List of lynching victims in the United States



If you add a lynching to this list, and an article on the lynching exists, please also add it to Template:Lynching in the United States. If no article exists, consider writing one.

This is a sortable table. Click on the heading you want it sorted by. Complex sorts are possible. For example, to produce a list sorted by state, and then alphabetically by county/parish within the state, and if there is more than one in a county, by last name — click first on the Name tab, then County/Parish tab, then State. One clicks first on the narrowest sort (by last names within a county), then by more general (counties/parishes), and finally the most general (states).

Instances of the perpetrators being punished through the judicial system are marked in bold.

NameAgeEthnicityCityCounty or ParishStateYearAccusationComment
Miller, WilliamAfrican-AmericanBrightonJeffersonAlabama1908Labor activistJefferson County had the highest number of lynchings in Alabama (29).[1]
Sydney RandolphadultAfrican-AmericanGaithersburgMontgomeryMaryland1896Killing a white girlTaken from the jail by a mob.[2]
Emmett DiversadultAfrican-AmericanMexicoAudrainMissouri1893Murder of a white woman"Horrible fury of the mob...500 horsemen." Hung from bridge until dead, taken down and hung a second time from a telegraph pole at the fairground, "at the request of the murdered woman's husband". Body and cabin burned.[3]
Silas EstesAfrican-AmericanHodgenvilleLaRueKentucky1901"Forcing...a 15 year old boy...to commit a crime."[4]
Dick Lundy adult African-American Edgefield Edgefield South Carolina 1891 Murder of son of sheriff Coroner's jury: "by persons unknown"
Jennie Steers adult African-American rural area near Shreveport Caddo Louisiana 1903 Poisoning daughter of a planter [5]:70
Great Hanging at Gainesville adult men (number >16) White Gainesville Cooke Texas 1862 Lynching, plus "legal" executions, of Union supporters by Confederate supporters Many lynched before trial was concluded. Prosecution of perpetrators "half-hearted"; only one convicted.[6][7]
John Peterson adult African-American Denmark Bamberg (at the time, Barnwell County) South Carolina 1893 Attack on a white girl
Frank Morris adult African-American Ferriday Concordia Louisiana 1964 "Flirting" with white females [8]:152
Byrd Jr., James49African-AmericanJasperJasperTexas1998None (white supremacists)Dragged to death behind a car, until his head hit a culvert. Perpetrators convicted, one executed, one on death row, one to life imprisonment.
Young, Albert (or Arthur)21African-AmericanPerryTaylorFlorida1922Murder of a white schoolteacherTortured, then burned alive
Reeb, James (Unitarian minister)38WhiteSelmaDallasAlabama1965Northerner coming to help blacks; ate in "nigger" restaurant.Denied treatment in Selma for severe blow to head; condition deteriorated on the two-hour trip to a hospital that would treat him (in Birmingham, Alabama); died two days later. Four indicted; three acquitted by all-white juries, fourth fled to Mississippi and never faced trial. Huge national outcry. The Federal Voting Rights Act was passed within four months as a direct result of his lynching and the violent attacks on the Selma to Montgomery marchers.
McClelland, Brandon23–24African-AmericanParisLamarTexas2008None (white supremacists)Dragged to death behind car. Prosecutor dropped charges, "lack of evidence".
Reed, JosephAfrican-AmericanNashvilleDavidsonTennessee1875Killing a police officerTaken out of his jail cell by an unmasked mob and hanged on a suspension bridge.[9]
Baker, Frazier B.41African-AmericanLake CityFlorenceSouth Carollna1898Appointed Postmaster

Grand jury did not indict. Since it was a Federal crime (attack on a postmaster) there were 13 Federal indictments; no one convicted

