Military history of the Three Kingdoms

Timelapse of the Three Kingdoms period.

The military history of the Three Kingdoms period encompasses roughly a century's worth of prolonged warfare and disorder. After the assassination of General-in-chief He Jin in September 189, the administrative structures of the Han government became increasingly irrelevant. By the death of Cao Cao, the most successful warlord of North China, in 220, the Han empire was divided between the three rival states of Cao Wei, Shu Han and Eastern Wu. Due to the ensuing turmoil, the competing powers of the Three Kingdoms era found no shortage of willing recruits for their armies, although press-ganging as well as forcible enlistment of prisoners from defeated armies still occurred. Following four centuries of rule under the Han dynasty, the Three Kingdoms brought about a new era of conflict in China that shifted institutions in favor of a more permanent and selective system of military recruitment. This ultimately included the creation of a hereditary military class as well as increasing reliance on non-Chinese cavalry forces and the end of universal conscription.

Organization

Battering ram of the Three Kingdoms
Three Kingdoms arrowheads
Three Kingdoms and Jin shieldbearers
Three Kingdoms dao
Three Kingdoms caltrops and spearhead

Recruitment and organization

As the Han dynasty fell into disarray after the Yellow Turban Rebellion, its system of conscription and checks on military leadership broke down, giving local leaders the autonomy to recruit their own personal armies. At the heart of each army was a group of trusted Companions (親近 qinjin) consisting of family members, close friends and clansmen hired by whatever means was available to their lord. Cao Cao's earliest commanders who formed the nucleus of his army were all clansmen (Cao Xiu, Cao Zhen, Cao Chun). There was no need for conscription as the conflicts of the late Han dynasty created willing recruits who sought protection under a strong army. This type of soldier, characterized by a lack of loyalty to state or nation, primarily concerned with survival, made up the majority of the army outside of the leader's close following.[1][2] Due to the lack of loyalty among common troops, acts of heroism and courage were particularly emphasized among commanders who were expected to lead from the front. A typical example of this type of commander would be Dian Wei, a former local bully noted for his great strength, appetite, and his choice of weaponry, two halberds of immense weight, who served under Cao Cao. In 195, he personally led a group of volunteers clad in double armour (兩鎧 liang kai) against Lü Bu's forces while his liege made his escape. He was promoted to colonel of the bodyguard unit known as the Tiger Warriors and later met his death against Zhang Xiu in 197.[3][4] While echoes of Han organization continued through the formal titles of military structure, in effect the wars of the Three Kingdoms were fought between armies of bands led by individuals selected by dint of violence and charisma.[5]

Training

Training programs for the general populace were discontinued after 30 AD to reduce the risk of rebellion. Except for the professional Northern Army and garrisons on the northern frontier, which together amounted to some 15,000 men, local militias received no formal training or regular exercise.[6] This had a negative impact on the performance of the Han army, as noted by Ying Shao, who remarked that "sending [such] men into battle without training is just throwing them away".[7] The majority of soldiers recruited during the early stages of the Three Kingdoms period were thus "neither disciplined nor well trained in the use of arms".[8] Formations and drill still existed, but these were the exceptions rather than the norm, and there is no evidence of troops engaging in a regular training system or large scale exercises.[9] Most commanders favored simple rather than complex formations and maneuvers. An example of a formation that did exist is Zhuge Liang's Eight Formation Plan, which included different configurations named after Heaven, Earth, Wind, and Clouds. It's not clear what these designations mean, but the Eight Formation Plan was traditionally a square formation composed of nine divisions in three sections.[10] The lack of training severely constrained the kind of orders a commander could give for his troops to follow. As a consequence of the limited tactical flexibility at their disposal, the majority of battles were carried out in one of two ways: a head on charge by elite shock troops followed by the loosely organized army of incoherent and disparately trained and equipped soldiers, or ambush and surprise the enemy before they could even respond and cause them to route.[11]

Yuan Shao moved to attack Gongsun Zan and the two sides met in battle twenty li south of Jie Bridge. Gongsun Zan had thirty thousand foot soldiers in square formation and ten thousand horsemen split into left and right wings. His White Cavalry Volunteers followed in the center. They split in two, the left riding right, and the right riding left. Their armour and flags shined with brilliance, lighting up heaven and earth. Yuan Shao sent Qu Yi against them with eight hundred soldiers while a thousand crossbowmen on either side supported his advance. Yuan Shao himself led tens of thousands of soldiers from the rear. Qu Yi had resided in Liangzhou for a long time and was familiar with the way of war as practiced by the Qiang tribes. Seeing Qu Yi's small force, Gongsun Zan sent cavalry to crush them. Qu Yi's troops hid behind their shields and made no move until the enemy were ten or twenty yards away; then they leapt up together, their cries shaking the ground, rushing forward with crossbows shooting bolts like thunder, killing all who were struck, and completely defeated Gongsun Zan's army...... killing more than a thousand armed men, Yuan Shao's troops maintained their pursuit to Jie Bridge. Gongsun Zan rallied his troops to turn and fight, but Qu Yi again defeated them. Reaching Gongsun Zan's camp, they captured his standard and the rest of his army took to flight.[12]

— Sanguo Zhi

The training that the privileged elite received was far greater in extent compared to that of the common soldier. For example, Cao Cao's son, Cao Pi, started his military education in early childhood. He began training in archery at the age of five, started learning how to ride a horse at the age of six, and could both ride and shoot a target at a hundred paces by the time he was eight.[13] Horse archery was also practiced in Shu Han, which fielded a "Flying Army" of mounted archers.[14]

Hereditary troops

In contrast to the military hierarchy of the Han dynasty, leadership of a unit in the Three Kingdoms was functionally hereditary as long as the successor was loyal to his liege and proved militarily competent. When the commander died, a male member of his family inherited control of his troops, and when a soldier died one of his male relatives inherited his position in the unit. By the end of the Three Kingdoms, the term buqu (部曲) had come to designate the institution of hereditary military leadership. Both bu and qu, meaning battalions and companies, were originally units of military organization during the Han. Under Cao Cao, a more systematic form of hereditary soldiery was implemented through "military families" (士家 shijia) which later became "hereditary troops" (世兵 shibing). As their name implies, able male members born into military families served for life, and when they could no longer serve because of illness or death, their sons or close family members replaced them. Their families lived at the capital and other major centers where they could be used by the government as hostages to ensure the loyalty of their soldiers. They were also forbidden from marrying into non-military families in order to prevent their offspring from exiting the system, thus creating a closed community of military households. Although commoners could still be called up in times of urgent need, the rise of government mandated military communities under Cao Wei and the demobilization of local levies under the Jin dynasty, had by and large, replaced the universal conscription of the Han.[15]

Tuntian

Tuntian, often rendered as "[military] agricultural colonies," were self-sustaining farming communities created for the purpose of providing food for the military. Generally consisting of displaced peoples, refugees, and bandits, tenants of a tuntian were expected to protect themselves in times of emergencies and in return were exempt from corvée labour. Unlike the tuntian system of the Han dynasty, which was generally hands off, the tuntian policy of the Three Kingdoms era was to directly provide them with supplies and material assistance. The policy of tuntian was implemented primarily by Cao Cao, Tao Qian, and Gongsun Zan.[16]

Equipment

Three Kingdoms arrow mould

Armies of the Three Kingdoms era used largely the same equipment as the Han dynasty since it directly follows the end of the Han. There were however some minor differences and developments such as the increasing prevalence of armoured cavalry. In one battle, the warlord Cao Cao boasted that with only ten sets of horse armour he had faced an enemy with three hundred sets.[17] The horse armour may however have just been partial frontal barding.[14] Mounting stirrups were already in use, possibly as early as the Han dynasty, but full riding stirrups would not appear until the 4th century.[18] References to "dark armour" (xuan kai or xuan jia 玄鎧/玄甲) also began to appear in the 3rd century. This is probably in reference to the association of high quality steel with black ferrous material.[19]

