List of language families
The following is a list of language families. It also includes language isolates, unclassified languages and other types.
Major language families
By number of languages
Ethnologue 22 (2019) lists the following families as containing at least 1% of the 7,111 known languages in the world:
- Niger–Congo (1,542 languages) (21.7%)
- Austronesian (1,257 languages) (17.7%)
- Trans–New Guinea (482 languages) (6.8%)
- Sino-Tibetan (455 languages) (6.4%)
- Indo-European (448 languages) (6.3%)
- Australian [dubious] (381 languages) (5.4%)
- Afro-Asiatic (377 languages) (5.3%)
- Nilo-Saharan [dubious] (206 languages) (2.9%)
- Oto-Manguean (178 languages) (2.5%)
- Austroasiatic (167 languages) (2.3%)
- Tai–Kadai (91 languages) (1.3%)
- Dravidian (86 languages) (1.2%)
- Tupian (76 languages) (1.1%)
Glottolog 4.0 (2019) lists the following as the largest families, of 8494 languages:
- Atlantic–Congo (1,432 languages)
- Austronesian (1,275 languages)
- Indo-European (588 languages)
- Sino-Tibetan (494 languages)
- Afro-Asiatic (373 languages)
- Nuclear Trans–New Guinea (314 languages)
- Pama–Nyungan (248 languages)
- Oto-Manguean (180 languages)
- Austroasiatic (159 languages)
- Tai–Kadai (94 languages)
- Dravidian (81 languages)
- Arawakan (78 languages)
- Mande (75 languages)
- Tupian (71 languages)
Language counts can vary significantly depending on what is considered a dialect; for example Lyle Campbell counts only 27 Otomanguean languages, although he, Ethnologue and Glottolog also disagree as to which languages belong in the family.
Language families (non-sign)
In the following, each bullet item is a known or suspected language family. Phyla with historically wide geographical distributions but comparatively few current-day speakers include Eskimo–Aleut, Na-Dené, Algic, Quechuan and Nilo-Saharan.
The geographic headings over them are meant solely as a tool for grouping families into collections, more comprehensible than an unstructured list of a few hundred independent families. Geographic relationship is convenient for that purpose, but these headings are not a suggestion of any "super-families" phylogenetically relating the families named.
The number of individual languages in a family and the number of their speakers are only rough estimates: see dialect or language and linguistic demography for further explanation.
The language families of Africa
Map of the Austronesian languages
Map of major Dravidian languages
Distribution of the Altaic languages across Eurasia
Area of the Papuan languages
Map of the Australian languages
Distribution of language families and isolates north of Mexico at first contact
The major South American language families
Language isolates
Language isolates are languages which are not part of any known family and they can be alternatively described as being its sole representants.
Africa
Asia
- Ainu language or languages (Japan, Russia) (like Arabic or Japanese, the diversity within Ainu is large enough that some consider it to be perhaps up to a dozen languages, while others consider it a single language with high dialectal diversity)
- Nivkh or Gilyak (Russia) (sometimes linked to Chukotko–Kamchatkan)
- Korean (North Korea, South Korea, China: Yanbian Korean Autonomous Prefecture) (sometimes linked to Paleosiberian, alternatively Jeju is sometimes classified as a separate language, creating a Koreanic family)