Scott, James T.Janitor at University of MissouriAfrican-AmericanColumbiaBooneMissouri1923Raping the white daughter of a professor.Before he could stand trial, a mob broke him out of jail and hanged him. The daughter would later identify a different man as her rapist. Jury found perpetrator innocent in 11 minutes. Memorial plaque erected 2016.[10][11]
Smith, Joseph (founder of Mormonism) and brother Hyram Smith38,
44		WhiteCarthageHancockIllinois1844Technically, treason against state of Illinois, but lynching was for religious views, especially plural marriage/polygamy.In jail awaiting trial. Five men were tried and acquitted.
McIntosh, FrancisAdultAfrican-AmericanSt. LouisN/A (independent city)Missouri1836Complicated, but culminating in death of one constable/deputy sheriff and wounding anotherBurned alive. Lynching had broad local support. Reported on by abolitionist editor Elijah Lovejoy, who was soon lynched himself.
White, GeorgeAdultAfrican-AmericanWilmingtonNew CastleDelaware1903Assaulting teenage girl and leaving her to dieTaken from county workhouse and burned alive. No one was prosecuted.
Walker, Zachariah20-24African-AmericanCoatesvilleChesterPennsylvania1911Killing of a police officer, possibly in self-defenseTaken from hospital room and burned alive. Fifteen men and teenage boys were indicted, but all were acquitted at trials.[12]
Moss, TomAdultAfrican-AmericanMemphisShelbyTennessee1892Complaint from competing white grocery store owner.So-called Curve Riot (not a riot). Reported on by Ida B. Wells, whose newspaper was destroyed and had to leave the state.[13]
McDowell, CalvinAdultAfrican-AmericanMemphisShelbyTennessee1892Complaint from competing white grocery store owner.So-called Curve Riot (not a riot). Reported on by Ida B. Wells, whose newspaper was destroyed and had to leave the state.[13]
Clayton, Elias, Elmer Jackson, and Isaac McGhie20-23African-AmericanDuluthSt. LouisMinnesota1920Rape of a teenage girlTaken from jail by mob, given mock trials, beaten and hanged from light-post. No one was prosecuted.
Stewart, WillAdultAfrican-AmericanMemphisShelbyTennessee1892Complaint from competing white grocery store owner.So-called Curve Riot (not a riot). Reported on by Ida B. Wells, whose newspaper was destroyed and had to leave the state.[13]
Holmes, John
Thurmond, Thomas		29
27		WhiteSan JoseSanta ClaraCalifornia1933Kidnapping and murder of department store heir Brooke HartAn estimated 10,000 people witnessed the lynching. California Governor James Rolph called the act "a fine lesson for the whole nation."[14]
Lovejoy, Elijah35WhiteAltonMadisonIllinois1837Abolitionist newspaper editor and publisherHad moved to Alton to escape violence in St. Louis. Four successive printing presses destroyed.[15]
Miller, Amos23African-AmericanFranklinWilliamsonTennessee1888Assaulting a white womanTaken from the courthouse during his trial and lynched on the balcony railings.[16]
Taylor, JimAfrican-AmericanFranklinWilliamsonTennessee1891Shooting a policemanTaken from his jail cell by a mob and lynched on Murfreesboro Road.[17]
Higginbotham, Elwood28African-AmericanOxfordLafayetteMississippi1935Killed in self-defense a white man that attacked him after he complained about the white man's cattle running over his field.Killed when jury did not bring back guilty verdict promptly. Widow and extended family immediately left Mississippi.[18]
Patton, NelseAfrican-AmericanOxfordLafayetteMississippi1908Killing a white womanProminent attorney and former U.S. Senator William V. Sullivan, in his own words, "led the mob...and I'm proud of it".[19][20]