Weapons were largely the same as well, although there was more focus on idiosyncratic weapons wielded by particularly noteworthy individuals. For example, one man named Chen An apparently wielded a great sword over two meters in length[20] and Sun Quan's wife had over a hundred female attendants armed with daos.[21] Trends in warfare that had already been underway during the Eastern Han continued to gain momentum. By the end of the Three Kingdoms, the single edged dao, with its thicker and more durable dull side, had completely overtaken the straight double-edged jian as the primary close combat weapon.[22] The lighter and less durable jian entered the domain of court dancers, officials, and expert warriors.[23] The halberd was also abandoned for the spear by both infantry and cavalry forces because of the halberd's greater weight and more complex construction.[22][24] Soldiers in the northeast specialized in long spears.[25] After the Han dynasty, the crossbow gradually faded in importance until it made a mild resurgence during the Tang dynasty, under which the ideal expeditionary army of 20,000 included 2,200 archers and 2,000 crossbowmen.[26]

Chinese sources don't explicitly reference the use of a shield wall tactic or the testudo, but there do exist references to "great shields" which were used on the front line to protect spearmen and crossbowmen. Shields were also commonly paired with the single edged dao and used among cavalrymen.[27] Descriptions of the Battle of Guandu mention that Cao Cao's soldiers employed shield cover above their heads each time they moved out into the open due to oppressive arrow fire from Yuan Shao's wooden towers.[28]

Although Zhuge Liang is often credited with the invention of the repeating crossbow, this is actually due to a mistranslation confusing it with the multiple bolt crossbow. The source actually says Zhuge invented a multiple bolt crossbow that could shoot ten iron bolts simultaneously, each 20 cm long.[29]

Wheel catapult

Ma Jun, a military engineer serving under Cao Wei, devised a siege weapon which threw large stones using a wheel. This device consisted of a drum wheel attached with a curved knife. When rotated, the stones which hung on the wheel would be cut loose by the knife and launched. It's not clear how well this device worked in practice. Successful tests with roof tiles instead of stones are mentioned, but according to Liang Jieming, this contraption never made it past the testing phase and could not have been possible with the technology available at the time.[29]

Special weapons

The historical novel Romance of the Three Kingdoms attributes a number of fictional weapons, often with special names, to certain individuals. Examples include Liu Bei's "Paired Jian", Guan Yu's "Green Dragon Cresent Blade", Zhang Fei's "Eighteen chi Serpent Lance", Zhao Yun's "Qinggang Jian", Cao Cao's "Sword of Heaven", Sun Jian's "Guding Dao", Cheng Pu's "Ironspine Serpent Lance", and Lü Bu's "Fangtianhua Ji", otherwise known as the "Sky Piercer" or "Sky Piercing Halberd". While these are completely fictional, the Records of the Three Kingdoms do mention weapons unique to individuals on at least two occasions: Dian Wei's double halberd which weighed 20 kg[30] and Gongsun Zan's two-bladed spear.[31]

Single combat

Daos from the Three Kingdoms period

The Records of the Three Kingdoms and Annotations to Records of the Three Kingdoms contain two instances of single combat between generals. In 192, after Dong Zhuo had been murdered, Li Jue and Guo Si formed an army to oust Wang Yun and Lü Bu from Chang'an. When Guo Si approached the city from the north, Lü Bu opened the gate and offered to settle the matter by single combat. Guo Si agreed and engaged with Lü Bu, who pierced Guo Si with his lance. Guo Si's men came forth, saving their general, and both sides withdrew.[32] Another instance of individual combat occurred between Taishi Ci, then serving under Liu Yao, and Sun Ce. Taishi Ci was on a mission accompanied by only a single horseman when he met Sun Ce, who had 13 other men with him. Taishi Ci charged at Sun Ce and the two sides clashed in single combat. Sun Ce pierced Taishi's horse and managed to grab hold of his halberd while Taishi removed Sun's helmet. When their respective reinforcements showed up, they disengaged and the duel came to an end.[33]

Combat between generals and officers during battle is also mentioned by the Records. In 197 Yan Xing, an officer of Han Sui, engaged with Ma Chao and nearly killed him when his spear broke and pierced Ma Chao's neck.[34] In 200 Yan Liang, a general of Yuan Shao, was slain by Guan Yu, then serving under Cao Cao, during the Battle of Boma.[35][36] In 214 Zhang Liao charged Sun Quan's army with only 800 men and reportedly killed ten soldiers and two officers. He then broke through the enemy ramparts and challenged Sun Quan to a duel, to which he declined.[37]

Three Kingdoms

Wei shieldbearer
Three Kingdoms crossbow trigger
Jin iron daos

Cao Wei

Cao Wei was founded by Cao Pi in 220 and was usurped by Sima Yan's Jin dynasty in 266.

Cao Cao

Cao Cao was the son of Cao Song, who was originally a Xiahou but took the name of Cao as the foster child of the eunuch Cao Teng. During his childhood Cao Cao studied the Art of War and was fond of hawking and hunting with dogs. He was also considered a troublemaker and local thug in his town. Xu Shao foretold that Cao Cao would be "a good servant in time of peace, a dangerous chieftain in time of trouble".[38]

In the 170s Cao Cao became a chief of police in Luoyang and made a name for himself as a strict enforcer of the law. He was eventually implicated and dismissed from his post in 178.[38]

Cao Cao took part in suppressing the Yellow Turban rebellion in 184 as a Commandant of Cavalry. He was then appointed Chancellor of Ji'nan Commandery, where he set about removing officials under the influence of the imperial family. Cao Cao became afraid of the enemies he had made at court so he left his post.[38]

In 188 Cao Cao became a colonel of the Western Garden. When Dong Zhuo seized power in 189, Cao Cao fled to Chenliu Commandery, where he sold his family estates and raised troops to join Yuan Shao and the Campaign against Dong Zhuo. Irritated by Yuan Shao's lack of action, Cao Cao advanced into He'nan Commandery only to suffer defeat at the Battle of Xingyang.[39]

Cao Cao raised more troops in Yang Province. In 191 he became Administrator of Dong Commandery for defeating the bandit chieftain Bo Rao. When Liu Dai, the Inspector of Yan Province, died in 192 while dealing with the Yellow Turbans from Qing Province, Cao Cao succeeded him. By the end of the year Cao Cao had negotiated the surrender of the rebels, who augmented his army with 30,000 additional soldiers, known collectively as the Qingzhou Troops (青州兵).[39]

In 193 Cao Cao drove away Yuan Shu to the south. At this time however, his father Cao Song was killed by the troops of Tao Qian, the Governor of Xu Province. Cao Cao invaded Xu Province in retaliation, but in 194 his former friend Zhang Miao raised the flag of rebellion in Yan Province. With the aid of Lü Bu, the rebels dealt several defeats to Cao Cao, taking most of the province. Eventually the tide turned on them and Cao Cao regained his territories. Zhang Miao's family was destroyed while Lü Bu fled to Xu Province.[39]

In 196 Cao Cao took control of the imperial court and moved it to Xu city. In 197 Cao Cao came into conflict with Zhang Xiu and Yuan Shu. However he retreated due to news of a potential raid by Yuan Shao. In 198 Liu Bei took refuge with Cao Cao and requested his aid against Lü Bu. Cao Cao laid siege to Lü Bu in Xiapi Commandery and killed him that winter, taking control of Xu Province. Liu Bei rebelled and was driven away. Yuan Shao crossed the Yellow River with a large army in the spring of 200 but was too slow to mobilize. In the winter Cao Cao led a raiding party behind enemy lines and destroyed their supply train at the Battle of Guandu, causing Yuan Shao's army to disintegrate. Meanwhile, Liu Bei had been making trouble in Ru'nan Commandery with the bandit Gong Du. With Yuan Shao no longer posing a threat, Cao Cao returned to deal with Liu Bei, driving him away to take refuge with Liu Biao.[40]

In the summer of 202, Yuan Shao died, leaving his territory to his sons. They fought among themselves and fell prey to Cao Cao's advances. By 205 he had ousted Yuan Tan and Yuan Shang from their southern territories. Over the next two years he brought Ji Province and southern Bing Province under his control. In the summer of 207 Cao Cao made a roundabout trip north and defeated the Wuhuan at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain. They fled to Gongsun Kang in Liaodong Commandery, but he beheaded them and delivered their heads to Cao Cao.[41]

