Proto-Trans–New Guinea
Proto-Trans–New Guinea is the reconstructed proto-language ancestral to the Trans–New Guinea languages. Reconstructions have been proposed by Malcolm Ross and Andrew Pawley.
| Proto-Trans–New Guinea | |
|---|---|
| PTNG | |
| Reconstruction of | Trans–New Guinea languages |
| Region | New Guinea Highlands |
| Lower-order reconstructions | |
Phonology
Proto-Trans–New Guinea is reconstructed with a typical simple Papuan inventory: five vowels, /i e a o u/, three phonations of stops at three places, /p t k, b d ɡ, m n ŋ/ (Andrew Pawley reconstructs the voiced series as prenasalized /mb nd ŋɡ/), plus a palatal affricate /dʒ ~ ndʒ/, the fricative /s/, and the approximants /l j w/. Syllables are typically (C)V, with CVC possible at the ends of words. Many of the languages have restricted tone systems.
In the most recent version, Pawley (2018) gives the following consonant inventory for Proto-Trans–New Guinea.[1]:136
Consonants bilabial apical palato-alveolar palatal velar oral stops p t k fricatives s prenasalised obstruents ᵐb ⁿd ᶮʤ ᵑg nasals m n ɲ ŋ laterals l glides w j
The Proto-Trans–New Guinea vowels are reconstructed as having a cross-linguistically frequent five-vowel system:[1]
Pronouns
Ross reconstructs the following pronominal paradigm for Trans–New Guinea, with *a~*i ablaut for singular~non-singular:
I *na we *ni thou *ga you *gi s/he *(y)a, *ua they *i
There is a related but less commonly attested form for 'we', *nu, as well as a *ja for 'you', which Ross speculates may have been a polite form. In addition, there were dual suffixes *-li and *-t, and a plural suffix *-nV, (i.e. n plus a vowel) as well as collective number suffixes *-pi- (dual) and *-m- (plural) that functioned as inclusive we when used in the first person. (Reflexes of the collective suffixes, however, are limited geographically to the central and eastern highlands, and so might not be as old as proto-Trans–New Guinea.)
Morphology
Pawley and Hammarström (2018: 147-148), following Suter (1997),[2] group Madang, Finisterre-Huon, and Kainantu-Goroka together as part of a larger Northeast New Guinea (NENG) group on the basis of morphological evidence, such as mutually reconstructable verbal suffixes that mark subject:
- Proto-Northeast New Guinea subject-marking verbal suffixes
singular dual plural 1st person *-Vn *-u(l,t) *-un, *-i 2nd person *-an *-i(l,t) *-ai, *-i, *-a 3rd person *-a, *-i *-ai
- Comparison of reconstructions of subject-marking verbal suffixes
proto-Northeast New Guinea proto-Madang proto-Finisterre-Huon proto-Kainantu-Goroka proto-Trans–New Guinea (tentative) 1sg *-Vn *-in ? *-u *-Vn 2sg *-an *-an,*-i *-an *-an *-Vn 3sg *-a,*-i *-a,*-an *-a,*-i *-ai,*-i *-a,*-i 1du *-u(l,t) -*-u(l,t) *-u(l,t) *-ur *-u(l,t) 2/3du *-i(l,t) *-i(l,t) *-i(l,t) ? *-i(l,t) 1pl *-un,*-i *-un *-un *-un 2/3pl *-ai,*-i,*-a *-ai,*-i *-e,*-i *-a
Lexicon
Lexical words, such as *niman 'louse', may also be reconstructed:
- Reflexes of *niman 'louse', which attest to an intermediate *iman in the east:
- Chimbu: Middle Wahgi numan
- Engan: Enga & Kewa lema
- Finisterre–Huon: Kâte imeŋ, Selepet imen
- Gogodala mi
- Kainantu–Goroka: Awa nu, Tairora nume, Fore numaa, Gende (tu)nima
- S. Kiwai nimo
- Koiarian: Managalasi uma
- Kolopom: Kimaghana & Riantana nome
- Kwale nomone
- Madang: Kalam yman, Dumpu (Rai Coast) im, Sirva (Adelbert) iima
- Mek: Kosarek ami
- Moraori nemeŋk
- Paniai Lakes: Ekari yame (metathesis?)