Jones, David African-AmericanNashvilleDavidsonTennessee1872Murdering Henry Murray.Taken out of his prison cell and lynched by a mob on the public square.[21][22]
Grizzard, EphraimAfrican-AmericanNashvilleDavidsonTennessee1892Assaulting two white girls in Goodlettsville.Taken out of his prison cell and lynched on a bridge in Downtown Nashville in front of 10,000 onlookers. Later taken back to Goodlettsville.[23]
Smith, Samuel15African-AmericanNolensvilleWilliamsonTennessee1924Stealing spark plugs in a garage.Taken out of his hospital room in Nashville and lynched by a mob of masked men where he was first caught.[24]
11 Italian AmericansItalian-AmericanNew OrleansOrleansLouisiana1891Killing of police chief3 had been acquitted; 3 had a mistrial; 5 never tried. Lynching organized by local leaders, including future mayor Walter C. Flower and future governor John M. Parker. Grand jury brought no charges.
Lewis, SanfordAfrican-AmericanFort SmithSebastianArkansas1912Shooting a constableFive policemen fined $100 each for "nonfeasance of office". Entire police force fired. Mayor voted out. Man charged with lynching acquitted.[25]
Phifer, Miles (or Relius)African-AmericanMontgomeryMontgomeryAlabama1919Assault of a white womanWas wearing military uniform[26]
Temple, WillAfrican-AmericanMontgomeryMontgomeryAlabama1919Killing a police officer[26]
Crosky, RobertAfrican-AmericanMontgomeryMontgomeryAlabama1919Assault of a white woman[26]
Heath, John28WhiteBisbeeCochiseArizona Territory1884Accessory to robberyMob unsatisfied with lenient sentence
Williams, Matthew23African-AmericanSalisburyWicomicoMaryland1931Killing his employerTaken forcibly from hospital. No indictment despite numerous witnesses.[27]:9–10
Walker, David, his wife and four childrenAfrican-AmericanHickmanFultonKentucky1908Using inappropriate language with a white woman[28]
Grant, GeorgeAfrican-AmericanDarienMcIntoshGeorgia1930Sheriff: "I don't know who killed the nigger and I don't give a damn."[27]:10
Gunn, RaymondAfrican-AmericanMaryvilleNodawayMissouri1931Burned to death. National Guard stood by and watched.[27]:10
Lowry, Henry"a negro sharecropper"African-AmericanNodenaMississippiArkansas1921Asked for his wagesBurned to death; crowd of 500[27]:3
Hose, Samc. 24African-AmericanNoonanCowetaGeorgia1899Killed his white employer in self-defense. Accusations of rape added to incite lynching.Body parts for sale in a store. Widely publicized and privately investigated.
Hartfield, JohnAfrican-AmericanEllisvilleJonesMississippi1919Assaulting a young white woman"The biggest newspaper in the state, Jackson Daily News, carried headlines announcing the exact time and place of the coming orgy.[29] Ten thousand people answered the paper's invitation and they were addressed by the District Attorney, T. W. Wilson, while the lynching was going on."[27]:9
Richardson, BunkAfrican-AmericanGadsdenEtowahAlabama1906Sentenced to death without being charged with any crime; Governor commuted it to life imprisonment.Mob seized him from the jail.
Heflin, LeeWhiteFauquierVirginia1892Convicted murdererSeized from police when they were trying to move him to a safer location.[30]
Wise, Mrs.African-AmericanFrankfort (Frankford?)Virginia (West Virginia?)1931Objected to her daughter being taken out for "rides" with white Klansmen.[27]:8
Tillis, DaveAfrican-AmericanCrockettHoustonTexas1932"Demanded an accounting from his landlord. Charged with 'entering the bedroom of a white woman'".[27]:4–5
Hughes, GeorgeAfrican-AmericanShermanGraysonTexas1930Pled guilty to criminal assault.Courthouse stormed (during trial), burned down with Hughes locked in vault, fire hoses cut. Body then dragged behind car and hung, and fire lit under it. Followed by riot and destruction of black businesses. Two persons received two-year sentences for violence.[31]