As Cao Cao prepared to campaign south in 208, Liu Biao died. His son Liu Zong surrendered while Liu Bei fled further south. Cao Cao followed and defeated Liu Bei at the Battle of Changban. Seizing the naval base at Jiangling, Cao Cao moved his new river fleet downstream. His confrontation with Liu Bei and the Sun Quan's general Zhou Yu culminated in defeat and the destruction of his fleet at the Battle of Red Cliffs. Failing to cross the Changjiang, Cao Cao retreated north.[42]

In 211 Cao Cao moved west against Zhang Lu and in doing so also drew the ire of Ma Chao and Han Sui. They were outmaneuvered and defeated at the Battle of Tong Pass. In 212 Cao Cao left Xiahou Yuan behind to continue the northwestern campaign while he returned east to attack Sun Quan across the Huai River. The invasion forced reached the banks of the Changjiang but failed to break the enemy defenses. Cao Cao returned to Ye City in 213.[42]

In 215 Cao Cao eliminated Zhang Lu and occupied Hanzhong Commandery. Cao Cao attacked Sun Quan again in 214 and 217 but never made it past the Changjiang. In the spring of 219, his general Xiahou Yuan was killed at the Battle of Mount Dingjun and Cao Cao lost his position in Hanzhong Commandery. Liu Bei's general Guan Yu also defeated Yu Jin's fores in Nanyang Commandery and laid siege to Cao Ren in Fancheng. However he was unable to take the city and was himself killed when Sun Quan's general Lü Meng took advantage of the situation and attacked him from behind. Cao Cao died soon afterward on 15 March, 220. He was succeeded by his son Cao Pi.[43]

Although primarily known as a military leader, Cao Cao also compiled a commentary on the Art of War and was a renowned poet and player of the game of weiqi.[42] His two most famous poems, Though the Tortoise Lives Long and Short Song Style were written during and right before the battles of White Wolf Mountain and Red Cliff.

《龜雖壽》

Though the Tortoise Lives Long

神龜雖壽，猶有竟時。

Though the tortoise blessed with magic powers lives long,
Its days have their allotted span;

騰蛇乘霧，終為土灰。

Though winged serpents ride high on the mist,
They turn to dust and ashes at the last;

老驥伏櫪，志在千里；

An old war-horse may be stabled,
Yet still it longs to gallop a thousand li;

烈士暮年，壯心不已。

And a noble-hearted man though advanced in years
Never abandons his proud aspirations.

盈縮之期，不但在天；

Man's span of life, whether long or short,
Depends not on Heaven alone;

養怡之福，可得永年。

One who eats well and keeps cheerful
Can live to a great old age.

幸甚至哉！歌以咏志。

And so, with joy in my heart,
I hum this song.

Later history

On 11 December, 220, Cao Pi deposed the last Han emperor and proclaimed himself Emperor of Cao Wei.[44] During his reign Cao Pi alienated his brothers Cao Zhang and Cao Zhi. Cao Pi deeply distrusted his close kin and reduced their powers out of suspicion of their loyalty. Cao Pi died in 226 and was succeeded by his son Cao Rui. Although Cao Rui was twenty years old, he was nonetheless appointed a regency council by his father prior to his death. By 236, three members of the regency council had died, leaving Sima Yi as the primary leader of Cao Wei. Shu Han continued to press the Wei borders and in 233, Zhuge Liang occupied Wudu Commandery. He was checked there by Sima Yi and died the following year.[45] In 238 Sima Yi annexed the Gongsun state in the northwest.[46] This was followed by a campaign into Goguryeo in 244 and 245.[46] Cao Rui died in 239 and was succeeded by his adopted son Cao Fang, who fell under the regency of Cao Shuang and Sima Yi.[47]

In 249 Sima Yi killed Cao Shuang and seized power in Wei. He died two years later and was succeeded by his son Sima Shi. Cao Fang tried to retake power for himself in 254 but failed and was replaced by his cousin, Cao Mao. Sima Shi died in 255 and was succeeded by his brother Sima Zhao. In 260 Cao Mao, like his brother, attempted to seize control of the state, but failed and died in the process. In 264 Sima Zhao conquered Shu Han, eliminating one of the Three Kingdoms. He died the following year and was succeeded by his son Sima Yan. On 8 February 266, Sima Yan deposed the last emperor of Wei, Cao Huan, and proclaimed himself Emperor of the Jin dynasty.[48]

Sima Yan went on to annex the southern state of Sun Wu in 280, putting an end to the period of the Three Kingdoms.[48]

Shu Han

Late Eastern Han-Three Kingdoms era brick relief of shieldbearers with spears from modern Sichuan, the area occupied by Shu han

Shu Han was founded by Liu Bei in 221 and was conquered by Cao Wei in 263.

Liu Bei

Liu Bei was a very distant descendant of Emperor Jing of Han. His father Liu Hong died when he was still very young and his mother made a living by selling straw sandals. In 175 Liu Bei was sent to study at the Taixue of Luoyang, where he became friends with Gongsun Zan. Liu Bei had very little interest in books but had a knack for fighting and inspired many young men to join him. With the support of two merchants, Zhang Shiping and Su Shuang, Liu Bei was able to create a sizable following including his long time friends Guan Yu and Zhang Fei. When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184 Liu Bei led his troops against them under various commanders. He did well in both campaigns but was only rewarded with a very low position in the imperial service. He abandoned his post when an officer tried to reduce his position and joined Guanqiu Yi on an expedition against rebels in Danyang Commandery. For his service in that expedition he was rewarded with the post of assistant magistrate in a county in Pingyuan Commandery. When the anti-Dong Zhuo coalition formed, Liu Bei raised troops to join them, but soon afterwards left to join his friend Gongsun Zan in the north.[49]

Liu Bei assisted Gongsun Zan against his rival Yuan Shao in 191 and was given the post of magistrate in Pingyuan Commandery. His post didn't last long as Yuan Shao dealt a devastating blow to Gongsun Zan in 192 and Liu Bei was forced to move east to Qi Commandery. When Tao Qian of Xu Province offered him 4,000 troops and a post in Pei Commandery, Liu Bei accepted. Tao Qian died in 194 and Liu Bei succeeded him as Governor of Xu Province. In 196 Yuan Shu invaded from the south while Liu Bei had lost Xiapi Commandery due to Zhang Fei killing its Chancellor. Lü Bu, who was at the time taking refuge in the province, attacked Liu Bei and forced him to surrender. Having defeated Liu Bei and taken Xu Province, Lü Bu drove away Yuan Shu's army. While defeated, Liu Bei still retained Pei Commandery. When Yuan Shu attacked Liu Bei again, Lü Bu prevented their advance out of fear that Yuan Shu would become too powerful. Liu Bei continued to recruit troops until 198 when he intercepted a trade convoy from Lü Bu. Lü Bu's officers Gao Shun and Zhang Liao retaliated, taking Pei Commandery and forcing Liu Bei to flee to Cao Cao. Cao Cao sent an army under Xiahou Dun to assist Liu Bei against Lü Bu. In the autumn their army was defeated by Gao Shun. When Cao Cao joined them in the winter, they successfully laid siege to Lü Bu in Xiapi Commandery and killed him the following year.[50]

In 199 Liu Bei was sent to intercept Yuan Shu from making contact with Yuan Shao. When Liu Bei reached Xu Province, he rebelled, killing the Inspector Che Zhou. Cao Cao's initial attempt to suppress him ended in failure but the second one in 200 succeeded. Liu Bei abandoned his family and Guan Yu, who were captured, and fled to Yuan Shao in Qing Province. He was sent to Ru'nan Commandery to assist the bandit Gong Du but suffered defeat at the hands of Cao Cao's officer Cai Yang. Yuan Shao's army was defeated in 200 at the Battle of Guandu and Liu Bei was forced to take refuge with Liu Biao in Jing Province.[51]