- Timor–Alor–Pantar: West Pantar (h)amiŋ, Oirata amin (metathesis?)
- Wiru nomo
- Questionable branches:
- Pauwasi: Yafi yemar
- C. Sentani mi
The Proto-Trans–New Guinea negative is reconstructed as *ma- (Pawley and Hammarström 2018). Negatives in Trans–New Guinea languages usually have either an mV- or nV- form.[1]
Reconstructions
The following Proto-Trans New Guinea reconstructions are from Andrew Pawley and Harald Hammarström (2018).[1]:141–146
| body parts | |
| arm, forearm | *mbena |
| belly, internal organs | *mundun |
| blood | *ke(nj,s)a |
| bone | *kondaC |
| brain | *muk[V] |
| breast | *amu |
| buttocks | *simbi + modifier |
| cheek | *mVkVm |
| claw, hand | *sikal or *sakil |
| ear | *kand(i,e)k[V] |
| excrement 1 | [same as 'guts'] |
| excrement 2 | *ata |
| eye 1 (cf. egg 2) | *(ŋg,k)iti-maŋgV |
| eye 2 | *ŋg(a,u)mu |
| eye 3 | *nVpV |
| fingernail | *(mb,p)(i,u)t(iu)C |
| foot, lower leg | *k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C] |
| forehead, head | *mVtVna |
| guts, intestines, bowels | *sim(i,u), *simbi |
| hair 1 | *(nd,s)umu(n,t)[V] |
| hair 2, leaf | *iti |
| head 1 | *kV(mb,p)utu |
| head 2 | *mVtVna |
| heart 1 (cf. belly, egg 2) | *mundu-maŋgV |
| heart 2 | *simu |
| heart 3 | *kamu |
| knee | *(ŋg,k)atuk |
| leg 1 | *k(a,o)nd(a,o)[C] |
| leg 2, calf | *kitu |
| liver | *[ma]pVn |
| milk, sap | *muk |
| mouth, teeth | *maŋgat[a] |
| navel | *simu + modifier |
| neck 1 | *k(a,e)(nd,t)ak |
| neck 2, nape, side of | *kuma(n,ŋ)[V] |
| nose | *mundu |
| penis | *mo |
| saliva | *si(mb,p)at[V] |
| shoulder | *kinV |
| skin | *(ŋg,k)a(nd,t)apu |
| testicles | *walaka |
| tongue 1 | *mbilaŋ |
| tongue 2 | *me(l,n)e |
| tooth 1 | (see mouth) |
| tooth 2 | *titi |
| urine | *[si]si, *siti, *pisi |
| kin terms | |
| brother, older | *[mb]amba |
| father | *apa, *mbapa |
| grandparent | *apus[i] |
| husband, man | *ambi |
| mother, free form | *am(a,i,u) |
| mother, bound form | *na- |
| sibling, older | *nan(a,i) |
| sibling, older same sex | *[mb]amba |
| sister | *aya |
| age-gender and other social categories | |
| baby | *ŋaŋa |
| boy | *nV |
| man, husband | *ambi |
| orphan, widow & child | *mbeŋga-masi |
| woman, female | *panV |
| birds, bird parts | |
| bird 1 | *n[e]i |
| bird 2 | *yaka[i] |
| cassowary | *ku[y]a |
| egg 1 | *mun(a,e,i)ka |
| egg 2, fruit, seed | *maŋgV |
| tail | *a(mb,m)u |
| wing | *mbutu |
| insects | |
| butterfly | *apa[pa]ta |
| fly | *ŋgambu |
| louse | *niman, *iman |
| mosquito | *kasin |
| plants, plant parts | |
| bark | *ka(nd,t)ap[u] |
| casuarina | *kal(a,i)pV |
| fruit, seed (cf. egg 2) | *maŋgV |
| leaf 1, hair | *iti |
| leaf 2 | *sasak |
| root | *kindil |
| sap, milk | *muk |
| taro | *mV |
| tree, wood | *inda |
| inanimate world | |
| ashes 1 | *sumbu |
| ashes 2 | *kambu-sumbu |