Shorter, William17African-AmericanWinchesterN/A (independent city)Virginia1893Assault on a white woman[30]
Dye, JosephWhiteFauquierVirginia1892Convicted murdererSeized from police when they were trying to move him to a safer location.[30]
Anderson, OrionAfrican-AmericanLeesburgLoudounVirginia1889Hung from a derrick[30]
Bromley, H.HeathsvilleNorthumberlandVirginia1955[30]
Thompson, AllieAfrican-AmericanCulpeperCulpeperVirginia1918Assault[30]
Craven, CharlesAfrican-AmericanLeesburgLoudounVirginia1902Assault[30]
Thompson, Benjamin20African-AmericanAlexandriaN/A (independent city)Virginia1899Hung from a lamppost at Cameron and Lee Sts., site of several lynchings.[30]
Parker, JohnAfrican-AmericanConwayFaulknerArkansas1931Stealing some peaches[27]:4
McCoy, Joseph20African-AmericanAlexandriaN/A (independent city)Virginia1897Assault on a young girl[30]
Fletcher, MagruderAfrican-AmericanTasleyAccomackVirginia1889[30]
AdamAfrican-AmericanTampaHillsboroughFlorida1859A white man was murdered; "in keeping with local custom, a slave man was selected to be killed in retribution". State Supreme Court overturned conviction.Mob broke into jail where he was awaiting a new trial and hung him. Defended by Ossian Hart.[32]:269
Abram Smith[33]19African-AmericanMarionGrantIndiana1930Accessory to homicide during holdup of white man; rumors of rapeNo charges filed.
Joe Coe"A married man with two children"African-AmericanOmahaDouglasNebraska1891Assault on a white girl of 5The Governor and the Sheriff tried unsuccessfully to quiet the crowd in front of the Courthouse. Pieces of the lynching rope were sold as souvenirs. Despite 16 wounds to his body and three broken vertebrae, Coroner said he died of "fright". Grand jury declined to indict.
Till, Emmett 14African-AmericanMoneyLeFloreMississippi1955Flirting with white womanBeaten and mutilated before shooting him in the head and sinking his body in the Tallahatchie River. Perpetrators acquitted by all-white jury, then openly admitted they did it. Historical markers shot and defaced 2006-2018.[34]
Anthony Crawford[35]51African-AmericanAbbevilleAbbevilleSouth Carolina1916Offensive languageCoroner's jury: "persons unknown"
Charles Wright[33]21African-AmericanRosewoodLevyFlorida1930Homicide during holdup of white man; rumors of rapeNo charges filed.
Claude NealAfrican-AmericanGreenwoodJacksonFlorida1934Rape and murder of 19 year old white femaleLynchers said he "didn't deserve a trial". Castrated, forced to consume his genitals, stabbed, burned with hot irons, toes and fingers removed, hung, body tied behind automobile. Followed by Marianna riots. Important case in helping to bring lynching to an end.
Dick Rowland (attempted lynching)19African-AmericanTulsaTulsaOklahoma1921Sexual assault on white girlConflict between would-be lynchers and defenders led to the Tulsa Race Riot.
Ell Personsabout 50African-AmericanMemphisShelbyTennessee1917Raping and killing a white girlNo charges filed.
Fred Rochelle16African-AmericanBartowPolkFlorida1901Murder and rape of a white womanDoused with kerosene and burned. Special train from Lakeland to see the "barbecue".
Henry Smith17African-AmericanParisLamarTexas1893Kidnapping and murder of white girl; Smith confessed.Tortured, burned with hot irons, doused in oil and set on fire; his remains were sold as souvenirs.
McIlherron, Jim [36]African-AmericanEstill SpringsFranklinTennessee1918Killing two whitesTortured, then burned alive. Spectators came from as far as 50 miles away. Postcards sold. "No information sufficient to indict."