Stationed on the northern frontier of Jing Province, in 202 Liu Bei achieved victory against Xiahou Dun and Yu Jin at the Battle of Bowang. After that Cao Cao became preoccupied with the north while Liu Bei was recalled to court. During his stay with Liu Biao, Liu Bei recruited Zhuge Liang, who would later become the leading military figure of Shu Han. In the autumn of 208 Liu Biao died and Cao Cao moved to invade. Liu Biao's son Liu Zong chose to surrender. Liu Bei led his followers south to the Changjiang where they were heavily defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of Changban in Nan Commandery. While Cao Cao occupied the naval base at Jiangling, Liu Bei retreated west and Zhou Yu, general of Sun Quan to the east, came upriver with a sizable army. Having augmented his main army with Jing Province's fleet, Cao Cao continued his advance in the winter against Zhou Yu and Liu Bei's forces arrayed on the east bank of the Changjiang. Despite his superior numbers, Cao Cao was defeated at the Battle of Red Cliffs and his fleet was destroyed by a deployment of fire ships by Sun Quan's officer, Huang Gai. In the winter of 209 Zhou Yu captured Jiangling and ended any hope Cao Cao had of crossing the Changjiang.[52]

After Liu Qi died in 208, Liu Bei became the Governor of Jing Province. Zhou Yu died in 210 and his successor Lu Su convinced Sun Quan to lend Liu Bei Nan Commandery. In 211 Liu Zhang invited Liu Bei to Yi Province as an ally. In 212 Liu Bei betrayed Liu Zhang and attacked him, waging a two-year war that ended in Liu Zhang's surrender and Liu Bei's conquest of Yi Province. In 215 Sun Quan demanded the return of Nan Commandery as well as the rest of Jing Province. When Liu Bei denied him, Sun Quan sent an invasion force commanded by Lü Meng and Lu Su. A settlement was reached, dividing Jing Province along the Xiang River. In 217 Liu Bei invaded Hanzhong Commandery, which was then under the control of Cao Cao, and solidified his gains in 219 by achieving a decisive victory over the Cao army and killing Xiahou Yuan.[53]

In the autumn of 219, Liu Bei proclaimed himself King of Hanzhong at a coronation ceremony in Mianyang, and established a court in Chengdu. Liu Bei's general, Guan Yu, besieged Fan city, in modern Xiangfan, but Cao Cao's cousin Cao Ren held out. In the winter an offensive by Lü Meng into Nan Commandery ruined Guan Yu's position and he himself was killed. Sun Quan seized all of Jing Province.[54]

On 15 May 221, Liu Bei proclaimed himself emperor. He then attacked Sun Quan through the Three Gorges and into the middle Changjiang. The following year Lu Xun destroyed Liu Bei's line of camps and forced him to retreat with heavy losses. Liu Bei died in the summer of 223 and was succeeded by his son Liu Shan, but the government was effectively under the control of Zhuge Liang.[54]

Liu Shan

Liu Shan was only 17 years old when his father died and lacked the ability to lead so Zhuge Liang became de facto head of state. In 224 and 225 Zhuge Liang embarked on a Southern Campaign which brought at least nominal submission from chieftains in the south of Yi Province. In the north Zhuge Liang made several attempts to break through the Qinling range, managing to occupy Wudu Commandery in 233. However he was checked there by Sima Yi and died the following year. Unlike the Sun and Cao regimes, Shu Han never managed to create anything more than an ad hoc warlord regime, probably because its leaders were not native to the region. In 264 Shu Han was conquered by Sima Zhao, the de facto ruler of Cao Wei, who's son Sima Yan would go on to depose the Cao sovereign on 8 February 266, and proclaim himself emperor of the Jin dynasty.[48]

Sun Wu

Miniature pottery courtyard from a Wu period tomb

Sun Wu, also known as Eastern Wu, was founded by Sun Quan in 229 and was conquered by the Jin dynasty in 280.

Sun Jian

Sun Jian was born in 155 AD to an undistinguished merchant family based in the county of Fuchun, Wu Commandery, Yang province. Although his family was of no great importance, they were purportedly descendants of the military strategist Sun Zi, who is traditionally credited with the authorship of The Art of War. Whether the claimed ancestry is true or not, Sun Jian's family played little role in the affairs of the Han dynasty, and next to nothing is known about Sun Jian's obscure lineage.[55]

As a youth, Sun Jian was described as unusual in appearance, kind, intelligent, but fond of odd behavior. At the young age of 16 he was appointed a junior civil officer in the county administration. Sun Jian first made a name for himself at the age of 17 when he went on a trip with his father to Qiantang. During the trip they heard of a band of pirates led by Hu Yu robbing nearby travelers. Sun Jian wanted to attack them while his father wanted nothing to do with the pirates. Even so, Sun Jian set out to confront the pirates. He climbed onto a hill overlooking their camp and waved his sword as if directing soldiers to attack. The pirates thought Sun Jian was part of a government force so they fled. Sun Jian chased after them and took one head as proof of his success. Thereafter, he was promoted to Commandant.[56]

In 172, Sun Jian was appointed Major of troops in Wu Commandery to put down a rebellion by Xu Chang in Kuaiji Commandery. Sun Jian's success against the rebels drew the attention of Zang Min, who was in overall command of local forces. With Zang Min's recommendation, Sun Jian became Assistant in the county of Yandu, Guangling Commandery. For the next ten years he remained an official in Xu Province, where he gained a sizable following, and was well liked by those around him:

Wherever Sun Jian went he gained a good reputation, and the officers and people loved him and trusted him. There were always hundreds of his old friends from his home district and young adventurers who came visiting him. Sun Jian looked after them and cared for them like his own family.[57]

— Sanguo Zhi

When the Yellow Turban Rebellion broke out in 184, Sun Jian was called up by Zhu Jun in Kuaiji Commandery, and appointed Associate Major. None could stand against him. Sun Jian constantly led at the forefront of his troops, being the first to scale the walls of Wancheng, dealing the last great blow to the Yellow Turbans.[58] After the Yellow Turbans' defeat, Sun Jian was transferred over to the west to deal with the Liang Province rebellion. During his time there, he came to butt heads with Dong Zhuo, who felt that Sun Jian was a good commander but lacked quality troops.[59]

In 186, Sun Jian returned to the capital and in 187 was promoted to Grand Administrator of Changsha Commandery. As Grand Administrator, Sun Jian destroyed the local rebels Ou Xing, Zhou Chao, and Guo Shi, even aiding neighboring commanderies, much to the consternation of his clerical officers:

I have none of the civil graces. Warfare is my work. If I cross the borders to attack some rebels, that is simply giving help to a neighbour. Even if I am committing a crime, why should I feel ashamed?[60]

— Sun Jian, Sanguo Zhi

For his service in defeating the rebels, Sun Jian was enfeoffed as Marquis of Wucheng, the highest noble rank attainable for a man outside of the imperial family.[61]

When Dong Zhuo seized power at Luoyang in 189, Sun Jian joined Yuan Shu and the anti-Dong Zhuo coalition. When Sun Jian passed by Jing Province, he killed its Inspector Wang Rui as well as the Administrator of Nanyang Commandery, Zhang Zhi, and took over their troops. Sun Jian took the lead in the allied offensive but was defeated by Xu Rong in 191. After recovering from his losses, Sun Jian defeated Hu Zhen and captured the capital of Luoyang. Defending the devastated city however was unfeasible, so he retreated with the Imperial Seal in tow, and passed it down to Yuan Shu. While Sun Jian was attacking Luoyang, the alliance had already broken up, and Yuan Shao's general Zhou Yu (Renming) attacked his base camp. When Sun Jian returned he drove back Zhou Yu's army. Yuan Shu then sent him against Liu Biao in Jing Province, where Sun Jian died at the age of 37 in a skirmish near Xiangyang.[62]

Together we raised loyal troops, intending to bring aid to the nation. The rebels and bandits are on the point of destruction, and yet people can act like this. Whom can I work with?[63]

— Sun Jian, Sanguo Zhi

Sun Ce

Sun Ce was still young, and though he had his rank and was now well known, all the soldiers and people called him "Young Gentleman Sun." When men heard that Young Gentleman Sun was coming, they quite lost spirit, and the local magistrates and other officials would abandon the cities and run away to hide in the hills and open country. Then he would arrive, and the men of his command respected order, and they did not dare to rob or plunder: not even chickens or dogs or vegetables were stolen. And so the people were extremely pleased, and they would all come to bring cattle and wine as a welcome to the army.[64]

