Enclave and exclave

An enclave is a territory, or a part of a territory, that is entirely surrounded by the territory of one other state.[1] Territorial waters have the same sovereign attributes as land, and enclaves may therefore exist within territorial waters.[2]:60

An exclave is a portion of a state or territory geographically separated from the main part by surrounding alien territory (of one or more states).[3] Many exclaves are also enclaves. Enclave is sometimes used improperly to denote a territory that is only partly surrounded by another state.[1] Vatican City and San Marino, enclaved by Italy, and Lesotho, enclaved by South Africa, are the only completely enclaved states. Unlike an enclave, an exclave can be surrounded by several states.[4] The Azerbaijani exclave of Nakhchivan is an example of an exclave.

Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border (a coastline contiguous with international waters), would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves.[4]:116[5]:12–14 Enclaves and semi-enclaves can exist as independent states (Monaco, Gambia and Brunei are semi-enclaves), while exclaves always constitute just a part of a sovereign state (like the Kaliningrad Oblast).[4]

A pene-enclave is a part of the territory of one country that can be conveniently approached—in particular, by wheeled traffic—only through the territory of another country.[6]:283 Pene-enclaves are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves.[5]:31 Many pene-exclaves partially border their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters), such as Point Roberts, Washington. A pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a valley part of Vorarlberg, Austria, that is only accessible from Germany to the north.

Origin and usage

The word enclave is French and first appeared in the mid-15th century as a derivative of the verb enclaver (1283), from the colloquial Latin inclavare (to close with a key).[7] Originally, it was a term of property law that denoted the situation of a land or parcel of land surrounded by land owned by a different owner, and that could not be reached for its exploitation in a practical and sufficient manner without crossing the surrounding land.[7] In law, this created a servitude[8] of passage for the benefit of the owner of the surrounded land. The first diplomatic document to contain the word enclave was the Treaty of Madrid, signed in 1526.[2]:61

Later, the term enclave began to be used also to refer to parcels of countries, counties, fiefs, communes, towns, parishes, etc. that were surrounded by alien territory. This French word eventually entered the English and other languages to denote the same concept, although local terms have continued to be used. In India, the word "pocket" is often used as a synonym for enclave (such as "the pockets of Puducherry district").[9] In British administrative history, subnational enclaves were usually called detachments or detached parts, and national enclaves as detached districts or detached dominions.[10] In English ecclesiastic history, subnational enclaves were known as peculiars (see also Royal Peculiar).

The word exclave, modeled on enclave,[3] is a logically extended back-formation of enclave.

Characteristics

Explicative diagram of territorial discontinuities: Enclaves and exclaves
Different territories (countries, states, counties, municipalities, etc.) are represented by different colours and letters; separated parts of the same territory are represented by the same colour and letter, with a different number added to each smaller part of that territory (the main part is identified by the letter only).
  •      A:
    • possesses 3 exclaves (A1, A2 and A3): it is impossible to go from the main part of A to any of these parts going only through territory of A; however:
      • A1 and A2 are not enclaves: neither of them is surrounded by a single "foreign" territory;
      • A3 is an enclave: it is totally surrounded by B;
    • contains 1 enclave (E): "foreign" territory totally surrounded by territory of A;
    • possesses 2 counter-enclaves, or second-order enclaves (A4 and A5): territories belonging to A which are encroached inside the enclave E;
    • contains 1 counter-counter-enclave, or third-order enclave (E1).
  •      B:
    • contains 2 enclaves (A3 and D).
  •      C:
    • continuous territory.
  •      D:
    • is an enclaved territory: it is territorially continuous, but its territory is totally surrounded by a single "foreign" territory (B).
  •      E:
    • is an enclaved territory: it is inside A;
    • contains 2 enclaves (A4 and A5), which are counter-enclaves of A;
    • possesses 1 counter-enclave (E1), which is a counter-counter-enclave as viewed by A and contained within A5.
In topological terms, A and E are each (sets of) non-connected surfaces, and B, C and D are connected surfaces. However, C and D are also simply connected surfaces, while B is not (it has genus 2, the number of "holes" in B).