Jesse Washington[37]17African-AmericanWacoMcLennanTexas1916Murder; Washington confessed and a jury found him guilty.Dragged behind car, castrated, fingers cut off, ear cut off, burned alive. Professionally photographed; pictures sold as postcards. Lynching of "political value" to Sheriff and to the Judge who presided over his trial. "On the way to the scene of the burning, people on every hand took a hand in showing their feelings in the matter by striking the Negro with anything obtainable, some struck him with shovels, bricks, clubs and others stabbed him and cut him until when he was strung up his body was a solid color of red."[37]:5
John Carter[38]African-AmericanLittle RockPulaskiArkansas1927Attacking a white woman and her motherNo charges filed; "mob" responsible.
July Perry[39]52African-AmericanOcoeeOrangeFlorida1920Sign on body: "This is what we do to niggers that vote."Prosperous Negro farmer. See Ocoee massacre.
Leo Frank31JewishMariettaCobbGeorgia1915Killing a 13 year old girlNo charges filed; posthumously pardoned.
Mary Turner[40]18African-AmericanBridge joining Brooks County and Lowndes County, GeorgiaGeorgia1918Publicly opposed and threatened legal action against whites who had murdered her husband, unfairly accused (according to her) of killing an abusive landowner."Hung her upside down from a tree, doused her in gasoline and motor oil and set her on fire. Turner was still alive when a member of the mob split her abdomen open with a knife and her unborn child fell on the ground. The baby was stomped and crushed as it fell to the ground. Turner's body was riddled with hundreds of bullets."
Hayes Turner25African-AmericanMorven[41]BrooksGeorgia1918Accused of helping kill an abusive landowner.Wife Mary killed next day for defending him.
Reuben Stacey (also found as Rubin Stacy)37African-AmericanFort LauderdaleBrowardFlorida1935Assault with a knifeLaw enforcement officer; grand jury refused to indict.
Sam CarterAfrican-AmericanRosewoodLevyFlorida1923Assault, rape, and robbery of a white womanSee Rosewood massacre. Tortured. Shot before being hung. See Rosewood massacre.
Slab PittsAfrican-AmericanToyahReevesTexas1906Living with a white womanDragged to death before being hung.
Thomas Shipp[42][43][33]18African-AmericanMarionGrantIndiana1930Accessory to homicide during holdup of white man; rumors of rapeNo charges filed.
Willie Earle24African-AmericanGreenvilleGreenvilleSouth Carolina1947Killing of taxi driver31 suspects charged; all acquitted.
Willie James Howard[44]15African-AmericanLive OakSuwanneeFlorida1944Sending Christmas card with "a note expressing his affection" to a white girl.Forced to jump to his death in the Suwanee River. Grand jury refused to indict.
Ah Wing Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Dr. Chee Long "Gene" Tong Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Chang Wan Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Leong Quai Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Ah Long Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Wan Foo Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Tong Won Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Ah Loo Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Day Kee Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Ah Waa Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Ho Hing Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Lo Hey Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Ah Won Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Wing Chee Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