— Sanguo Zhi

Sun Ce, son of Sun Jian, was 16 years old when his father died. When Yuan Shu was driven to Jiujiang Commandery in 193, Sun Ce was given commission and sent south with some of his father's former troops. Sun Ce was defeated by Zu Lang and returned north the following year. He was granted another thousand troops and sent to take Lujiang Commandery from Lu Kang. Although successful in his endeavor, he was not promoted as was promised by Yuan Shao. In 195 he was sent against Liu Yao in Yang Province. Sun Ce quickly took over the region and pushed Liu Yao to Yuzhang Commandery. By 197 when Yuan Shao declared himself emperor, Sun Ce had become the dominant power in Yang Province, so he rejected his former allegiance and allied himself to Cao Cao. In 198 Sun Ce invaded Lujiang Commandery and defeated Liu Xun and Huang Zu. In 200 the Administrator of Yuzhang Commandery surrendered. At this point Yan Baihu and Xu Gong rebelled, so Sun Ce returned east, killing Xu Gong. Before he could deal with Yan Baihu however, Sun Ce was ambushed and killed by Xu Gong's retainers. He was 26 at the time of death.[65]

Sun Ce's wound was very bad, and he called in Zhang Zhao and others and said, "Now China Proper is in confusion. With the resources of Wu and Yue, and the security of the Yangzi, we have enough to [keep aloof and] look on while others are fighting. Do you all try your best to aid my younger brother." Then he called Sun Quan, fastened the seal and ribbon to his belt, and said to him, "To raise the forces east of the Yangzi, to decide the opportunities between two battle lines, and to fight for supremacy in the empire: for that, you are not my equal. To raise the worthy and grant office to able men, so that each gives all his effort to hold the lands of the east: in that I am not equal to you."[66]

— Sanguo Zhi

Sun Quan

Sun Quan was brave, and on occasion even foolhardy. We are told that he took delight in hunting tigers, and on at least one occasion an animal got close enough to tear the saddle of his horse. Later, he was persuaded to have a special carriage made, with some protection and loopholes to shoot from inside, but it was still a dangerous sport and it is said that Sun Quan took delight in being attacked by several wild beasts at a time.[67]

— Rafe de Crespigny

Sun Quan succeeded his elder brother and spent the next two years studying. In 203 Sun Quan attacked and destroyed Huang Zu's fleet. In 204 he dealt with a rebellion in Danyang Commandery which killed his brother Sun Yi. In 205 his officer He Qi began expanding into modern Fujian and by 208 a full commandery had been created in the area. The attack on Huang Zu renewed in 207 and Sun Quan's forces successfully defeated and killed him in 208 at the Battle of Jiangxia.[68]

Liu Biao died that year and his son Liu Zong surrendered to Cao Cao. As Liu Bei and Liu Qi fled south, Cao Cao requested Sun Quan's support, but Sun Quan decided to resist the northern encroachment instead and sent his generals Zhou Yu and Cheng Pu to support Liu Bei's cohort. Despite Cao Cao's overwhelming numerical superiority, his forces failed to cross the Changjiang and were defeated at the Battle of Red Cliff by an attack of fire ships from Sun Quan's officer Huang Gai. Cao Ren managed to hold onto Jiangling for another year before retreating north.[69]

Liu Qi died soon afterwards and Jing Province was split between Liu Bei and Sun Quan. While Sun Quan's forces were preparing to launch an invasion of Yi Province ruled by Liu Zhang, his general Zhou Yu fell ill and died in 209. Zhou Yu's successor Lu Su convinced Sun Quan to let Liu Bei "borrow" Nan Commandery in order to stabilize the situation on the western frontier. Meanwhile, Sun Quan established his capital at Jianye, in modern Nanjing. Sun Quan's attempts to capture territory north of the Changjiang ended in failure both in 208 and in 215. However, when he demanded the return of Nan Commandery from Liu Bei in 215, and was denied, Sun Quan moved west and occupied the commanderies of Jiangxia, Changsha, and Guiyang.[70]

In 217 Cao Cao made a major attack on the south. Despite failing to achieve any real gains, Cao Cao stationed a substantial army in the area, threatening Sun Quan's territory. in 219 Sun Quan's general Lü Meng attacked Guan Yu's position in Jing Province. Guan Yu was caught off guard and killed while the whole province fell under Sun Quan's control. Liu Bei retaliated in 221 but failed to make any headway and the invasion was defeated by Sun Quan's general Lu Xun. In 226 his officer moved south and annexed Jiaozhou. In 229, Sun Quan declared himself emperor of Sun Wu, creating the last of the Three Kingdoms.[71]

For the next 20 years, Sun Quan conducted several military campaigns in the north as well as an expedition to Taiwan in 230, but nothing ever came of these ventures. Noted for his longevity, Sun Quan was nevertheless unsuccessful as a military commander in comparison to his peers Liu Bei and Cao Cao. He died in 252 and was succeeded by his son Sun Liang.[72]

Demise

After the death of Sun Quan, the dynasty became paralyzed by infighting. Sun Liang assassinated his guardian Zhuge Ke under the influence of a distant relative Sun Jun. When Sun Jun died in 256, he was succeeded by his cousin Sun Lin. In 258 Sun Liang sought to rid himself of his overseers but failed and was dethroned. He was replaced by Sun Xiu, sixth son of Sun Quan, then 22 years old. Sun Xiu staged a coup against Sun Lin and seized power for himself. Sun Xiu died in 264 and was succeeded by Sun Hao. However, by this time he could do little to stop the might of the Jin dynasty, which had just recently conquered Shu Han. Sun Wu would itself be conquered in 280.[73]

Former officials

Place names of the Three Kingdoms

Dong Zhuo, Li Jue, and Guo Si

On 25 September, 189, Dong Zhuo took possession of the emperor Liu Bian and his brother Liu Xie, and established his regime in Luoyang. On 28 September he forced Liu Bian to abdicate in favor of his brother Liu Xie. Then he killed Liu Bian a few days later. In the spring of 190 the governors in the east formed a coalition and led a Campaign against Dong Zhuo. Pressured by the enemy alliance, Dong Zhuo moved the court west to Chang'an in the summer after plundering Luoyang. In the spring of 191 Luoyang was captured by Yuan Shu's general Sun Jian. On 22 May, 192, Dong Zhuo was killed by Wang Yun and Lü Bu, who were soon overthrown by Dong Zhuo's former officers, Li Jue, Guo Si and Fan Chou.[74]

In 194 there was a brief war with Ma Teng and Han Sui who were defeated by Guo Si and Fan Chou. In 195 Li Jue killed Fan Chou and took over his troops. Guo Si turned on Li Jue and infighting between them went on for months until a ceasefire was called. In the confusion of the conflict, the emperor was able to escape Chang'an and fled east with the help of several supporters. The emperor reached Luoyang in 196 and then taken to Yingchuan Commandery by Cao Cao. In 197 Guo Si was killed by his officer Wu Xi. In 198 a local warlord Duan Wei killed Li Jue.[75]

Gongsun Du, Kang, Gong, and Yuan

Gongsun Du was appointed Administrator of Liaodong Commandery by Dong Zhuo in 189. Gongsun Du dominated the northeast and expanded against Goguryeo and the Wuhuan. He died in 204 and was succeeded by his son, Gongsun Kang.[76] In 204 Kang expanded into Goguryeo and created Daifang Commandery. When the Wuhuan were defeated by Cao Cao in 207, Yuan Shang, Yuan Xi, and the Wuhuan leaders Louban and Supuyan fled to Kang. Kang killed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao.[77] Kang died in 220 when his children were too young to rule, so his brother Gongsun Gong succeeded him. Gong maintained his independence, albeit while accepting titles issued by Cao Pi. Gong became ill and was replaced by his nephew Gongsun Yuan in 228.[78] Yuan ruled independently until Sima Yi invaded in 238 and annexed his territory.[79]