Enclaves exist for a variety of historical, political and geographical reasons. For example, in the feudal system in Europe, the ownership of feudal domains was often transferred or partitioned, either through purchase and sale or through inheritance, and often such domains were or came to be surrounded by other domains. In particular, this state of affairs persisted into the 19th century in the Holy Roman Empire, and these domains (principalities, etc.) exhibited many of the characteristics of sovereign states. Prior to 1866 Prussia alone consisted of more than 270 discontiguous pieces of territory.[2]:61

Residing in an enclave within another country has often involved difficulties in such areas as passage rights, importing goods, currency, provision of utilities and health services, and host nation cooperation. Thus, over time, enclaves have tended to be eliminated. For example, two-thirds of the then-existing national-level enclaves were extinguished on August 1, 2015, when the governments of India and Bangladesh implemented a Land Boundary Agreement that exchanged 162 first-order enclaves (111 Indian and 51 Bangladeshi). This exchange thus effectively de-enclaved another two dozen second-order enclaves and one third-order enclave, eliminating 197 of the Indo-Bangladesh enclaves in all. The residents in these enclaves had complained of being effectively stateless. Only Bangladesh's Dahagram–Angarpota enclave remained.

Enclave versus exclave

For illustration, in the figure (above), A1 is a semi-enclave (attached to C and also bounded by water that only touches C's territorial water). Although A2 is an exclave of A, it cannot be classed as an enclave because it shares borders with B and C. The territory A3 is both an exclave of A and an enclave from the viewpoint of B. The singular territory D, although an enclave, is not an exclave.

True enclaves

An enclave is a part of the territory of a state that is enclosed within the territory of another state. To distinguish the parts of a state entirely enclosed in a single other state, they are called true enclaves.[5]:10 A true enclave cannot be reached without passing through the territory of a single other state that surrounds it. Vinokurov (2007) calls this the restrictive definition of "enclave" given by international law, which thus "comprises only so-called 'true enclaves'".[5]:10 Two examples are Büsingen, a true enclave of Germany, and Campione d'Italia, a true enclave of Italy, both of which are surrounded by Switzerland.

The definition of a territory comprises both land territory and territorial waters. In the case of enclaves in territorial waters, they are called maritime (those surrounded by territorial sea) or lacustrine (if in a lake) enclaves.[5]:10 Most of the true national-level enclaves now existing are in Asia and Europe. While subnational enclaves are numerous the world over, there are only a few national-level true enclaves in Africa, Australia and the Americas (each such enclave being surrounded by the territorial waters of another country).

An historical example is West Berlin before the reunification of Germany. Since 1945, all of Berlin was ruled de jure by the four Allied powers. However, the East German government and the Soviet Union treated East Berlin as an integral part of East Germany, so West Berlin was a de facto enclave within East Germany. Also, 12 small West Berlin enclaves, such as Steinstücken, were separated from the city, some by only a few meters.[11]

Enclaved countries

Three nations qualify, as completely surrounded by another country's land and/or internal waters:

Historically, four Bantustans (or "Black homelands") of South Africa were granted nominal independence, unrecognized internationally, by the Apartheidist government from 1976 until their reabsorption in 1994. Others remained under government rule from 1948 to 1994. Being heavily partitioned, various parts of these Bantustans were true enclaves.

The United States' constitutional principle of tribal sovereignty treats federally-recognized Indian reservations as quasi-independent enclaves.

Temporary enclaves

To establish jurisdiction, the Scottish Court in the Netherlands, at Camp Zeist near Utrecht, was temporarily declared as sovereign territory of the United Kingdom under Scots law for the duration of the trial of those accused in the Lockerbie bombing, and was therefore an exclave of the United Kingdom and of Scotland, and an enclave within the Netherlands. This was also so during the appeal against the conviction. The court was first convened in 1999, and the land returned to the Netherlands in 2002.[12][13]

True exclaves

Nakhchivan Autonomous Republic

True exclave is an extension of the concept of true enclave. In order to access a true exclave from the mainland, a traveller must go through the territory of at least one other state. Examples include:

Semi-enclaves/exclaves

Semi-enclaves and semi-exclaves are areas that, except for possessing an unsurrounded sea border, would otherwise be enclaves or exclaves.[4]:116[5]:12–14 Semi-enclaves can exist as independent states that border only one other state, such as Monaco, the Gambia and Brunei. Vinokurov (2007) declares, "Technically, Portugal, Denmark, and Canada also border only one foreign state, but they are not enclosed in the geographical, political, or economic sense. They have vast access to international waters. At the same time, there are states that, although in possession of sea access, are still enclosed by the territories of a foreign state."[5]:14 Therefore, a quantitative principle applies: the land boundary must be longer than the coastline. Thus a state is classified as a sovereign semi-enclave if it borders on just one state, and its land boundary is longer than its sea coastline.[5]:14, 20–22

Vinokurov affirms that "no similar quantitative criterion is needed to define the scope of non-sovereign semi-enclaves/exclaves."[5]:14, 26[16] Examples include:

Subnational enclaves and exclaves

Sometimes, administrative divisions of a country, for historical or practical reasons, caused some areas to belong to one division while being attached to another.