- Kusunda (Nepal)
- Nihali (India) (sometimes linked to Munda)
- Burushaski (Pakistan, India) (sometimes linked to Yeniseian)
- Elamite (Iran) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Dravidian)
- Sumerian (Iraq) [extinct]
- Hattic (Turkey) [extinct] (sometimes linked to Northwest Caucasian)
Europe
- Basque (Spain, France) (widely considered a descendant of or related to extinct Aquitanian)
North America
- Atakapa (US: Louisiana, Texas) [extinct] (part of the hypothetical Gulf languages)
- Chitimacha (US: Louisiana) [extinct] (possibly part of the hypothetical Gulf languages)
- Cuitlatec (Mexico: Guerrero) [extinct]
- Haida (Canada: British Columbia; US: Alaska)
- Huave (Mexico: Oaxaca)
- Karankawa (US: Texas) [extinct]
- Kutenai (Canada: British Columbia; US: Idaho, Montana)
- Natchez (US: Mississippi, Louisiana) (linked to Muskogean in the hypothetical Gulf languages)
- Purépecha (also known as Tarascan) (Mexico: Michoacán)
- Takelma (US: Oregon) [extinct] (part of the hypothetical Penutian languages)
- Timucua (US: Florida, Georgia) [extinct]
- Tonkawa (US: Texas) [extinct]
- Tunica (US: Mississippi, Louisiana, Arkansas) (part of the hypothetical Gulf languages)
- Yuchi (US: Georgia, Oklahoma)
- Zuni (also known as Shiwi) (US: New Mexico)
Oceania
Australia
- Laragiya
- Malak-Malak
- Minkin [extinct; perhaps a member of Yiwaidjan or Tankic]
- Ngurmbur (perhaps a member of Macro-Pama–Nyungan)
- Tiwi (Melville and Bathurst Islands)
New Guinea
South America
- Aikanã (Brazil: Rondônia)
- Andoque (Colombia, Peru)
- Betoi (Colombia)
- Camsá (Colombia)
- Candoshi-Shapra (Peru)
- Cayuvava (Bolivia)
- Cofán (Colombia, Ecuador)
- Fulniô (Brazil: Pernambuco)
- Guató (Brazil, Bolivia)
- Waorani (also known as Sabela, Waodani) (Ecuador, Peru)
- Irantxe (Brazil: Mato Grosso)
- Itonama (Bolivia)
- Kanoê (Brazil)
- Kwaza (Brazil: Rondônia)
- Leco (Bolivia)
- Mapuche (Chile, Argentina)
- Movima (Bolivia)
- Omurano (Peru)
- Oti (Brazil: São Paulo) [extinct]
- Páez (Colombia) (see also Paezan)
- Puelche (Argentina, Chile)
- Puquina (Bolivia) [extinct]
- Ticuna (Colombia, Peru, Brazil)
- Warao (Guyana, Surinam, Venezuela)
- Yaghan (Chile)
- Yuracaré (Bolivia)
- Yuri (Colombia, Brazil)
- Yurumanguí (Colombia)
Unclassified languages
Languages are considered unclassified either because, for one reason or another, little effort has been made to compare them with other languages or more commonly, because they are too poorly documented to permit reliable classification: most such languages are extinct and, most likely, will never be known well enough to classify.
Africa
- Ongota (perhaps Afroasiatic)
- Kwadi (extinct; perhaps Khoe)
- Dompo
- Mpra (probably Niger–Congo)
- Mpur (Ghana)
- Jalaa
- Laal
- Meroitic (extinct; probably Nubian, a language family part of the Nilo-Saharan proposal)
- Shabo (perhaps Nilo-Saharan)
- Bayot
- Boro (extinct; perhaps Niger-Congo)
- Kujargé (probably Afroasiatic)
- Oblo
- Weyto
- Rimba
- Oropom (extinct; possibly spurious)
- Wawu
- Omaio (Tanzania)
- Serengeti-Dorobo (Tanzania)
- Vazimba (possible substrate language), see Beosi (Madagascar)
- Guanche (extinct; possibly Afro-Asiatic, specifically Berber)
Asia
- Isaurian (extinct) (perhaps Indo-European and related to Luwian)
- Ancient Cappadocian (extinct)