Gongsun Zan

Gongsun Zan was a general in charge of Ji county in Guangyang Commandery under Liu Yu, who was Grand Marshal. In 191 Gongsun Zan defeated a group of Yellow Turbans moving north from the Shandong Peninsula. His cousin Gongsun Yue died in the hands of Yuan Shao while on a mission to Yuan Shu, making the two enemies. He then seized a part of Ji Province but was badly defeated the next year. Recouping his losses, Gongsun Zan defeated an invasion by Cui Juye and sent Tian Kai to invade Qing Province, which was also defeated. In 193 a truce was arranged, but Yuan Shao's ally Liu Yu attacked Gongsun Zan anyways, and was defeated and killed. In 195 insurgents led by Xianyu Fu and Yan Rou removed Gongsun Zan from power with the assistance of Yuan Shao's troops. Gongsun Zan retreated to Yi city where he secluded himself with his harem. He managed to repulse one attack by Qu Yi before Yuan Shao brought his main army in 198 and laid siege to the city. Gongsun Zan killed himself and his family.[80]

Han Fu

Han Fu was appointed Governor of Ji Province in 189. While he nominally participated in the Campaign against Dong Zhuo, he stayed at the city of Ye. After the coalition broke up, he became hostile to Yuan Shao in 191 and denied him supplies. Using his family connections, Yuan Shao intimidated Han Fu into handing over his position to him. After doing so, Han Fu's family was constantly harassed until they fled to Zhang Miao. He eventually killed himself.[81]

Kong Rong

Kong Rong became Chancellor of Beihai Commandery in 190. In 193 he was attacked by the bandit leader Guan Hai and sent his subordinate Taishi Ci to seek aid from Liu Bei. Liu Bei sent a relief force and scattered the bandit army. In 196 Yuan Shao's son Yuan Tan captured Beihai Commandery and Kong Rong was forced to flee to Cao Cao, who made him Court Architect. In 208 Kong Rong was killed for ridiculing Cao Cao in a self-righteous manner.[82]

Liu Biao

Liu Biao became Inspector of Jing Province in 190, but Yuan Shu was already in control of Nanyang Commandery, so he went further south and set up in Xiangyang. He was attacked by Sun Jian in 191, but Sun Jiang died in a skirmish. In the late 190s a rebellion by Zhang Xiu disrupted Liu Biao's territory until Zhang Xiu died in 200. He gave refuge to Liu Bei, who urged him to attack Cao Cao in 207, but Liu Biao declined. In 208 Liu Biao was invaded by Cao Cao in the north and Sun Quan in the south. Liu Biao died that autumn and his son Liu Zong surrendered to Cao Cao.[83]

Liu Yan and Liu Zhang

Liu Yan was appointed to Yi Province in 188. He set his headquarters at Mianzhu in Guanghan Commandery. Soon after he raised troops in the name of Dong Zhuo and appointed the sect leaders Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu as officers. They were sent to attack Su Gu, the Administrator of Hanzhong Commandery, who defied Liu Yan. After Su Gu was defeated, Zhang Lu took Hanzhong Commandery for himself and eliminated Zhang Xiu. Liu Yan recruited troops from migrants and refugees from Central China, creating a unit known as the Dongzhou Troops (東州兵 dongzhoubing). The Administrator of Jianwei Commandery, Ren Qi and loyalist Jia Long attacked Liu Yan in 191, but they were defeated and killed. After moving his capital to Luo city, also in Guanghan, Liu Yan formed an alliance with Ma Teng in 194 and attacked Li Jue's regime in Chang'an. The campaign ended in failure and Liu Yan's sons Fan and Dan died in the attempt. Liu Yan died the same year after having moved his capital to Chengdu in Shu Commandery, where his son Liu Zhang succeeded him.[84]

Liu Zhang put down an insurrection caused by an agent of the Chang'an regime, Hu Mao. In 200 Zhang Lu openly defied Liu Zhang, who in retaliation killed Zhang Lu's mother, who had been staying at his court as hostage. Zhang Lu invaded Liu Zhang's territory, occupying northern Ba Commandery. A follower of Liu Zhang also rebelled at this time due to grievances with the Dongzhou Troops, but he was defeated and killed. After Cao Cao's defeat at the Battle of Red Cliffs in 208, Liu Zhang formed an alliance with Liu Bei. When Cao Cao's general Zhong Yao was sent against Zhang Lu in 211, Liu Zhang invited Liu Bei to Guanghan hoping that someone from the same imperial clan would help him. Liu Bei spent the next year complaining about the lack of supplies, then turned on Liu Zhang, killed his officers, and waged war on him. By 214 Liu Bei's forces had advanced to Chengdu, where a siege lasting several weeks occurred before Liu Zhang surrendered. Liu Zhang was exiled to Jing Province where he eventually entered the court of Sun Quan when his general Lü Meng defeated Guan Yu in 219.[85]

Liu Yao

In the 190s Liu Yao established himself in Danyang Commandery while his officer Zhu Hao held Yuzhang Commandery. In 195 Sun Ce defeated Liu Yao's forces and forced him to flee to Yuzhang Commandery, where Zhai Rong had previously seized power. He eliminated Zhai Rong but otherwise played no role in external affairs until 198 when he died. His family entered the court of Sun Ce and were treated well.[86]

Liu Yu

Liu Yu was sent to You Province in 188 and arrived in 189. As Governor, he persuaded the Wuhuan chieftain Qiuliju to surrender and murdered the rebel Zhang Chun. Yuan Shao suggested that he be made regent instead of Dong Zhou or even take the throne for himself, but Liu Yu declined. Under Liu Yu's governorship, You Province prospered as a result of policies encouraging silk production, market trading, and production of salt an diron. The province prosperity and low grain prices attracted many southern refugees. In 191 Liu Yu allied with Yuan Shao, and Gongsun Zan with Yuan Shu. In 193 Liu Yu attempted to oust Gongsun Zan, who had built a fortified camp within the walls of his capital in Guangyang Commandery, but failed. Gongsun Zan counterattacked, driving him from the city. Liu Yu was captured a few days later and executed.[87]

Lü Bu

Halberds of different eras from left to right: Three Kingdoms, NS dynasties, Tang, Song, Ming, and Qing.
Bronze horse (5.3 foot tall) from Three Kingdoms era tomb

Lü Bu was skilled in horse archery, possessing strength surpassing others, and was called the Flying General... Lü Bu also had with him a good horse named Red Hare capable of galloping so fast it could jump over city moats... There was a popular saying at the time, "Lü Bu [who stands out] among men, the Red Hare [which stands out] among horses"[88][89][90]

— Sanguo Zhi

Lü Bu killed his patron Ding Yuan at the bequest of Dong Zhuo and became his bodyguard. In 190 Lü Bu was sent to plunder the tombs of Luoyang. His behavior was unruly and disruptive to his unit, causing his commander Hu Zhen to suffer defeat at the hands of Sun Jian. Lü Bu was also defeated and driven from Luoyang. Conflict between Dong Zhuo and Lü Bu soon came to a head and in 192 Lü Bu conspired with Wang Yun to kill Dong Zhuo. After ambushing and killing Dong Zhuo, Wang Yun's government was toppled by Li Jue in less than a month and Lü Bu was forced to flee to Yuan Shu but was turned away because of the unruly behavior of his men. Next Lü Bu visited Zhang Yang and then left when Li Jue offered a price for his head. In 193 he participated in Yuan Shao's campaign against the Black Mountain bandits. Once again the brutality of his men caused upset and Yuan Shao sent Lü Bu back to Luoyang while ordering the escort to kill Lü Bu. Lü Bu managed to avoid assassination and fled. In 194 Lü Bu joined Zhang Chao and Zhang Miao's rebellion against Cao Cao in Yan Province. While initially successful, the rebel forces failed to take Puyang in Dong Commandery, and the tide turned against them. By the summer of 195 Lü Bu was forced to flee again, this time to Liu Bei in Xu Province. In 196 Yuan Shu attacked Liu Bei. Lü Bu switched sides, capturing Liu Bei's assets in Xiapi Commandery, and taking his surrender. After defeating Liu Bei, Lü Bu turned on Yuan Shu and drove back his army. The defeated Liu Bei later fled to Cao Cao, who in 198 sent Xiahou Dun to assist Liu Bei against Lü Bu. Lü Bu was unable to coordinate his commanders, who acted separately, and was driven back to Xiapi Commandery where his officers eventually betrayed him, opening the gates for the opposing army. When Lü Bu tried to persuade Cao Cao to accept him as a subordinate, Liu Bei argued against it. Lü Bu was strangled to death.[91]

Lu Kang

Lu Kang became Administrator of Lujiang Commandery in 188. He was attacked by Sun Ce in 193 and surrendered after a two-year siege, in 195.[92]

Ma Ai

Ma Ai was the Administrator of Dunhuang Commandery until he died in 220. Zhang Gong succeeded him and willingly assisted Cao Wei in re-establishing control over the northwest.[93]

Shi Xie

Shi Xie and his brothers Yi, Wei, and Wu took control of Jiaozhou in 190. He ruled from his capital Long Biên (Luy Lâu) in modern Hanoi and brought prosperity to the region, taking in many refugees from the north.