Kentucky Bend and surrounding area
  Missouri (MO)
  Tennessee (TN)
  Kentucky (KY)

"Practical" enclaves, exclaves and inaccessible districts

The term pene-exclave was defined in Robinson (1959) as "parts of the territory of one country that can be approached conveniently – in particular by wheeled traffic – only through the territory of another country."[6]:283 Thus, a pene-exclave, although having land borders, is not completely surrounded by the other's land or territorial waters.[18]:60 Catudal (1974)[19]:113 and Vinokurov (2007)[5]:31–33 further elaborate upon examples, including Point Roberts. "Although physical connections by water with Point Roberts are entirely within the sovereignty of the United States, land access is only possible through Canada."[19]

Pene-enclaves are also called functional enclaves or practical enclaves.[5]:31 They can exhibit continuity of state territory across territorial waters but, nevertheless, a discontinuity on land, such as in the case of Point Roberts.[5]:47 Along rivers that change course, pene-enclaves can be observed as complexes comprising many small pene-enclaves.[5]:50 A pene-enclave can also exist entirely on land, such as when intervening mountains render a territory, although geographically attached, inaccessible from other parts of a country except through alien territory. A commonly cited example is the Kleinwalsertal, a valley part of Vorarlberg, Austria, that is only accessible from Germany to the north, being separated from the rest of Austria by high mountains traversed by no roads. Another example is the Spanish village of Os de Civís, accessible from Andorra.

Hence, such areas are enclaves or exclaves for practical purposes, without meeting the strict definition. Many pene-exclaves partially border the sea or another body of water, which comprises their own territorial waters (i.e., they are not surrounded by other nations' territorial waters). They border their own territorial waters in addition to a land border with another country, and hence they are not true exclaves. Still, one cannot travel to them on land without going through another country. Attribution of a pene-enclave status to a territory can sometimes be disputed, depending on whether the territory is considered to be practically inaccessible from the mainland or not.[5]:33

Subnational "practical" enclaves, exclaves and inaccessible districts

Enclaves within enclaves

Map showing the non-contiguous Belgian exclaves of Baarle-Hertog in the Netherlands which, in turn, has Dutch enclaves within it
Indo-Bangladesh enclaves created by the 1947 Partition of India

It is possible for an enclave of one country to be completely surrounded by a part of another country that is itself an enclave of the first country. These enclaves are sometimes called counter-enclaves.

  • The Dutch municipality of Baarle-Nassau has seven exclaves in two exclaves of the Belgian municipality of Baarle-Hertog.
  • The former complex of enclaves at Cooch Behar district included 24 second-order enclaves and one small third-order enclave called Dahala Khagrabari #51: a piece of India within Bangladesh, within India, within Bangladesh. The Indo-Bangladesh enclaves were exchanged on 31 July 2015 by the ratified Land Boundary Agreement, and Dahala Khagrabari was ceded to Bangladesh.
  • Nahwa of the United Arab Emirates is surrounded by Madha, an exclave of Oman within the U.A.E.
  • The Portuguese town of Estremoz is made up of two civil parishes (freguesias): the small Santo André and the big Santa Maria. Santo André corresponds to the old town (located inside the medieval walls), but excludes the citadel, which is an enclave inside the old town; the citadel belongs to Santa Maria, which also includes the entire new town (outside the walls) and the vast rural area around it. Thus, Santa Maria has an enclave (Santo André, the old town) with a second-order enclave inside it (the citadel).[25]

Ethnic enclaves

An ethnic enclave is a community of an ethnic group inside an area in which another ethnic group predominates. Ghettos, Little Italys, barrios and Chinatowns are examples. These areas may have a separate language, culture and economic system.

