Comfort food

Chicken soup, a common classic comfort food that is found across various cultures

Comfort food is food that provides a nostalgic or sentimental value to someone,^[1] and may be characterized by its high caloric nature, high carbohydrate level, or simple preparation.^[2] The nostalgia may be specific to an individual, or it may apply to a specific culture.^[3]

Definition

The term comfort food has been traced back at least to 1966, when the Palm Beach Post used it in a story: "Adults, when under severe emotional stress, turn to what could be called ‘comfort food’—food associated with the security of childhood, like mother’s poached egg or famous chicken soup."^[4] They are believed to be a great coping mechanism for rapidly soothing negative feelings.

Psychological studies

Consuming energy-dense, high calorie, high in fat or salt, or sweet food; such as ice cream, chocolate or french fries, could trigger the reward system in human's brain, which give a distinctive pleasure or temporarily feeling better.^[5] Comfort foods may be consumed to reduce stress and feel better.^[6] Regarding the psychological aspects of food addiction that led to the unhealthy eating habits, people often use comfort food to treat themselves. Those with negative emotions tend to eat unhealthy food in an effort to experience the instant gratification which resulted in good feeling — although only short-lived.^[7]

One study divided college-students' comfort-food identifications into four categories (nostalgic foods, indulgence foods, convenience foods, and physical comfort foods) with a special emphasis on the deliberate selection of particular foods to modify mood or effect, and indications that the medical-therapeutic use of particular foods may ultimately be a matter of mood-alteration.^[8]

The identification of particular items as comfort food may be idiosyncratic, though patterns are detectable. In one study of American preferences, "males preferred warm, hearty, meal-related comfort foods (such as steak, casseroles, and soup) while females instead preferred comfort foods that were more snack related (such as chocolate and ice cream). In addition, younger people preferred more snack-related comfort foods compared to those over 55 years of age." The study also revealed strong connections between consumption of comfort foods and feelings of guilt.^[9] An article, "The Myth of Comfort Food" asserted that men tend to choose these types of savory comfort foods because they remind them of being "pampered" or spoiled, while women choose snack-related foods because they are associated with low amounts of work and less "cleanup." It also suggested that women are more likely to reach for unhealthier foods in times of stress due to more weight-conscious mindsets.

Comfort food consumption has been seen as a response to emotional stress and, consequently, as a key contributor to the epidemic of obesity in the United States.^[10] The provocation of specific hormonal responses leading selectively to increases in abdominal fat is seen as a form of self-medication.^[11]

Further studies suggest that consumption of comfort food is triggered in men by positive emotions, and by negative ones in women.^[12] The stress effect is particularly pronounced among college-aged women, with only 33% reporting healthy eating choices during times of emotional stress.^[13] For women specifically, these psychological patterns may be maladaptive.^[14]

A therapeutic use of these findings includes offering comfort foods or "happy hour" beverages to anorectic geriatric patients whose health and quality of life otherwise decreases with reduced oral intake.^[15]

By country

A partial list by country of comfort foods around the world.

Australia and New Zealand

Main articles: Australian cuisine and New Zealand cuisine

A Pavlova garnished with fruit and cream

Comfort foods in Australia and New Zealand may include:

• Bread and butter pudding^[16][17]
• Braised lamb shanks^[16][17]
• Butterscotch apple dumplings^[17]
• Casserole (beef or chicken)^[17]
• Chicken soup^[17]
• Golden syrup pikelets^[17]
• Honey and oat slices^[17]
• Hot chips^[16]
• Lamingtons^[18]
• Mashed potatoes^[16][17]
• Meat pie^[16][17]
• Pea and ham soup^[17]
• Pie floater^[19]
• Porridge, topped with brown sugar or honey, yogurt, nuts, and fruit^[17]
• Potato wedges^[16]
• Pumpkin soup^[17]
• Rice custard^[17]
• Roast meat (beef, chicken, or pork with crackling)^[16][17]
• Roast potatoes^[17]
• Sausage and mash^[17]
• Sausage roll^[16]
• Shepherd's pie^[17]
• Spaghetti^[17]
• Steak and kidney pie^[17]
• Sticky date pudding^[16][17]
• Vegemite or Marmite on toast^[20]

Britain

Main article: British cuisine

Bangers and mash is a British comfort food.^[21]

British comfort foods include the following foods:

• Bacon butty – bacon sandwich^[22][23][24]
• Bangers and mash – sausages and mashed potatoes^{[21][23][24][25]}
• Egg and soldiers – toast sliced into approximately six to eight pieces lengthwise, to dip into soft-boiled egg yolk^[24][26]
• Cauliflower cheese^{[23][25][27][28]}
• Chicken Tikka Masala^[25][27][28]
• Cornish pasty^[23][25]
• Cottage or Shepherd's pie^{[23][24][25][27]}
• Custard^[27]
• Curry – India-inspired stew over rice^[24]
• Egg and chips^[24][29]
• Fish and chips^[23][24][30]
• Full English breakfast^[23][24]
• Fruit Crumble – stewed fruit with crumbly topping^{[20][23][25][27]}
• Lancashire hotpot^[27]
• Potatoes
  • Jacket potato^[24]
  • Mashed potatoes
• Puddings
  • Bread and butter pudding^[27]
  • Jam Roly-Poly – suet pudding rolled in a spiral with jam
  • Rice pudding^[25][27]
  • Spotted dick – steamed pudding with dried fruit^[23]
  • Sticky toffee pudding^[25]
  • Treacle pudding^[23][27]
• Roasted meat, such as roast beef^{[20][23][24][25]} or chicken^[23][25]
• Pies
  • Cheese pie, with potatoes or other savory ingredients^[25][27]
  • Fish pie^[25][27][31]
  • Pork pie^[23]
  • Steak and kidney pie^[27]
• Scotch egg – hard-boiled egg baked in sausage^[23][25]
• Soups and stews
  • Beef stew with dumplings^[24]
  • Cock-a-leekie soup^[23]
  • Lobscouse or lobscows – meat stew^[28]
  • Potato, leek, and Stilton soup
• Stottie cake – heavy, round bread^[32]
• Toast
  • Baked beans on toast^[24]
  • Welsh Rarebit – hot cheese sauce on toast^[25][27]
• Toastie – grilled sandwich^[27]
• Toad in the hole – sausages baked in Yorkshire pudding^[24][25][27]
• Yorkshire pudding^[23][25][33]

Canada

Main article: Canadian cuisine

A plate of classic poutine at a Montreal restaurant.

• Butter tart / Tarte au sucre – small sweet tart-shaped pastries^[34][35][36]
• Cake^[37]
• Cheesecake^[38]
• Chili and beans^[39]
• Chocolate bars^[36]
• Cookies^[35]
• Fish and chips^[40]
• Fried chicken^[37]
• Fried rice^[41]
• Ginger beef^[42]
• Grilled cheese sandwich^{[35][40][41][43]}
• Hamburger^[43][35]
• Ice cream^[36][37]
• Lasagna^[37][44]
• Macaroni and cheese^{[35][36][37][40][41][43][45]}
• Nanaimo bar^[36][40]
• Pancakes with maple syrup^[35][43]
• Pea soup^[41]
• Pierogies^[41]
• Pizza^[41][35][43]
• Potatoes such as French fries, Hash browns, Mashed potatoes,^[37] Potato chips,^[36] and Potato salad
• Poutine^{[20][34][35][36][40][41][43]}
• Rhubarb pie^[44]
• Tourtière – meat pie with pork and lard^[34]
• Scrambled eggs on toast^[41]

France

A madeleine. A madeleine de Proust is a French expression specifically referring to Marcel Proust's description of comfort food in In Search of Lost Time.

Main article: French cuisine

• Crème caramel – custard dessert^[46]
• French onion soup – onion soup with cheese and bread^[46]
• Gratin dauphinois – potato slices baked with cream ^[20]
• Nutella – sweet spread of cocoa and hazelnuts ^[47]
• Pâté – cold meat paste^[46]
• Pot-au-feu – beef stew^[48]

Indonesia

Main article: Indonesian cuisine

Bubur ayam (chicken congee) is an Indonesian comfort food.

Some popular Indonesian foods are considered to be comfort food, usually served hot or warm, and soupy or with a soft texture. Most of them are high in carbs or fat, such as fried rice, congee, and noodles which are high in carbs; while meatballs and grilled skewered meats contains fair amount of fat and salt. Comfort foods often are the kind of food that provides nostalgic sentiments, as they often called masakan rumahan (home cooking) or masakan ibu (mother's dishes). In Indonesia, the warm and soft texture of bubur ayam is believed to help people to recover during convalescence.^[49] Sayur sop or sup ayam is Indonesian chicken soup that often sought during flu. The warm soup contains chunk of chicken, bits of potato, carrot, and common green bean served in chicken stock.^[50]

Some Indonesian comfort foods are traditional Indonesian food and some are derived from Chinese influences. For some Indonesians, especially those who are abroad, comfort food might also be a certain brand or type of Indonesian instant noodle, such as Indomie Mi goreng.^[51] Indonesian comfort foods include:

• Bakmi or mie ayam – noodles (mi) with pork (bak) or chicken (ayam) ^[52]
• Bakso – meatball soup ^[49][53][54]
• Bubur ayam – chicken congee ^[49]
• Gado-gado – salad containing vegetables, tempeh and egg in peanut sauce ^[55]
• Indomie Mi goreng – fried noodle ^[49][51]
• Nasi goreng – fried rice ^[54]
• Nasi tim – steamed chicken rice ^[56][57]
• Sayur sop or sup ayam – Indonesian chicken and vegetables soup ^[50]
• Sate – skewered barbecue with peanut sauce ^[54]
• Soto ayam – spicy chicken soup ^[49][58]