In 192, the southernmost district of Rinan Commandery, Xianglin, broke away and became the Kingdom of Lâm Ấp, otherwise known as Champa.[94] Aside from this incident, Shi Xie's realm was relatively secluded from the state of endemic warfare and turmoil to the north. He provided support to the general Zhang Jin, situated in Cangwu and Yulin commanderies, in his conflicts with Liu Biao from 196 to 205, but stopped after the general's death. Shi Xie played no further role in the military affairs of the warlord states.[95]

When Shi Wu died in 200, their family lost control of the Pearl River region, but Shi Xie contented himself with ruling the eastern portion of Jiaozhi Commandery. Shi Xie was well disposed towards the northern warlords and acquiesced to Sun Quan's chosen Inspector of Jiaozhi, Bu Zhi, who visited Nanhai Commandery in 211. Shi Xie then sent his son Xin to Sun Quan as hostage in 217. Reduced to only Jiaozhi Commandery, Shi Xie died in 226 at the age of 90. His sons tried to maintain independence, but their property was confiscated, and they were slaughtered by Sun Quan's officer Lü Dai a few years later.[96] Shi Xie is primarily remembered today in Vietnam as Sĩ Nhiếp, the father of education and Buddhism, which he patronized greatly during his reign.[97]

After Shi Xie's death, the southern frontier continued to be viewed as an area of barbarians in the Han imagination. When Xue Zong visited in the south in 231, he described the place in the following manner:

Customs are not uniform and languages are mutually unintelligible so that several interpreters are needed to communicate... The people are like birds and beasts; they wear their hair tied up and go barefoot, while for clothing they simply cut a hole in a piece of cloth for their head or they fasten their garments on the left side [in barbarian style]... If district-level officials are appointed, it is the same as if they were not... According to the records, civilizing activities have been going on for over four hundred years, but, according to what I myself have seen during many years of travel since my arrival here, the actual situation is something else... In Rinan Prefecture, men and women go naked without shame. In short, it can be said that these people are on the same level as bugs.[98]

— Xue Zong

Tao Qian

Tao Qian became Inspector of Xu Province in after 185. He dealt with the Yellow Turbans and restored order to the region, making the province prosperous and a refuge for displaced peoples. In 191 Tao Qian sent 3,000 men to support Zhu Jun against Dong Zhuo. In 193 he entered a loose alliance with Yuan Shu and Gongsun Zan, but that winter Tao Qian's soldiers killed Cao Song, Cao Cao's father. In retaliation Cao Cao brought the full force of his army down on him, ravaging Pengcheng and Xiapi commanderies. Tao Qian fled to Donghai Commandery in 194 and received the aid of Tian Kai and Liu Bei, but died from illness soon afterwards.[99]

Yuan Shao, Shang, Xi, and Tan

Yuan Shao urged He Jin to destroy the eunuchs in 189. When He Jin was killed, Yuan Shao led a massacre of the eunuchs. After Dong Zhuo came to power, Yuan Shao fled east and formed a coalition army to embark on a Campaign against Dong Zhuo. Based in Suanzao in Chenliu Commandery, the coalition army met with little success throughout 190, so in 191 Yuan Shao took over Ji Province from Han Fu. When the coalition dissolved, Yuan Shao sent men against Yuan Shu's officer Sun Jian in Yingchuan Commandery. Gongsun Zan attacked Yuan Shao but was defeated at Jie Bridge between Julu and Qinghe commanderies. Yuan Shao set his capital at the city of Ye (Hebei) in Wei Commandery. In 193 Yuan Shao attacked the Black Mountain bandits and forced them into hiding. With the support of the Wuhuan, he made the final attack on Gongsun Zan in 198 and eliminated him the beginning of next year. In 199 Yuan Shao became hostile to Cao Cao and moved against him. His army moved too slow however and in early winter of 200, Cao Cao destroyed two of his supply trains at the Battle of Guandu. His army scattered and fled. Yuan Shao became ill and died in 202. He was succeeded by his son Yuan Shang.[100]

Cao Cao attacked in the autumn. By the summer of 203 Yuan Shang had been defeated and driven back to Ye, however Cao Cao decided to withdraw at this point. Yuan Shang came into open conflict with his brother Yuan Tan, who fled east. In 204 Yuan Shang besieged his brother at Pingyuan Commandery but Cao Cao moved against him at Ye and forced him to flee to Zhongshan Commandery where Yuan Tan attacked him. Yuan Shang fled again to his other brother Yuan Xi in You Province while Cao Cao attacked Yuan Tan at Nanpi in Bohai Commandery and killed him. In 205 Yuan Shang and Yuan Xi were ejected from their territory by mutineers and fled to the Wuhuan under Tadun, but Tadun was defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain in 207. They fled for the last time, this time time Gongsun Kang, who killed them and sent their heads to Cao Cao.[101]

Yuan Shu

Yuan Shu and his half brother Yuan Shao urged He Jin to kill the eunuchs at Luoyang. When Dong Zhuo took over, Yuan Shu fled to Nanyang Commandery. His army took part in the Campaign against Dong Zhuo under Sun Jian's command, but when Sun Jian returned from Luoyang, Yuan Shao became hostile and sent Zhou Ang against him. Yuan Shu allied with Gongsun Zan while his half brother allied with Liu Biao. Sun Jian soon died in a skirmish while on campaign against Liu Biao so Yuan Shu withdrew east to Chenliu Commandery where he was driven away as well by Cao Cao in 193. He then retreated to Shouchun in Jiujiang Commandery. The next year Yuan Shu sent Wu Jing against Governor of Yang Province, Liu Yao, with the extra help of Sun Ce in 195. In 196 Yuan Shu defeated Liu Bei in Xu Province with the aid of Lü Bu, who then changed sides and forced Yuan Shu's forces back to Shouchun. In 197 Yuan Shu declared himself emperor of the Zhong dynasty, which made everybody hate him. Sun Ce abandoned him while Cao Cao seized territory north of the Huai River. His fledgling dynasty was left in ruin and in 199 Yuan Shu attempted to escape to Qing Province, but was driven back to Shouchun, where he died outside the city.[102] His family fled to Liu Xun, Administrator of Lujiang Commandery. Liu Xun later fled to Cao Cao when Sun Ce captured his capital. He was execute for extortion and corruption at a later date.[103]

Zhang Chao

Zhang Chao was the Administrator of Guangling Commandery in 190. He joined the coalition in the Campaign against Dong Zhuo. In 194 Zhang Chao joined his brother Zhang Miao in alliance with Lü Bu against Cao Cao in Yan Province. They were defeated and Zhang Chao was besieged in Yongqiu, Chenliu Commandery in 195. He killed himself and his family.[104]

Zhang Lu

Zhang Lu was the head of a Daoist movement known as the Way of the Five Pecks of Rice. in 190 Liu Yan, Governor of Yi Province, sent Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu (not related) against the rebellious Administrator of Hanzhong Commandery, Su Gu. Zhang Lu and Zhang Xiu killed Su Gu and took the territory for themselves. Zhang Lu killed Zhang Xiu and established a theocracy with religious Libationers as the primary civil authority. He preached confession of sins and the use of charms to cure illness. Minor wrongdoers were forced to become public servants who provided refreshments for travelers on the road. Alcohol was banned. In 200 Zhang Lu moved against Liu Zhang and seized northern Ba Commandery. His mother, who had been kept as a captive by Liu Zhang, was killed. In 214 Zhang Lu provided Ma Chao with some troops but when Ma Chao asked for more, he refused, after which Ma Chao turned to Liu Bei. In 215 Cao Cao attacked Zhang Lu. After his brother Zhang Wei was defeated, Zhang Lu fled to the Zong and Banshun natives for protection but they surrendered to Cao Cao and Zhang Lu was forced to submit as well. Cao Cao treated him well and his family was given honored positions at court. Zhang Lu died in Ye city in 216.[105]