  • Székely Land is a Hungarian ethnic enclave within Romania, with its people calling themselves Székely. Originally, the name Székely Land denoted an autonomous region within Transylvania. It existed as a legal entity from medieval times until the Austro-Hungarian Compromise of 1867, when the Székely and Saxon seats were dissolved and replaced by the county system. Along with Transylvania, it became a part of Romania in 1920, according with the Treaty of Trianon signed on 4 June 1920 at the Grand Trianon Palace in Versailles, France. In 1938–1940, during World War II, post-Trianon Hungary temporarily expanded its territory and included some additional territories that were formerly part of the pre-war Kingdom of Hungary, under Third Reich auspices, the Second Vienna Award. It was later reduced to boundaries approximating those of 1920 by the peace treaties signed after World War II at Paris, in 1947. The area was called Magyar Autonomous Region between September 8, 1952 and February 16, 1968, a Hungarian autonomous region within Romania, and today there are territorial autonomy initiatives to reach a higher level of self-governance for this region within Romania.
  • There are several Serb enclaves in Kosovo where the institutions of Kosovo are not fully operational due to disputes.

Extraterritoriality

Diplomatic missions, such as embassies and consulates, as well as military bases, are usually exempted from the jurisdiction of the host country, i.e., the laws of the host nation in which an embassy is located do not typically apply to the land of the embassy or base itself. This exemption from the jurisdiction of the host country is defined as extraterritoriality. Areas and buildings enjoying some forms of extraterritoriality are not true enclaves since, in all cases, the host country retains full sovereignty. In addition to embassies, some other areas enjoy a limited form of extraterritoriality.

Examples of this include:

Land owned by a foreign country

Land for the Captain Cook Monument was deeded outright to the British government by the independent nation of Hawaii in 1877

One or more parcels/holdings of land in most countries is owned by other countries. Most instances are exempt from taxes. In the special case of embassies/consulates these enjoy special privileges driven by international consensus particularly the mutual wish to ensure free diplomatic missions, such as being exempt from major hindrances and host-country arrests in ordinary times on the premises. Most non-embassy lands in such ownership are also not enclaves as fall legally short of extraterritoriality, they are subject to alike court jurisdiction as before their grant/sale in most matters. Nonetheless, for a person's offence against the property itself, equally valid jurisdiction in criminal matters is more likely than elsewhere, assuming the perpetrator is found in the prosecuting authority's homeland. Devoid of permanent residents, formally defined new sovereignty is not warranted or asserted in the examples below. Nonetheless, minor laws, especially on flag flying, are sometimes relaxed to accommodate the needs of the accommodated nation's monument.

Embassies enjoy many different legal statuses approaching quasi-sovereignty, depending on the agreements reached and in practice upheld from time-to-time by host nations. Subject to hosts adhering to basic due process of international law, including giving warnings, the enforced reduction of scope of a foreign embassy has always been a possibility, even to the point of expelling the foreign embassy entirely, usually on a breakdown of relations, in reaction to extreme actions such as espionage, or as another form of sanction. The same seems to be possible in profit-driven moving or drilling under any of the sites below, providing safeguards as the structure or a new replacement site. The same possible curtailments and alterations never apply to proper exclaves.

Examples of such land other than for diplomatic missions are:

The John F. Kennedy Memorial at Runnymede, United Kingdom, placed on land given to the United States of America in 1965

Unusual cross-border transport channels

National railway passing through another state's territory

Changes in borders can make a railway that was previously located solely within a country traverse the new borders. Since diverting a railway is expensive, this arrangement may last a long time. This may mean that doors on passenger trains are locked and guarded to prevent illicit entry and exit while the train is temporarily in another country. Borders can also be in the "wrong" place, forcing railways into difficult terrain.

Examples include:

Europe

Current

  • Salzburg to Innsbruck (Austria) (passes through Rosenheim, Germany). A railway line within Austria exists as well, but trains take about 1.5 hours longer than across German territory.
  • Trains on the Birsig Valley Line from Basel to Rodersdorf, Switzerland, which passes through Leymen, France. It is operated by Baselland Transport and serviced by line no. 10, which continues into the Basel tram network.
  • The Hochrheinbahn (Upper Rhine Railway) from Basel via Waldshut to Schaffhausen is part of the Deutsche Bahn network, and is mostly in Germany, but the two ends are in Switzerland and it is only connected with the rest of the German railway network via Switzerland. At both Basel and Schaffhausen the railway has extraterritorial status: one can travel by train to and from the rest of Germany without going through Swiss customs. See Basel Badischer Bahnhof.
  • Trains from Neugersdorf, Saxony to Zittau pass Czech territory at Varnsdorf, while Czech trains from Varnsdorf to Chrastava pass through German territory at Zittau, and then a small part of Polish territory near the village of Porajów.
  • Trains from Görlitz to Zittau, Germany, pass the border river Neisse several times (see Oder–Neisse line); the railway station for Ostritz, Germany, lies in Krzewina Zgorzelecka, Poland.
  • Belgrade–Bar railway crosses into Bosnia and Herzegovina for 9 kilometres (5.6 mi), between stations Zlatibor and Priboj (both in Serbia). There is one station, Štrpci, but there are no border-crossing facilities, and trains do not call at the station.
  • The Knin – Bihać railway between Croatia and Bosnia is split by the Croatian–Bosnian border several times. Similarly, the Savski Marof – Imeno railway was split by the Slovenian–Croatian border several times.
  • Lučenec – Veľký Krtíš line in Slovakia passes through Hungary from Ipolytarnóc to Nógrádszakál.
  • The local trains on the Burgenlandbahn in Austria cross the area of Hungary at Sopron. During the era of the Iron Curtain, the trains had their doors locked as they traversed Hungarian territory.
  • The line from Ventimiglia to Limone Piemonte, Italy, via Breil-sur-Roya, France.
  • The railway between France and Italy briefly leaves France to enter Monaco in a 150-metre tunnel before entering France once more.
  • For the Belgian Vennbahn (now a cycleway) narrow strips of Belgian territory were created running through Germany, creating five German exclaves.
  • The former Soviet republics have numerous examples:
    • Semikhody – Chernihiv line of Ukraine passes through Belarus territory.[53]
    • Belarus/Lithuania: Adutiškis railway station straddles the Lithuania/Belarus border. Trains pass through Lithuanian territory while traveling to and from Belarus, and platforms are in both Belarus and Lithuania. The station is now mainly used for freight.
    • Druzhba – Vorozhba line of Ukraine passes through Russian territory.[53]
    • In 2009, Russia and Kazakhstan agreed to transfer ownership of a cross-border section of line.

Historic

Proposals

  • The shortest and straightest route for a proposed east–west high-speed railway in Austria through Linz, Salzburg and Innsbruck would pass under some mountains belonging to Germany.

Africa

The Mauritania Railway. The inset shows the shorter route cutting through Western Sahara and the longer route within Mauritania through difficult terrain.

Middle East

  • A very short length of the Syrian Homs–Tripoli line crosses the border into Lebanon. This happens because the railway was built before this border was defined.

The Americas

Highway of one state passing through another state's territory

This arrangement is less common as highways are more easily re-aligned. Examples include:

Africa

Asia

  • The road from Dubai to the tourist spot of Hatta, an exclave of the emirate of Dubai, passes through a small stretch of Omani territory.
  • The highway between Bishkek and Issyk Kul, both in Kyrgyzstan, skirts the border with Kazakhstan, with the highway and the border crossing each other for short distances at various points.

Europe

The Americas

  • East Richford Slide Road in the US state of Vermont crosses in to the Canadian province of Québec for a distance of approximately 100 meters (300 feet) before returning to the United States.[62]

Subnational highway passing through other internal territory

Border transport infrastructure

Europe

  • Several bridges cross the rivers Oder and Neisse between Germany and Poland. To avoid needing to coordinate their efforts on a single bridge, the two riparian states assign each bridge to one or the other; thus Poland is responsible for all maintenance on some of the bridges, including the German side, and vice versa.[66]
  • The Hallein Salt Mine crosses from Austria into Germany. Under an 1829 treaty Austria can dig under the then-Kingdom of Bavaria. In return some salt has to be given to Bavaria, and up to 99 of its citizens can be hired to work in the Austrian mine.[67]
  • The twin town of TornioHaparanda or HaparandaTornio lies at the mouth of river Tornio, Tornio on the Finnish side and Haparanda on the Swedish side. The two towns have a common public transportation, as well as cultural services, fire brigade, sports facilities etc.
  • The Basel Badischer Bahnhof is a railway station in the Swiss city of Basel. Although situated on Swiss soil, because of the 1852 treaty between the Swiss Confederation and the state of Baden (one of the predecessors of today's Germany), the largest part of the station (the platforms and the parts of the passenger tunnel that lead to the German/Swiss checkpoint) is treated administratively as an inner-German railway station operated by the Deutsche Bahn. The shops in the station hall, however, are Swiss, and the Swiss franc is used as the official currency there (although the euro is universally accepted). The Swiss post office, car rental office, restaurant and a cluster of shops are each separately located wholly within a surrounding station area that is administered by the German railway.[68] The customs controls are located in a tunnel between the platforms and the station hall; international trains which continue to Basel SBB usually have on-board border controls.

