Cross River languages
The Cross River or Delta–Cross languages are a branch of the Benue–Congo language family spoken in south-easternmost Nigeria, with some speakers in south-westernmost Cameroon. The branch was first formulated by Joseph Greenberg; it is one of the few of his branches of Niger–Congo that has withstood the test of time.
| Cross River | |
|---|---|
| Delta–Cross | |
| Geographic distribution | Southeastern Nigeria (Cross River, Akwa Ibom, Rivers, Bayelsa States); southwestern Cameroon |
| Linguistic classification | Niger–Congo
|
| Subdivisions |
|
| Glottolog | delt1251[1] |
 The Cross River languages shown within Nigeria and Cameroon:
| |
Greenberg's Cross River family originally included the Bendi languages. The Bendi languages were soon seen to be very different and thus were made a separate branch of Cross River, while the other languages were united under the branch Delta–Cross. However, the inclusion of Bendi in Cross River at all is doubtful, and it has been tentatively reassigned to the Southern Bantoid family, making the terms Cross River and Delta–Cross now synonymous.
Languages
There are four primary branches of Cross River:
- Central Delta, 8 languages, the most populous being Ogbia with 100,000 speakers
- Ogoni, 5 languages, with Ogoni proper (Khana) having 200,000 speakers
- Upper Cross River, 22 languages, the most populous being Lokaa with 120,000 speakers
- Lower Cross River, 23 languages, including Efik (3.5 million speakers)
Branches and locations
Below is a list of major Cross River branches and their primary locations (centres of diversity) in southeast Nigeria based on Blench (2019).[2]
| Branch | Primary locations |
|---|---|
| Upper Cross River | Obubra and Akamkpa LGAs, Rivers State |
| Lower Cross River | Akwa Ibom State |
| Ogoni | Gokana, Tai, and Eleme LGAs, Rivers State |
| Central Delta | Ahoada LGA, Rivers State and Brass LGA, Bayelsa State |
Internal classification
Roger Blench (2008: 4)[3] classifies the Cross River languages as follows.
- Cross River
- ? Bendi (Yakoro, Bendi, Alege, Bumaji, Bokyi, etc.)
- Delta-Cross
- Upper Cross
- Core
- North-South (Koring, Kukele, Kohumono, Agwagwune, etc.)
- East-West (Ikom, Mbembe, Legbo, etc.)
- Ukpet-Ehom
- Agoi, Doko, Iyongiyong
- Kiong, Korop
- Core
- Lower Cross
- East (Efik, Ibibio, Anaang, Efiat, etc.)
- Central (Enwang, Uda)
- West (Ebughu, Oro, Usakade, Obolo, etc.)
- Ogoni
- Eleme; Baan (Ogoi)
- Gokana; Tẹẹ (Tai); Kana
- Central Delta
- Abuan, Odual
- Kugbo, Ogbia, etc.
- Upper Cross
Although Blench (2004) tentatively included the Bendi languages as possibly being a Cross River outlier branch, the Bendi languages are generally classified as Southern Bantoid.