| ashes 3 | *la(ŋg,k)a |
| cloud 1, sky | *samb[V] |
| cloud 2 | *ka(mb,p)utu |
| fire 1 | *k(a,o)nd(a,u)p |
| fire 2 | *inda |
| fire 3 | *kambu |
| flame | *mbalaŋ |
| ground 1 | *man[a] |
| ground 2 | *maka[n] |
| lightning, light | *(mb,m)elak |
| moon 1 | *takVn[V] |
| moon 2 | *kal(a,i)m |
| morning | *k(i,u)tuma + X |
| night | *k(i,u)tuma |
| sand | *sa(ŋg,k)asiŋ |
| sky 1, cloud | *samb[V] |
| thunder, sky 2 | *kumut, *tumuk |
| smoke 1 | *kambu(s,t)(a,u) |
| smoke 2 | *kambu-la(ŋg,k)a |
| stone 1 | *kamb(a,u)na |
| stone 2 | *[na]muna |
| sun 1 | *kamali |
| sun 2 | *ketane |
| water 1 | *ok[V] |
| water 2 | *nok |
| wind 1 | *kumbutu |
| wind 2, breeze | *pinVm |
| artefacts | |
| axe | *tu |
| fence | *wati |
| netbag 1 | *kun |
| netbag 2 | *at(i,u) |
| string, rope | *asi |
| intangible cultural concepts | |
| instructions, language, word, speech | *mana |
| mind, thought | *n(o,u)man |
| name 1 | *imbi |
| name 2, who | *wani |
| shadow, spirit | *k(aw,o)nan |
| song, type of | *saŋ |
| witchcraft | *kum |
| independent pronouns (for subject, object, possessor) | |
| 1 singular | *na |
| 2 singular | *ŋga |
| 3 singular | *ya |
| 3 singular | *wa |
| 1 plural | *ni, *nu |
| 1 plural | *ni |
| 2 plural | *ŋgi, *ki |
| 1 dual | *niLi, *nuLi |
| 2 dual | *ŋgiLi, *kiLi |
| 3 dual | *iLi |
| verbal suffixes marking person-number of subject | |
| 1 singular | *-Vn |
| 2 singular | *-an |
| 1 dual | *-uL |
| 2/3 dual | *-iL |
| 1 plural | *-un |
| 1 singular different subject | *-pa |
| verbs | |
| be (live, stay, sit) | *mVna- |
| bite | *s(i,u)- |
| blow | *pu + verb |
| break | *pa(ŋg,k)- |
| burn | *nd(a,e,i)- |
| burn, light a fire | *ki- |
| carry (on back, shoulder) | *kak(i,u)- |
| come | *me- |
| cook | *andu- |
| cut, chop | *tVk- |
| die | *kumV- |
| do, make | *ti- |
| dream | *kina(mb,p)- |
| eat, drink | *na- |
| fly, flutter | *putu(putu)- |
| give | *mV- |
| go 1 | *pu- |
| go 2 | *yata- |
| hit | *tu- |
| know, hear, see | *nVŋg- |
| laugh | *ŋgiti (+ verb) |
| live, be, sit | see 'be' |
| put | *(m,p)a(l,t)V- |
| say, speak | *nde- |
| see, know, perceive | *nVŋg- |
| shoot | *tVmV- |
| sleep 1, lie down | *kin(i,u)[m] |
| sleep 2 | *p(e,i)t(e,i)o- |
| speak, talk | *nde- |
| spit | *kasipa- |
| stand | *t(a,e,i)k[V]- |
| swell | *su + verb |
| take | *(nd,t)a- |
| tie | *ndiŋga-, *ndaŋgi |
| turn (oneself) | *mbuli[ki] + verb |
| urinate | *X + *si- (urine + verb) |
| vomit | *mVŋ[g]V ti- |
| adjectives | |
| blue | *muk[V] |
| cold | *kukam(o,u) |
| dry | *ŋgatata |
| full | *t(o,u)k(i,u) ti- |
| heavy | *kenda |
| long | *k(o,u)t(u,i)p |
| new | *kVtak |
| short | *tumba |
| straight | *tutu[tu]ku |
| conjunctions | |
| and | *ito |
| negatives | |
| not | *ma- (+ verb) |
| numerals | |
| two | *ta(l,t)(a,e) |
See also