Asia

  • The Hong Kong–Shenzhen Western Corridor on the Hong Kong–mainland China border: the immigration control points for Hong Kong (Shenzhen Bay Control Point) and mainland China (Shenzhen Bay Port) are co-located in the same building on the Shenzhen side of the bridge in an effective pene-exclave. The Hong Kong portion of the service building and the adjoining bridge are leased to Hong Kong, and are under Hong Kong's jurisdiction for an initial period until 30 June 2047.
  • The Mainland Port Area in Kowloon High Speed Railway Station in downtown Hong Kong is under the jurisdiction of the Mainland Chinese authorities and courts. The 30 km long underground tunnel to the border is under Hong Kong jurisdiction, however, the train compartments of any train in operation (that is carrying passengers to or from the Mainland) are subject to Mainland Laws and jurisdiction.[69]. This arrangement was created to allow for immigration clearance to occur in Hong Kong for all trains travelling to and from the Mainland of China.
  • As a legacy of the British colonial period, the Malaysian rail network had its southern terminus at Tanjong Pagar railway station in central Singapore. The land on which the station and the rail tracks stood was leased to Keretapi Tanah Melayu, the Malaysian state railway operator. Consequently, Malaysia had partial sovereignty over the railway land.[70] Passengers had to clear Malaysian customs and immigration checks at Tanjong Pagar before boarding the train to Malaysia, even after Singapore shifted its border control facility to the actual border in 1998 and objected to the continued presence of Malaysian officials at the station. After a 20-year long dispute, the station was closed in 2011 and the railway land reverted to Singapore.[70] A remnant of the rail corridor is still in use; KTM trains now terminate at Woodlands Train Checkpoint in northern Singapore near the border, which houses Malaysian and Singaporean border controls for rail passengers.[71]

See also

Lists:

Notes

  1. 1 2 Raton, Pierre (1958). "Les enclaves". Annuaire français de droit international. p. 186.
  2. 1 2 3 Melamid, Alexander (1968). Sills, David, ed. "Enclaves and Exclaves". International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences. 5. The Macmillan Company & Free Press.
  3. 1 2 "Exclave". Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language. 1989. p. 497.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Rozhkov-Yuryevsky, Yuri (2013). "The concepts of enclave and exclave and their use in the political and geographical characteristic of the Kaliningrad region". Baltic Region (2): 113–123. doi:10.5922/2079-8555-2013-2-11.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 Vinokurov, Evgeny (2007). The Theory of Enclaves. Lexington Books, Lanham, MD.
  6. 1 2 Robinson, G. W. S. (September 1959). "Exclaves". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 49 (3, [Part 1]): 283–295. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1959.tb01614.x. JSTOR 2561461.
  7. 1 2 Le Grand Robert, Dictionnaire de la Langue Française, 2001, vol. III, p. 946.
  8. ↑ Webster's Encyclopedic Unabridged Dictionary of the English Language. 1989. p. 1304. Servitude: Law. A right possessed by one person with respect to another's property, consisting either of a right to use the other's property, or a power to prevent certain uses of it.
  9. ↑ "Government Jobs in BSNL : 01 Jobs Opening". jobresultsnic.in. Archived from the original on 2014-12-24. Retrieved 2014-02-24.
  10. ↑ As can be seen on 18th. century maps of Germany and other European countries by British cartographers and publishers such as R. Wilkinson.
  11. ↑ "Berlin Exclaves". Retrieved 2013-05-02.
  12. ↑ "Uncertain future for Camp Zeist". BBC News. 2002-03-14. Retrieved 2011-01-30. The former military base at Camp Zeist in Holland has been under Scottish jurisdiction for more than three years. The base was converted into a prison and a courtroom to provide the venue for the Lockerbie trial – the largest and most expensive ever conducted under Scots law.
  13. ↑ Statutory Instrument 1998 No. 2251 The High Court of Justiciary (Proceedings in the Netherlands) (United Nations) Order 1998
  14. ↑ "Assembly of Turkish American Associations". Ataa.org. Retrieved 2014-02-24.
  15. ↑ "Malawi Tourism Guide". MalawiTMC. Retrieved 2017-05-08.
  16. ↑ Vinokurov (2007), p. 29, also refers to semi-exclaves as a type of "mere exclave with sea connection to the mainland."
  17. ↑ "Map showing the existing police station limits". Retrieved 2013-09-30.
  18. ↑ Melamid (1968) states, "Contiguous territories of states which for all regular commercial and administrative purposes can be reached only through the territory of other states are called pene-enclaves (pene-exclaves). These have virtually the same characteristics as complete enclaves (exclaves)."
  19. 1 2 Catudal, Honoré M. (1974). "Exclaves". Cahiers de géographie du Québec. 18 (43): 107–136. doi:10.7202/021178ar.
  20. ↑ Succession of States and Namibian territories, Y. Makonnen in Recueil Des Cours, 1986: Collected Courses of the Hague Academy of International Law, Academie de Droit International de la Haye, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1987, page 213
  21. ↑ The Green and the dry wood: The Roman Catholic Church (Vicariate of Windhoek) and the Namibian socio-political situation, 1971-1981, Oblates of Mary Immaculate, 1983, page 6
  22. ↑ No. 203 of 1993: Transfer of Walvis Bay to Namibia Act, 1993. Archived 2016-02-23 at the Wayback Machine.
  23. ↑ "Jervis Bay Territory Governance and Administration". Although the Jervis Bay Territory is not part of the Australian Capital Territory, the laws of the ACT apply, in so far as they are applicable and, providing they are not inconsistent with an Ordinance, in the Territory by virtue of the Jervis Bay Acceptance Act 1915. The Department of Regional Australia, Local Government, Arts and Sport. Retrieved 17 January 2013.
  24. ↑ "Google Maps route out of the county from one point on the county border to the other here".
  25. ↑ Instituto Geográfico do Exército: Territory of Santa Maria (Estremoz)
  26. ↑ Arocha, Magaly (May 1999). "La Orden de Malta y su Naturaleza Jurídica (The Order of Malta and Its Legal Nature)". Caracas, Distrito Capital, Venezuela: Analítica.com. Retrieved October 1, 2012.
  27. ↑ "Notification of the Ministry of Transport and Communications of the Czech Republic". 20 August 2001. Retrieved 2013-10-26.
  28. ↑ Siebeck, Jürgen (23 October 2002). "Is Bohemia the sea?". Retrieved 2013-10-26.
  29. ↑ Vališ, Zdeněk (28 April 2005). "Czech harbor in Hamburg, waiting for resurrection". Retrieved 2013-10-26.
  30. ↑ "Czech leased areas in Hamburg and Stettin". Retrieved 2013-10-26.
  31. ↑ "The Transport Agreement between the Czechoslovak Republic and the Polish People's Republic of 13 January 1956". Archived from the original on 2013-10-29. Retrieved 2013-10-26.
  32. ↑ "domaines français de Sainte-Hélène". Domfrance.helanta.sh. Archived from the original on 2011-03-25. Retrieved 2012-09-02.