Numerals
Comparison of numerals in individual languages:[4]
| Classification | Language | 1 | 2 | 3 | 4 | 5 | 6 | 7 | 8 | 9 | 10 |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| Upper Cross, Kiong-Korop | Korop | bú-ní | búwán | bú-nàːn | bù-này | búnɛ̀ŋ | kàsákàsá | búnáy ná búnâːn (4 + 3) | cáŋá cáŋá náy (2 x 4) | búnɛ̀ŋ nà bùnày (5 + 4) | dyô / díò |
| Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Loko | Lokaa | wàná | yàpòó | yàtélé | yànàá | yàtə́ə́n | yàtə́ə́n-wàná (5 + 1) | yàtə́ə́n-yàpòó (5 + 2) | yàtə́ə́n-yàtélé (5 + 3) | yàtə́ə́n-yànàá (5 + 4) | jòó |
| Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Mbembe-Legbo, Mbembe | Leggbo | wɔ̀ni | àfɔŋ | àtt̩an | ànnaŋ | àzen | àzen à wɔ̀ni (5 + 1) | àze à fɔ̀ŋ (5 + 2) | àze à ttan (5 + 3) | àze à nnaŋ (5 + 4) | d͡zɔ |
| Upper Cross, Central, East-West, Mbembe-Legbo, Mbembe | Mbembe (Cross River) | wànɔ́ | m̩̀fà | ǹt̩áːn | ǹnà / ǹnébùŋ | ǹt͡ʃén | ǹt͡ʃádànɛ̀ (5 + 1) | ót͡ʃénɔ́m̩fà (5 + 2) | ót͡ʃénɔ́ntáːn (5 + 3) | ósówánɛ̀ (10 - 1) | ìd͡ʒòβ̚ |
| Upper Cross, Central, North-South, Koring-Kukele, Koring | Utɔnkɔn (Oring) (1) | ɡʷã | ífã | ítʃã | íná | kuɡbɔ | bránà | ínámeté | ínámíná | ɔsɛlɛ | dʒɔp |
| Upper Cross, Central, North-South, Koring-Kukele, Koring | Koring (Oring) (2) | ɡúŋ | éɸā | èkíà | èná | kòbúò | búránē | bùréɸā (5+ 2 ?) | bùàsà | rèɸèdʒí | zɔbɔ |
| Upper Cross, Central, North-South, Koring-Kukele, Koring | Utɔnkɔn (Oring) | ɡʷã | ífã | ítʃã | íná | kuɡbɔ | bránà | ínámeté | ínámíná | ɔsɛlɛ | dʒɔp |
| Upper Cross, Central, North-South, Koring-Kukele, Kukele | Kukele | vɔn | ifa | ikʲaat | ina | kubʷɔɔk | bʷɔlaaniŋ | inamikʲaat (4 + 3 ?) | inamina (4 + 4 ?) | ɔsɛlɛ zɔɔp (? 10) | zɔɔp |
| Upper Cross, Central, North-South, Ubaghara-Kohumono, Kohumono | Agwagwune | dʒɛ́ŋ̀ | ífâ | ítàt | ínâ | ʊ̀βɔ̀k | ʊ̀βàɣáɡɔ́ŋ̀ (5 + 1) | ʊ̀βàɣífâa (5 + 2) | ʊ̀βàɣítàt (5 + 3) | ʊ̀βìɣédʒɔ̀m (10 -1) | dʒɔ̀p |
| Lower Cross, Obolo | Obolo | ɡê | íbà | ítá | ínî | ɡò | ɡʷèrèɡʷèn | d͡ʒààbà (5+ 2) ? | d͡ʒèètá (5+ 3) ? | ónáánɡê (10 -1) ? | àkɔ̀p̚ |
| Lower Cross, Obolo, Ebughu | Ebughu | sɪ̀ŋ | ìbà | ìtɛ́ | ìnìàŋ | ìtîŋ | ìtíŋízìŋ | ìtíŋábà (4 + 3) | ìdɪ́ńátɛ́ (2 x 4) | ìtíŋáníàŋ (5 + 4) | lùɡò |
| Lower Cross, Obolo, Efai | Efai | sɪ̀ŋ | ìbà | ìtɛ́ | ìnìàŋ | ìtîŋ | ìtíɡɛ̀sìŋ (5 + 1) | ìtáŋìbà (5 + 2) | ìtɔ́ŋ ìtɛ́ (2 x 4) | ùsúksìŋ (10 - 1) | dùɡù |
| Lower Cross, Obolo, Enwang-Uda | Uda | sìn | ìbà | ìtɛ́ | ìnìàŋ | ìtîŋ | ìtíŋésìn (5 + 1) | ìtáŋ ábà (5 + 2) | ìtáŋáǃtɛ́ (2 x 4) | ùsúksìn (10 - 1) | lùɡù |