Philippines

Main article: Filipino cuisine

Pork adobo

• Adobo – marinated meat^[68][69]
• Arroz Caldo / Lugaw – savory rice porridge^[70][71]
• Batchoy – noodle soup^[72]
• Ginataan – Coconut Cream based dessert with Bananas, Sticky rice balls, Sago, Taro and Langka
• Bulalo – beef bone marrow soup^[71]
• Champorado – chocolate rice porridge, sometimes served savory (as with tuyô)^[20][73][71]
• Dinuguan - pork offal stew^[73]
• Chicken Sopas – chicken noodle soup^[71]
• Halo-halo – dessert of mixed sweets^[68][72]
• Kare-kare – Is a stew with the components of ox tripe, ox tails, Banana hearts. bockchoy and String beans with ground peanuts, peanut butter,stock and rice flour ^[74][69]
• Lumpia – spring rolls^[69]
• Lomi – noodle soup^[71]
• Pancit – noodles^[69][75]
• Puto – steamed rice cake^[73]
• Sinigang – sour soup^[68][71][72]
• Suman – glutinous rice cake^[72]
• Tsokolate – hot chocolate drink^[71]

Poland

Steamed pierogi, with fried onions on top

Main article: Polish cuisine

Some Polish comfort food include:

• Pierogi – filled dumplings ^{[20][76][77][78]}

Puerto Rico

Arroz con pollo: chicken with rice

Some Puerto Rican comfort foods include:

• Arroz con gandules – rice with pigeon peas^[79][80]
• Arroz con pollo – rice with chicken^[79]
• Bistec encebollado – steak and onions^[81]
• Carne Guisada – stewed beef^[80]
• Carne mechada – Puerto Rican style meatloaf
• Churrasco – grilled flank or skirt steak^[81]
• Cuchifritos and Fritanga – assortments of fried appetizers (alcapurrias, bacalaitos, pastelitos/pastelillos, piononos, sorrullos/sorullitos)^[81][79][80]
• Habichuelas guisadas con calabaza – beans stewed with pumpkin^[81]
• Lechón asado – roast pork^[81]
• Mixta – white rice, stewed beans with pumpkin and stewed meat with potatoes and carrots
• Mofongo and trifongo – fried mashed green plantains^[81][82]
• Mofongo relleno de mariscos, carne o pollo – Fried mashed green plantains stuffed with seafood, meat or chicken^[79]
• Pasteles – Puerto Rican tamales^[80]
• Pastelón de plátano maduro – ripe banana casserole with ground beef and cheddar cheese^[80]
• Pinchos – Puerto Rican skewers^[82]
• Tostones – fried plantain slices^[81][82]

Russia

Solyanka

Main article: Russian cuisine

Russian comfort foods may include but are not limited to:

• Golubtsy – cabbage rolls^[20]

Taiwan

Dan zai noodles

Main article: Taiwanese cuisine

• Beef noodle soup ^[83]
• Dan zai noodles – noodles and prawn with broth ^[84]
• Minced pork rice ^[84]
• Oyster omelette ^[85]
• Red bean soup ^[86]
• Small sausage in large sausage – grilled sausage in a rice casing ^[85]
• Tangyuan – filled rice dumplings in sweet syrup ^[86]

Turkey

Mantı, with yogurt and red pepper sauce

Main article: Turkish cuisine

In Turkish, comfort food is closest in meaning to Turkish: Anne yemeği, "mother's dish", especially in terms of providing a nostalgic feeling, or Turkish: Ev yemeği, "home dish". Some Turkish comfort foods are:

• Mantı – spicy meat dumpling ^[87][88]
• Kuru fasulye – bean and tomato stew ^[20]

United States

Macaroni and cheese is an American comfort food.^[89]

American comfort foods may include the following foods:

• Apple pie ^[90]
• Biscuits and gravy ^[91][92]
• Burrito^[92]
• Cake and Cupcakes^[91][93]
• Casseroles ^[93][94]
• Chicken fried steak^[93]
• Chicken and dumplings^[93]
• Chicken soup ^[91][92]
• Chili ^[89][91][93]
• Chili mac ^[95]
• Chocolate chip cookies ^[91][93]
• Chowders: Clam chowder, Shrimp chowder, Corn chowder, etc.^[91][93]
• Corned beef and cabbage
• Cornbread^[93]
• French fries ^[91][92]
• Fried chicken ^{[20][91][92][93]}
• Green bean casserole^[93]
• Grilled cheese sandwich ^[91][92] and tomato soup^[93]
• Grits^[4][93]
• Ice cream ^[91][93]
• Lasagna^[93]
• Macaroni and cheese ^{[89][91][92][93]}
• Mashed potatoes ^{[20][91][92][93]}
• Meatloaf ^[91][93]
• Peanut butter^[96]
• Pizza ^[20][92]
• Pot roast ^[93][97][98]
• Red beans and rice ^[93][99]
• Tamale pie ^[100]
• Tuna casserole ^[101]

See also

References

Further reading

• Hoffman, Jan. "The Myth of Comfort Food". Well. Retrieved 21 April 2016.
• "USATODAY.com - Women like sugar, men like meat". usatoday30.usatoday.com. Retrieved 21 April 2016.

External links

• Media related to Comfort food at Wikimedia Commons