  33. ↑ "Guernesey : Hauteville House". Paris.fr. 2012-08-28. Archived from the original on 2010-06-26. Retrieved 2012-09-02.
  34. ↑ Source:American Battle Monument Commission Archived 2005-11-26 at the Wayback Machine.
  35. ↑ "The American Battle Monuments Commission". "The site, preserved since the war by the French Committee of the Pointe du Hoc, which erected an impressive granite monument at the edge of the cliff, was transferred to American control by formal agreement between the two governments on 11 January 1979 in Paris, with Ambassador Arthur A. Hartman signing for the United States and Secretary of State for Veterans Affairs Maurice Plantier signing for France". Retrieved October 29, 2012.
  36. ↑ "Suworow monument". Andermatt-Urserntal Tourism. Retrieved 2017-02-17. The 449 m² of rocks and 114 m² of access road is Parcel No. 725 of the land register of Andermatt, owned by the Russian Embassy in Berne. As in almost all examples in this list the parcel remains fully, in jurisdiction, that of the host country.
  37. ↑ "Canada And Vimy Ridge – Background Information – Veterans Affairs Canada". Archived from the original on 2013-04-18. Retrieved 2012-04-09.
  38. ↑ Hickam, Homer H. (1996). Torpedo Junction: U-Boat War Off America's East Coast, 1942. Naval Institute Press. pp. 202–207. ISBN 1-55750-362-1.
  39. 1 2 "British Cemetery at Ocracoke, North Carolina". Retrieved 2013-02-24.
  40. ↑ "Historic Ocracoke Village – A Walking Tour". Retrieved 2013-02-24.
  41. ↑ "British Cemeteries". Retrieved 2013-02-24.
  42. ↑ Horwitz, Tony. Oct. 2003, Blue Latitudes: Boldly Going Where Captain Cook Has Gone Before, Bloomsbury, ISBN 0-7475-6455-8
  43. ↑ Erickson, Lt Clayton, RCN (2012). "Captain Cook Monument at Kealakekua Cleaned and Repaired". Cook's Log. 35 (4). p. 38. Retrieved 2013-02-23.
  44. ↑ "Canadian Crew Cleans Cook Monument". 30 August 2012. Archived from the original on 2013-09-21. Retrieved 2013-02-23.
  45. ↑ Harris, Francis (22 Jul 2006). "Don't mention the murder – how Hawaii forgot Capt. Cook". The Daily Telegraph. London. Retrieved 2013-02-23.
  46. ↑ Taylor, Albert P. "HOW HAWAII HONORED CAPTAIN COOK, R.N., IN 1928". p. 29. Retrieved 2013-02-23.
  47. ↑ MacFarlane, John M. (2012). "The Captain Cook Memorial at Kealakakua Bay Hawaii". Retrieved 2013-02-23. (Fellow of Royal Geographic Society)
  48. ↑ "Cronologia de la Historia Resumida del Ecuador". Retrieved 15 Feb 2017.
  49. ↑ Jimenez, Carmen (27 Oct 1998). "Los presidentes de Perú y Ecuador firman la paz en Brasilia y delimitan su frontera". El País. Retrieved 15 Feb 2017.
  50. ↑ "John F. Kennedy Memorial Act". Google docs [unofficial copy]. Retrieved 2012-06-16.
  51. ↑ Evans, D. M. Emrys (1965). "John F. Kennedy Memorial Act, 1964". The Modern Law Review. 28 (6): 703–706. JSTOR 1092388. (free registration required to read relevant text on page 704)
  52. ↑ "Franco-Turkish agreement of Ankara" (PDF) (in French and English). Retrieved 8 August 2014.
  53. 1 2 Railway Gazette International April 2008 p 240
  54. ↑ [Railways Africa 2014 issue 5, p29]
  55. ↑ Johnson, Ron (1985). The Best of Maine Railroads. Portland Litho.
  56. ↑ "Senegal may tunnel under Gambia". BBC News. 2005-09-21.
  57. ↑ http://www.afdb.org/fileadmin/uploads/afdb/Documents/Project-and-Operations/Multinational__The_Gambia-Senegal__-_AR_-_Construction_of_the_Trans-Gambia_Bridge_and_Cross_Border_Improvement_.pdf
  58. ↑ "Office of The Gambian President: State House Online: Yahya A.J.J. Jammeh". statehouse.gm. Archived from the original on 2015-08-08.
  59. ↑ 2006 Road Atlas Ireland, AA, pp. 36–37
  60. ↑ Jan S. Krogh's Geosite on Sørdalen valley
  61. ↑ "Driving directions". Google maps. Google. Retrieved 21 May 2015.
  62. ↑ Google Maps
  63. 1 2 Bessert, Christopher J. "Highways 20–29". Wisconsin Highways. Retrieved July 7, 2011.
  64. ↑ Riner, Steve. "Details of Routes 1–25". The Unofficial Minnesota Highways Page. Retrieved July 7, 2011.
  65. ↑ "Map of Douglas County, Wisconsin" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2014-03-17. Retrieved 2014-09-08.
  66. ↑ Railway Gazette: Border bridges rebuilt Archived May 3, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  67. ↑ The log of the Water Lily, p. 84. Books.google.com. Retrieved 2014-02-24.
  68. ↑ "Ihr Bahnhof Basel Bad Bf" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2007-09-30. Retrieved 2013-02-26.
  69. ↑ [http://www.hklii.hk/cgi-bin/sinodisp/eng/hk/legis/ord/632/ Guangzhou-Shenzhen-Hong Kong Express Rail Link (Co-Location) Ordinance
  70. 1 2 "From The Straits Times Archives: Malayan Railway land in Singapore". The Straits Times. 31 October 2014. Retrieved 26 February 2015.
  71. ↑ "KTM Tg Pagar station will move to Woodlands in S'pore July 1, 2011 (Update)". The Star (Malaysia). 24 May 2010. Retrieved 26 February 2015.

References

  • Robinson, G. W. S. (September 1959). "Exclaves". Annals of the Association of American Geographers. 49 (3, [Part 1]): 283–295. doi:10.1111/j.1467-8306.1959.tb01614.x. JSTOR 2561461.
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