- Mysian (extinct)
- Ruanruan (extinct)
- Gutian (extinct)
- Kaskian (extinct) (perhaps related to Hattic)
- Kassite (extinct) (perhaps related to or part of Hurro-Urartian)
- Xiongnu (extinct, with Glottolog code, unclassifiable)
- Xianbei (extinct)
- Hunnic (extinct)
- Cimmerian (extinct) (perhaps Indo-European)
- Kenaboi (extinct) (perhaps Austroasiatic)
- Philistine (extinct) (probably Indo-European)
- Proto-Euphratean (extinct)
- Sentinelese (probably Ongan)
- Tambora (extinct) (perhaps related to or a part of the Timor–Alor–Pantar branch of Trans-New Guinea)
- Undeciphered -k language of ancient Yemen (extinct) (probably Semitic, and identified with Himyaritic)
- Harappan (extinct)
Europe
- Iberian (Spain) (extinct)
- Tartessian (Spain, Portugal) (extinct)
- North Picene (Italy) (extinct)
- Camunic (Italy) (extinct, perhaps Tyrsenian)
- Minoan (Crete) (extinct)
- Eteocretan (Crete) (extinct, probably descended from Minoan)
- Eteocypriot (Cyprus) (extinct)
- Trojan (extinct)
- Paleo-Sardinian (Sardinia) (extinct)
- Paleo-Corsican (Corsica) (extinct)
- Elymian (Sicily) (extinct, possibly Indo-European)
- Sicanian (Sicily) (extinct)
- Sicel (Sicily) (extinct, probably Indo-European)
- Pelasgian (Greece) (extinct)
- Sorothaptic (Spain) (extinct, perhaps Indo-European)
- Liburnian (Balkans) (extinct, perhaps Indo-European)
- Paeonian (Balkans) (extinct, perhaps Indo-European)
- Etruscan language (Italy) (extinct, probably Tyrsenian)
- Raetic language (Italy) (extinct, probably Tyrsenian)
- Lemnian language (Greece) (extinct, probably Tyrsenian)
North America
- Macorix (extinct, Greater Antilles)
- Guanahatabey (extinct, Greater Antilles)
- Ciguayo (extinct, Greater Antilles)
- Akokisa (Texas) (extinct)
- Tequesta (Florida) (extinct)
- Quinipissa (Louisiana) (extinct)
- Pascagoula (Mississippi) (extinct)
- Coree (North Carolina) (extinct)
- Congaree (South Carolina) (extinct) (perhaps Arawakan)
- Eyeish (Texas) (extinct)
- Cusabo (South Carolina) (extinct) (possibly Arawakan)
- Bidai (Texas) (extinct)
- Guale (Georgia) (extinct)
- Yamasee (Georgia) (extinct)
- Appalousa (Louisiana) (extinct)
- Avoyel (Louisiana) (extinct)
- Pedee (South Carolina) (extinct)
- Guachichil (Mexico) (extinct)
Oceania
Australia
New Guinea
- Bayono-Awbono (perhaps Trans-New Guinea)
- Dibiyaso
- Elseng (perhaps Border)
- Kapori (probably related to Kaure)
- Kehu (probably related to East Geelvink Bay)
- Kembra
- Kimki
- Kosare (probably related to Kaure)
- Purari (perhaps Trans-New Guinea)
- Pyu [moribund] (perhaps Left May – Kwomtari or an isolate)
- Saponi (extinct; perhaps either a Lakes Plain or East Bird's Head – Sentani language)
- Sulka (most likely related to the neighboring Baining and Kol languages)
- Tause (perhaps a part of the East Bird's Head – Sentani proposal)
- Afra [moribund]
South America
- Taushiro (Peru)
- Flecheiros (Brazil)
- Majena (Bolivia) (extinct)
- Caranqui (Ecuador) (extinct, perhaps Barbacoan)
- Sinúfana (Colombia) (extinct, perhaps Chocoan)
Extinct families and unclassified languages
This section lists extinct languages and families which have no known living relatives; while a minority of these is well known but is still classified as genetically independent (like the ancient Sumerian language), the lack of attestation makes many of these hard to put into larger groups.
