould have the ability to fly or "hop" at least twice from its landed location to reposition itself close to a CO2 geyser site.
    Canada Northern Light2018Lander, roverMission designed by Canadian organisations and Thoth Technology Inc.[175]
    Icebreaker Life2018 or 2020Stationary landerBased on the 2008 Phoenix lander, would perform astrobiology tests on sub-surface ice.[176]
    PADME2020OrbiterWould study Phobos and Deimos [177][178]
    United States Inspiration Mars Foundation2021Manned flybyPrivate mission to send two humans around Mars on a free return trajectory, without landing.[179]
    Martian Moons Exploration2022[180]Lander, sample returnSample return from Phobos and remote sensing of Deimos; will also observe the atmosphere of Mars[181]
    United States Mars 2022 2022 Orbiter[182] Communications relay, mapping
    Phootprint2024Lander and ascent stageMars moon sample return mission.[183][184]
    Fobos-Grunt (repeat mission)2024Lander, ascent stagePhobos sample return.[185]
    South Korea Mars Orbiter2027OrbiterFirst South Korean Mars exploration.
    MELOS2020sRoverA rover; may include a small aircraft[186]
    Mars-Grunt2020sOrbiter, lander, ascent stageSingle launch Mars sample return.
    BOLD2020s6 impact landersThe Biological Oxidant and Life Detection would perform astrobiology tests on sub-surface soil.[187][188]
    South Korea Mars Lander2030LanderFirst South Korean Mars landing mission.[189][190]

    Undeveloped concepts

    1970s

    • Mars 4NM and Mars 5NM – projects intended by the Soviet Union for heavy Marsokhod (in 1973 according to initial plan of 1970) and Mars sample return (planned for 1975) missions by launching on N1 (rocket) that has never flown successfully.[191]
    • Mars 5M (Mars-79) – double-launching Soviet sample return mission planned to 1979 but cancelled due to complexity and technical problems
    • Voyager-Mars – USA, 1970s – Two orbiters and two landers, launched by a single Saturn V rocket.

    1990s

    • Vesta – the multiaimed Soviet mission, developed in cooperation with European countries for realisation in 1991–1994 but canceled due to the Soviet Union disbanding, included the flyby of Mars with delivering the aerostat and small landers or penetrators followed by flybys of 1 Ceres or 4 Vesta and some other asteroids with impact of penetrator on the one of them.
    • Mars Aerostat – Russian/French balloon part for cancelled Vesta mission and then for failed Mars 96 mission,[192] originally planned for the 1992 launch window, postponed to 1994 and then to 1996 before being cancelled.[193]
    • Mars Together, combined U.S. and Russian mission study in the 1990s. To be launched by a Molinya with possible U.S. orbiter or lander.[194][195]
    • Mars Environmental Survey – set of 16 landers planned for 1999–2009
    • Mars-98 – Russian mission including an orbiter, lander, and rover, planned for 1998 launch opportunity as repeat of failured Mars 96 mission and cancelled due to lack of funding

    2000s

    • Mars Surveyor 2001 Lander – October 2001 – Mars lander (refurbished, became Phoenix lander)
    • Kitty Hawk – Mars airplane micromission, proposed for December 17, 2003, the centennial of the Wright brothers' first flight.[196] Its funding was eventually given to the 2003 Mars Network project.[197]
    • NetLander – 2007 or 2009 – Mars netlanders
    • Beagle 3 – 2009 British lander mission meant to search for life, past or present.
    • Mars Telecommunications Orbiter – September 2009 – Mars orbiter for telecommunications

    2010s

    • Sky-Sailor – 2014 – Plane developed by Switzerland to take detailed pictures of Mars surface
    • Mars Astrobiology Explorer-Cacher – 2018 rover
    • Red Dragon – Derivative of a Dragon 2 capsule by SpaceX, designed to land by aerobraking and retropropulsion. Planned for 2018, then 2020. Cancelled in favor of an unspecified new landing method on future larger spacecraft.
    • Tumbleweed rover.[198]
    • Mars One, orbiters, lander, rover.

    See also

    Mars
    General

    References

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    • The Compact NASA Atlas of the Solar System by Ronald Greeley and Raymond Batson (published January 2002; ISBN 0-521-80633-X)
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