Wong Chin Chinese Los Angeles Los Angeles California 1871 None Killed in retaliation for the homicide of a rancher.

See: Chinese massacre of 1871

References

  1. ↑ Equal Justice Initiative (2015). "Lynching In America / The Lynching of William Miller". Historical Marker Database. Retrieved May 2, 2018.
  2. ↑ "Lynched a Suspected Negro". New York Times. July 5, 1896. p. 24.
  3. ↑ "NEGRO LYNCHED / Murder of a White Woman in Missouri Swung from a Bridge". Evening Argus (Owosso, Michigan). August 16, 1895. p. 4.
  4. ↑ "Negro Lynched in Kentucky". Lewiston Daily Sun. November 1, 1901.
  5. ↑ Pfeifer, Michael James (2004). Rough Justice: Lynching and American Society, 1874-1947. University of Illinois Press. ISBN 9780252029172.
  6. ↑ McCaslin, Richard B. "Great Hamging at Gainesville". Handbook of Texas Online, Texas State Historical Association. Retrieved 2014-05-30.
  7. ↑ Smallwood, James (December 1976). "Disaffection in Confederate Texas: The Great Hanging at Gainesville". Civil War History. 22 (4). pp. 349–360.
  8. ↑ Newton, M. (2005). The FBI and the KKK: A Critical History. p. 151. ISBN 9781476605104. Retrieved January 6, 2016.
  9. ↑ "A Fearful Outrage. A Negro Murderer Lynched by a Few Citizens in Nashville--A Mob Looking On and Endorsing the Deed. The State Disgraced by a Supine Set of Officers--An Unmitigated Outrage Against Law and Decency. A Crime for Which the Perpetrators Out to be Made to Pay with Their Lives--The Whole State Demands It". Memphis Daily Appeal. May 3, 1875. p. 1. Retrieved June 5, 2018 – via Newspapers.com. (Registration required (help)).
  10. ↑ Marion, Ann (September 30, 2016). "New plaque memorializes 1923 lynching victim James T. Scott". Columbia Missourian. Retrieved May 25, 2018.
  11. ↑ Howe, Barton Grover (May 8, 2003). "Legacy of a lynching". Columbia Missourian. Retrieved May 25, 2018.
  12. ↑ Eric S. Smith, "Zachariah Walker's lynching haunts the city", Daily Local News (Chester County), 13 August 2011, accessed 5 January 2016
  13. 1 2 3 Ball, Nathaniel C. (September 30, 2015). "Memphis and the Lynching at the Curve". The Benjamin L. Hooks Institute fo Social Changr, University of Memphis. Retrieved May 15, 2018.
  14. ↑ McPhate, Mike (November 29, 2017). "When a San Jose mob stormed a jail and lynched two men". The California Sun. Retrieved September 25, 2018.
  15. ↑ Tebbe, Jen (November 7, 2017). "Elijah Lovejoy: An American Martyr". Missouri Historical Society.
  16. ↑ Berger, Paul (December 20, 2014). "Midnight in Tennessee - The Untold Story of the First Jewish Lynching in America". Haaretz. Retrieved May 15, 2018. In 1888, Amos Miller, a black man accused of raping a white woman, was dragged from court in Franklin and hung from the courthouse railings.
  17. ↑ "Judge Lynch Presided. Would-Be Murderer Strung Up at Franklin. His Most Atrocious Assault on an Officer Avenged. The Body Dangling by the Roadside on the Outskirts. He Also Shot a Circus Man, Who Was Brought to Nashville for Treatment--A Deserved Fate". The Daily American. Nashville, Tennessee. April 30, 1891. Retrieved May 14, 2018 – via Newspapers.com. (Registration required (help)).
  18. ↑ Gregory, Vanessa (April 25, 2018). "A Lynching's Long Shadow". New York Times Magazine.
  19. ↑ "Ex-Senator Sullivan Will Stand Consequences for Directing Shooting". New York Times. September 10, 1908. Retrieved May 7, 2018.
  20. ↑ Sassoubre, Ticien Marie. "Avoiding Adjudication in William Faulkner's Go Down, Moses and Intruder in the Dust". Criticism. 49 (2): 183–214. doi:10.1353/crt.0.0016.
  21. ↑ "A Night of Excitement. David Jones, the Murderer of Murray, Taken from the Jail by a Mob. Murderer Offers Resistance, and is Shot Twice. Afterwards Taken to the Public Square and Hanged in Front of the Station House. The Hanging Witnesses by Immense Crowd of Excited Citizens. Efforts of the Mayor to Restore Quiet. Gov. Brown Makes an Appeal in Behalf of Law and Order". Nashville Union and American. March 26, 2018. p. 4. Retrieved May 3, 2018 – via Newspapers.com. (Registration required (help)).