| Name | Languages | Year of death | Location | Well-attested? | Proposed parent family |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Hurro-Urartian languages | 2 | 7th century BC? | Asia | Yes | Alarodian languages |
| Tasmanian languages (several families) | 5-16 | 1905 | Australia | No | |
| Eastern Daly languages | 2 | 2006 | Australia | Some | |
| Tyrsenian languages | 3 | 3rd century | Europe | Some | |
| Baenan | 1 | 1940s | South America (Bahia) | No | |
| Culle | 1 | 20th century | South America (North Peru) | No | |
| Kunza | 1 | 1950s? | South America (Atacama) | Some | |
| Gamela | 1 | ? | South America (Maranhão) | No | |
| Gorgotoqui | 1 | 17th century | South America (East Bolivia) | No | |
| Huamoé | 1 | ? | South America (Pernambuco) | No | |
| Malibu languages | 9 | ? | South America (Colombia) | No | |
| Munichi | 1 | 1990s | South America (Loreto) | Some | Arawakan |
| Natú | 1 | 19th century? | South America (Pernambuco) | ||
| Pankararú | 1 | 20th century | South America (East Brazil) | No | |
| Panzaleo | 1 | 17th century | South America (Quito) | No | |
| Sechura | 1 | 19th century? | South America (Piura) | No | |
| Tarairiú | 1 | ? | South America (East Brazil) | No | |
| Tuxá | 1 | 19th century? | South America (East Brazil) | No | |
| Xocó | 1-3 | ? | South America (East Brazil) | No | |
| Xukuru | 1 | ? | South America (East Brazil) | No | Xukuruan |
| Yurumanguí | 1 | 19th century? | South America (Colombia) | No | |
| Adai | 1 | 19th century | North America (Louisiana) | No | |
| Alagüilac | 1 | 18th century? | North America (Guatemala) | No | |
| Aranama | 1 | 19th century | North America (Texas) | No | |
| Atakapa | 1 | 20th century | North America (Louisiana) | Some | |
| Beothuk | 1 | 1829 | North America (Newfoundland) | No | |
| Calusa | 1 | 18th century? | North America (Florida) | No | |
| Cayuse | 1 | 1930s | North America (Oregon) | ||
| Chumashan | 6 | 1960s | North America (California) | ||
| Cotoname | 1 | 19th century? | North America (Texas-Mexico border) | ||
| Maratino | 1 | ? | North America (Mexico) | No | Uto-Aztecan |
| Naolan | 1 | 1950s | North America (Mexico) | No | |
| Quinigua | 1 | ? | North America (Northeast Mexico) | No | |
| Solano | 1 | 18th century | North America (Texas-Mexico border) | No |
Other language classifications
The classification of languages into families, assumes that all of them develop from a single parent proto-language and evolve over time into different daughter language(s). While the vast majority of tongues fit this description fairly well, there are exceptions. A mixed language often refers to a particular combination of existing ones, which may stem from different families: a pidgin is a simple language used for communication between groups; this may involve simplification and/or mixing of multiple languages. When a pidgin develops into a more stable language which children learn from birth, it is usually called a "creole". Whether for ease of use or created for use in fiction, languages can also be constructed from the ground up, rather than develop from existing ones; these are known as constructed languages.
Sign languages
The family relationships of sign languages are not well established due to a lagging in linguistic research, and many are isolates (cf. Wittmann 1991).[3]
| Family Name | Location | Number of Languages |
|---|---|---|
| French Sign | Europe, the Americas, Francophone Africa, parts of Asia | Over 50 |
| British Sign | United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, South Africa | 4 - 10 |
| Arab Sign | Much of the Arab World | 6 - 10 |
| Japanese Sign | Japan, Korea, Taiwan | 3 |
| German Sign | Germany, Poland, Israel | 3 |
| Swedish Sign | Sweden, Finland, Portugal | 3 |
Beyond these language families, there exist many isolates, including:
Proposed language families
The following is a list of proposed language families, which connect established families into larger genetic groups; support for these proposals varies; the Dené–Yeniseian languages for example, are a recent proposal which has been generally well received, whereas reconstructions of the Proto-World language are often viewed as fringe science; proposals which are themselves based on other proposals have the likelihood of their parts noted in parentheses.