- List of Proto-Trans-New Guinea reconstructions (Wiktionary)
- Synchronic reflexes
- Madang languages#Evolution
- Finisterre–Huon languages#Evolution
- Kainantu–Goroka languages#Evolution
- Engan languages#Evolution
- Chimbu–Wahgi languages#Evolution
- East Strickland languages#Evolution
- Greater Awyu languages#Evolution
- Asmat–Kamrau languages#Evolution
- Asmat language#Evolution
- Ok languages#Evolution
- Marind–Yaqai languages#Evolution
- Paniai Lakes languages#Evolution
- Dani languages#Evolution
- Mek languages#Evolution
- Wiru language#Evolution
- Duna–Pogaya languages#Evolution
- Kutubuan languages#Evolution
- Kiwaian languages#Evolution
- Tirio languages#Evolution
- Awin–Pa–Kamula languages#Evolution
- Kolopom languages#Evolution
- Morori language#Evolution
- Gogodala–Suki languages#Evolution
- Inland Gulf languages#Evolution
- Greater Binanderean languages#Evolution
- Mailuan languages#Evolution
- Dagan languages#Evolution
- Goilalan languages#Evolution
- Koiarian languages#Evolution
- Kwalean languages#Evolution
- Yareban languages#Evolution
- Manubaran languages#Evolution
- Timor–Alor–Pantar languages#Evolution
References
- Pawley, Andrew; Hammarström, Harald (2018). "The Trans New Guinea family". In Palmer, Bill (ed.). The Languages and Linguistics of the New Guinea Area: A Comprehensive Guide. The World of Linguistics. 4. Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. pp. 21–196. ISBN 978-3-11-028642-7.
- Suter, Edgar. 1997. A comparative look at the dual and plural forms of inflections and pronouns in Northeast New Guinea. Languages and Linguistics in Melanesia 28: 17–68.
Bibliography
- Pawley, Andrew (1998). "The Trans New Guinea Phylum hypothesis: A reassessment". In Jelle Miedema; Cecilia Odé; Rien A.C. Dam (eds.). Perspectives on the Bird's Head of Irian Jaya, Indonesia. Amsterdam: Rodopi. pp. 655–90. ISBN 978-90-420-0644-7. OCLC 41025250.
- Pawley, Andrew (2005). "The chequered career of the Trans New Guinea hypothesis: recent research and its implications". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 67–107. ISBN 0-85883-562-2. OCLC 67292782.
- Ross, Malcolm (2005). "Pronouns as a preliminary diagnostic for grouping Papuan languages". In Andrew Pawley; Robert Attenborough; Robin Hide; Jack Golson (eds.). Papuan pasts: cultural, linguistic and biological histories of Papuan-speaking peoples. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics. pp. 15–66. ISBN 0858835622. OCLC 67292782.
- Wurm, Stephen A., ed. (1975). Papuan languages and the New Guinea linguistic scene: New Guinea area languages and language study 1. Canberra: Dept. of Linguistics, Research School of Pacific Studies, Australian National University. OCLC 37096514.CS1 maint: extra text: authors list (link)
Further reading
- Ross, Malcolm. 2014. Proto-Trans-New-Guinea. TransNewGuinea.org.