  22. ↑ "The Nashville Lynching Case". The Chicago Tribune. March 28, 1872. p. 3. Retrieved May 3, 2018 – via Newspapers.com. (Registration required (help)).
  23. ↑ "Finally Successful. An Attempt to Lynch Negroes At Nashville, Tenn., Successfully Resisted. The Government Takes Charge of the Jail Forces--One of the Lynchers Killed. Another Attempt Proves Successful, and the Negro Is Hanged. Crimes". The Courier. Waterloo, Iowa. May 2, 1892. p. 2. Retrieved April 27, 2018 – via Newspapers.com. (Registration required (help)).
  24. ↑ "Mob Lynches Negro Boy Who Shot Grocer. Body of Masked Men Take Him From Hospital. Samuel Smith, 15, Left Hanging Near Home of Ike Eastwood, Whom He Wounded Friday Night". Nashville Tennesssean. December 16, 1924. pp. 1, 5. Retrieved May 2, 2018 – via Newspapers.com. (Registration required (help)).
  25. ↑ Boulden, Ben. "The Lynching of Sanford Lewis". Fort Smith Historical Society. Retrieved April 28, 2018.
  26. 1 2 3 Lyman, Brian (April 20, 2018). "'There will be lynchings': How the Advertiser failed victims of racial terror". Montgomery Advertiser.
  27. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 Haywood, Harry; Howard, Milton (1932). Lynching (PDF). Retrieved April 20, 2018.
  28. ↑ Associated Press (April 23, 2018). "New Lynching Memorial Evokes Terror of Victims".
  29. ↑ "3,000 Will Burn Negro — John Hartfield Will Be Lynched by Ellisville Mob at 5 o'clock This Afternoon — Negro Jerky and Sullen as Burning Hour Nears". New Orleans States (reprinted from Jackspn Daily News). June 26, 1919.
  30. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Thomas-Lester, Avis (July 7, 2005). "From the archives: State Lives With a Legacy of Terror as Nation Pays Tribute to Victims' Descendants". Washington Post. Retrieved April 20, 2018.
  31. ↑ Thompson, Nolan (2010). "Sherman Riot of 1930". Handbook of Texas Online. Retrieved May 28, 2018.
  32. ↑ Allman, T. D. (2013). Finding Florida. The True History of the Sunshine State. Atlantic Monthly Press. ISBN 9780802120762.
  33. 1 2 3 Leroux, Charles (February 14, 1993). "Lynching Black Man, Now 78, Relates Narrow Escape, Tells How Two Companions Were Lynched In Indiana In 1930". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
  34. ↑ Haag, Matthew (August 6, 2018). "Emmett Till Sign Is Hit With Bullets Again, 35 Days After Being Replaced". New York Times.
  35. ↑ "Anthony Crawford, a Negro of Wealth, Lynched Saturday". Abbeville Press and Banner. Abbeville, South Carolina. 1917-10-25. p. 1. Retrieved 2015-12-21.
  36. ↑ White, Walter F. (May 1918). "The Burning of James McIlherron. An N.A.A.C.P. Investigation" (PDF). The Crisis. pp. 16–20. Retrieved March 2, 2018.
  37. 1 2 "The Waco Horror (supplement to The Crisis)". The Crisis. July 1916. Retrieved March 8, 2018.
  38. ↑ Harp, Stephanie. "John Carter: A Scapegoat for Anger". America's Black Holocaust Museum.
  39. ↑ Federal Writers' Project of the Work Projects Administration for the State of Florida. "The Ocoee Riot". Retrieved February 22, 2018.
  40. ↑ NAACP. "History of Lynchings". Retrieved March 2, 2018.
  41. ↑ "Hazel B "Hayes" Turner". Find A Grave. Retrieved March 14, 2018.
  42. ↑ Nolin, Robert (July 17, 2010). "Mob lynched black man in Fort Lauderdale 75 years ago". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved December 29, 2017.
  43. ↑ Brooks, Bryan (July 17, 1988). "The Day They Lynched Reuben Stacey". Sun-Sentinel. Retrieved December 29, 2017.
  44. ↑ Wethersbee, Tonya J. (August 29, 2015). "Before Emmett Till's Death, Willie James Howard, 15, Was Murdered in Fla". The Root. Retrieved March 8, 2018.

Further reading

  • Pfeifer, Michael J. (2004). "Appendix: Confirmed lynchings and near lynchings, 1874–1947". Rough Justice: Lynching and American Society, 1874–1947. Urbana: University of Illinois Press. ISBN 0252029178.

References

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