| Lower Cross, Obolo, Oro | Oro | ki | íbà | íté | ínîaŋ | ítiŋ | itiŋoŋki (5+ 1) | itiŋaba (5+ 2) | itiŋate (5+ 3) | itiŋaniaŋ (5+ 4) | luɡhu or luhu |
| Lower Cross, Obolo, Usaghade | Usakade | tʃɛ̀n | m̀bà | ǹtá | ǹnìɔ̀ŋ | ǹtʃôn | ǹtʃéékɛ̀n (5 + 1) | ǹtʃám̀bà (5 + 2) | ǹtʃáńǃtá (5 + 3) | ǹtʃáǹnìàŋ (5 + 4) | nùòp |
| Lower Cross, Obolo, Efik | Anaang | keèd | ìbà | ìtá | ìnàaŋ | ìtièn | ìtiêkeèd (5+ 1) | ìtiâbà (5+ 2) | ìtíâita (5+ 3) | ánànkeèd / ùsʉ́k-kèed | dùòb |
| Lower Cross, Obolo, Efik | Efik | kíét | íbá | ítá | ínáŋ | ítíón | ítíókíét < ítíón yé kíét (5+ 1) | ítíábá < ítíón yé íbá (5+ 2) | ítíáitá < ítíón yé ítá (5+ 3) | úsúk-kíét (litː ten less one) | dúóp |
| Lower Cross, Obolo, Efik | Ibibio | kèèd | ìbà | ìtá | ìnàŋ | ìtíòn | ìtíòkèèd (5+ 1) | ìtíàbà (5+ 2) | ìtià-ìtá (5+ 3) | ùsúkèèd (10 - 1) ? | dùòp |
| Lower Cross, Obolo, Efik | Ukwa | kìɛ̀t | ìbà | ìtá | ìnàŋ | ìtʃìn | ìtíékìɛ̀t (5 + 1) | ìtíábà (5 + 2) | ìtíá íǃtá (2 x 4) | ùsók kìɛ̀t (10 - 1) | dùòp |
| Ogoni | Gokana | ɛ̃̀nɛ̃ | bàà | taa | ténì / tã́nĩ̀ | vòò | ɔ̀ɔ̀lɛ̀ | àlàbà / àràbà | aatáá /aàtaa | síìna òb (10 - 1) | òb |
| Ogoni | Khana (Kana) | zĩ̀ĩ̀ | bàɛ̀ | tàā | nìà | òʔòò | ìnìʔĩ̀ | ɛ̀rɛ̀-bà (5+ 2) | ɛ̀rɛ̀-tàā (5+ 3) | ɛ̀rɛ̀-nìà (5+ 4) | lòb |
| Ogoni, West | Eleme | ǹnɛ | ɔ̀bɛrɛ | ɔ̀taa | ɛ̀táale | èwò | ɛ̀ʔɔ̀rɔ̀ | àʔàràbà | àʔaataa | èsiraʔò (10 - 1) | àʔò |
| Central Delta | Ogbia | onin | ɛwal | ɛsar | iɲə | ɔwʊ | odin | oɗuən | ɛɲa / ɛβɪβɪɛɲa | ɛsuwo | iɗioβ |
| Central Delta | Ogbronuagum (Bukuma) | òníní | ɪ̀jàːlʊ̀ | nɪ̀ːrà | ɪ̀ːɲɔ̀ | ɲòːwò | nòdì | nùɗjòù | nɔ́ɓɛ́nâ | nèsùò | kúɗjòù |
| Central Delta, Abua-Odual | Abuan | òníìn | ɪ̀yàl | ɪ̀ráar | ɪ̀ɲà | òoɣ | òdiiɲ | òɗùal | òβàaɲâ | ésúɣá | ɗɪ̀oβ |
| Central Delta, Abua-Odual | Odual | oɲiín | ɪ́záal | ɪ́ráar | ɪ́ɲə́ə | ə́ə́əɣ | ódííǹ | óɗúə́əl | aβɪɲá | ésúɣó | ɗɪ́ə́əβ |
See also
- Cross River (Nigeria), the namesake of the language group
References
- Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Delta Cross". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
- Blench, Roger (2019). An Atlas of Nigerian Languages (4th ed.). Cambridge: Kay Williamson Educational Foundation.
- Blench, Roger. 2008. The Ogoni languages: comparative word list and historical reconstructions.
- Chan, Eugene (2019). "The Niger-Congo Language Phylum". Numeral Systems of the World's Languages.
External links
- ComparaLex, database with Cross River word lists
- Journal of West African Languages: Cross River Languages
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