| Proposed name | Description | Mainstream consensus |
|---|---|---|
| Proto-World | reconstructed common ancestor of all living languages | Widely rejected. |
| Amerind | all languages in the Americas which do not belong to the Eskimo–Aleut or Na–Dene families | Widely rejected. |
| Almosan | Algic, Kutenai and Mosan (rejected) | Widely rejected. |
| Mosan | Salishan, Wakashan, and Chimakuan languages of Pacific Northwest North America. | Sprachbund. |
| Aztec–Tanoan | Uto-Aztecan and Tanoan. | Possible. |
| Coahuiltecan | Native languages of modern Texas. | Sprachbund. |
| Gulf | Muskogean with four extinct isolates on US gulf. | Possible. |
| Hokan | A dozen languages on west coast of North America | Some likely, others rejected. |
| Macro-Siouan | Siouan, Iroquoian, Caddoan, and Yuchi. | Controversial. |
| Je–Tupi–Carib | Macro-Jê (likely), Tupian and Cariban of South America. | Possible. |
| Macro-Jê | 11 language families of South America | Some likely, others controversial. |
| Macro-Mayan | Mayan with Totonacan, Mixe–Zoque, and Huave. | Widely rejected. |
| Totozoquean | Totonacan and Mixe–Zoque in Mesoamerica. | Possible. |
| Macro-Panoan | Pano–Takanan (likely) and Moseten–Chonan (likely) | Possible. |
| Mataco–Guaicuru | Matacoan, Guaicuruan, Mascoian, and Charruan of South America | ? |
| Penutian | Some languages in western North America | Controversial. |
| Quechumaran | Quechuan and Aymaran | Controversial. |
| Yuki–Wappo | Yuki and Wappo, both extinct. | Likely. |
| Borean | All families except in sub-Saharan Africa, New Guinea, Australia, and the Andaman Islands. | Widely rejected. |
| Alarodian | Northeast Caucasian with extinct Hurro-Urartian | Controversial. |
| Sino-Austronesian | Sino-Tibetan, Austronesian, and Kra–Dai | Controversial. |
| Austric | Austroasiatic, Austronesian and sometimes others. | Some controversial, others rejected. |
| Austro-Tai | Austronesian and Kra–Dai | Controversial. |
| Miao–Dai | Hmong–Mien and Kra–Dai | ? |
| Austronesian–Ongan | Ongan and Austronesian | Controversial. |
| Dene–Caucasian | Na-Dené, North Caucasian (controversial), Sino-Tibetan, Yeniseian, and others. | Widely rejected. |
| Karasuk | Yeniseian and Burushaski | Controversial. |
| Dene–Yeniseian | Na-Dené and Yeniseian | Possible. |
| Nostratic | Afroasiatic, Kartvelian, Dravidian and Eurasiatic (widely rejected) | Widely rejected. |
| Eurasiatic | Indo-European, Uralic and Altaic | Widely rejected. |
| Indo-Semitic | Indo-European languages and Semitic languages or Afroasiatic languages | Widely rejected. |
| Indo-Uralic | Indo-European and Uralic or Uralic–Yukaghir | Controversial. |
| Ural–Altaic | Uralic and Altaic (widely rejected) | Obsolete; considered a linguistic convergence zone. |
| Altaic | Turkic, Mongolic, Tungusic, Koreanic and Japonic (and possibly Ainu) | Widely rejected; generally considered a Sprachbund. |
| Uralo-Siberian | Uralic, Yukaghir, Eskimo–Aleut and possibly Chukotko-Kamchatkan | Controversial. |
| Uralic–Yukaghir | Uralic and Yukaghir | Controversial. |
| Nivkh–Kamchukotic | Nivkh and Chukotko-Kamchatkan | ? |
| Elamo-Dravidian | Elamite and Dravidian | Widely rejected. |
| Dravido-Korean | Dravidian and Koreanic | Obsolete. |
| Pontic | Northwest Caucasian and Indo-European | Controversial. |
| Ibero-Caucasian | Northwest Caucasian, Northeast Caucasian, and Kartvelian | Controversial. |
| North Caucasian | Northwest Caucasian and Northeast Caucasian | Controversial. |
| Indo-Pacific | Several Pacific families. | Widely rejected. |
| Macro-Pama–Nyungan | Several Australian language families. | Controversial. |
| Kongo–Saharan | Niger–Congo and Nilo-Saharan | Controversial. |
| Nilo-Saharan | Many families of central Africa. | Controversial. |
| Khoisan | African click-consonant languages that do not belong to any other macrophyla. | Widely rejected. |
| Na-Dene (with Haida) | Sapir's proposal. | Controversial. |
| Macro-Chibchan | Lencan, Misumalpan and Chibchan merge into one language family. (Maybe Xincan Family) | ? |
See also
References
- "What are the largest language families?". Ethnologue. May 25, 2019.
- "North Caucasian". Ethnologue. Archived from the original on July 2, 2016. Retrieved July 17, 2016.
- Wittmann, Henri (1991). "Classification linguistique des langues signées non vocalement" (PDF). Revue québécoise de linguistique théorique et appliquée (in French). 10 (1): 215–288.
External links
- Glottolog
- Ethnologue
- MultiTree Project
- Comparative Swadesh list tables of various language families (from Wiktionary)
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