Zhang Yang

In 189 Zhang Yang attacked the Administrator of Shangdang Commandery to no avail, but he managed to gather several thousand followers while plundering the counties. When the coalition against Dong Zhuo formed, he attempted to join it, but his partner the wandering Xiongnu mercenary Yufuluo forced him to attack Yuan Shao instead. They were defeated at the city of Ye. After that Zhang Yang received commission from Dong Zhuo as Administrator of Henei Commandery, so he based himself at Yewang across the Yellow River from Luoyang. In 192 and 193 he gave refuge to Lü Bu. When Cao Cao attacked Lü Bu at Xiapi in 198, Zhang Yang attempted to strike Cao Cao from the rear, but was killed by his own officer Yang Chou, who was a Cao Cao supporter. Yang Chou was in turn killed by another officer Sui Gu who then attempted to seek help from Yuan Shao. He was defeated the following year by Cao Cao's officers Shi Huan and Cao Ren[106][107]

Former rebels

Steel daos from the Three Kingdoms period.

Han Sui

Han Sui was the leader of a group of rebels that attacked Chang'an in 185 and 188/189. After failing to take Chang'an, he based himself in Jincheng Commandery. He initially supported Dong Zhuo and his successor Li Jue, but turned on them in 194 when he joined Ma Teng in attacking Chang'an. They were defeated at Changping Slope northwest of Chang'an and Han Sui was forced to withdraw to Youfufeng Commandery. Han Sui fell out with Ma Teng and they began to skirmish with Ma Teng taking the heavier losses, causing Ma Teng to join Cao Cao. In 210 Han Sui attacked Zhang Meng in Wuwei Commandery. In 211 Cao Cao sent troops against Zhang Lu. Han Sui and Ma Chao confronted Cao Cao at Huayin and were defeated. In 214 Xiahou Yuan drove Han Sui from Hanyang Commandery. Han Sui's officer Yan Xing rebelled against him and defected to Cao Cao. Han Sui died in 215.[108]

Ma Teng and Ma Chao

Ma Teng was a major under Inspector Geng Bi until Geng Bi was killed by mutineers in 187. Ma Teng then joined the mutineers, styling himself a general under the command of Wang Guo, and participated in the Campaign against Dong Zhuo. Wang Guo was defeated however and in 189 Ma Teng set himself up in Longxi Commandery. When Dong Zhuo retreated to Chang'an, he persuaded Ma Teng and Han Sui to assist him against the other warlords. Ma Teng continued his allegiance to the Chang'an regime for a time even after Dong Zhuo's death and usurpation by Li Jue. In 194, he betrayed Li Jue and attacked Chang'an with the aid of Han Sui and supporters in Luoyang. Ma Teng and Han Sui were defeated at Changping Slope northwest of Chang'an and he retreated to Liang Province. Around 197 Ma Teng began to quarrel with Han Sui and their forces engaged in battle. Ma Teng lost the exchange, losing his wife and some children, and was forced to retreat to Youfufeng Commandery. He threw in his lot with Cao Cao in 202, sending his son Ma Chao to fight Yuan Shao's officer Guo Yuan in Hedong Commandery, and in 205 he himself campaigned against Sun Quan's officer Zhang Cheng. In 208 Ma Teng was enfeoffed but kept hostage in Ye while his son Ma Chao succeeded him in Liang Province. In 211 Ma Chao and Han Sui became hostile to Cao Cao. Ma Teng was killed the next year.[109]

Ma Chao and Han Sui were defeated by Cao Cao at Huayin and retreated west. In 213 Ma Chao made an alliance with the Qiang and Di people as well as Zhang Lu. He then seized Hanyang Commandery. In the autumn an uprising by Yang Fu and Jiang Xu defeated Ma Chao and forced him to take refuge with Zhang Lu. Zhang Lu provided Ma Chao with troops to make an attempt to re-establish himself in Liang Province, but Ma Chao was defeated by Xiahou Yuan. Realizing that Zhang Lu would not provide him with any more troops, Ma Chao joined Liu Bei, who made him a general. Under Liu Bei, Ma Chao campaigned against Cao Cao in Wudu Commandery in 217 but failed to make any headway. Ma Chao died in 222.[110]

Song Jian

Song Jian led an uprising in Liang Province in 184. After 185 he returned to his home county of Fuhan and declared himself King of the Sources of the River Who Will Pacify Han. In the winter of 214 Cao Cao's general Xiahou Yuan attacked Fuhan and killed Song Jian and his officers.[111]

Bandits

Zhang Yan

Zhang Yan, originally Chu Yan, was the leader of a bandit group in the Taihang Mountains in 184. At some point he joined another bandit, Oxhorn Zhang, but Zhang was fatally wounded and died soon afterwards. His last act was to transfer his men over to Chu Yan, who took the name of Zhang to honor his patron. Zhang Yan went on to create a bandit confederacy known as the Black Mountain bandits that ravaged the neighboring commanderies of Changshan, Zhao, Zhongshan, Shangdang, and Henei. In 190 Zhang Yan had a loose alliance with Gongsun Zan against Yuan Shao. In 193 Yuan Shao attacked the Black Mountain bandits, forcing them off the southern hills and into the mountains. When Yuan Shao made his final attack on Gongsun Zan in 199, Zhang Yan tried to save him but failed. Zhang Yan surrendered to Cao Cao when he took over Ji Province in 205. He was made a general as well as a marquis.[112]

Miscellaneous independent actors

Huang Ang

Huang Ang was the clan leader of Jiuquan Commandery until he was killed in 210 by the vigilante Yang Feng. His relative Huang Hua succeeded him and joined forces with Zhang Jin to oppose Cao Wei in 220. When Zhang Jin was killed Huang Hua surrendered.[113]

Non-Chinese actors

Banshun and Zong

The Banshun were a native people of Ba Commandery, Yi Province, who often sided with the Han against other peoples such as the Qiang and the natives of Wuling Commandery. They had previously rebelled in 179 but when amnesty was issued by Cao Qian in 182, the rebellion was ended.[114] There was another brief uprising in 188 but it amounted to nothing.[115] Related to the Banshun were the neighboring Zong people, who became interested in the mysticism of the Celestial Master Zhang Lu and moved north to the border of his territory. When Cao Cao attacked Zhang Lu in the summer of 215, he fled to Duhu of the Zong and Fuhu of the Banshun for refuge. However Duhu and Fuhu surrendered to Cao Cao in the autumn and received appointment, with Zhang Lu following in the winter. In 219 Liu Bei's officer Huang Quan attacked them and drove several non-Chinese groups north into Cao Cao's territory.[116] The Zong therefore became known as the Di people from Ba.[117]

Goguryeo

The Korean kingdom of Goguryeo was invaded by Gongsun Kang in 204, resulting in the Daifang Commandery, and by Cao Wei from 244 to 245. The Wei general Guanqiu Jian took the capital of Gungnae. A Wei army was later defeated by Goguryeo in 259 at Yangmaenggok[118]

Goguryeo lies a thousand li to the east of Liaodong, being contiguous with Joseon and Yemaek on the south, with Okjeo on the east, and with Buyeo on the north. They make their capital below Hwando. With a territory perhaps two thousand li on a side, their households number three myriads. They have many mountains and deep valleys and have no plains or marshes. Accommodating themselves to mountain and valley, the people make do with them for their dwellings and food. With their steep-banked rivers, they lack good fields; and though they plow and till energetically, their efforts are not enough to fill their bellies; their custom is to be sparing of food. They like to build palaces... By temperament the people are violent and take delight in brigandage... As an old saying of the Dongyi would have it, they are a separate branch of the Buyeo. And indeed there is much about their language and other things they share with the Buyeo, but in temperament and clothing there are differences.

Their people delight in singing and dancing. In villages throughout the state, men and women gather in groups at nightfall for communal singing and games. They have no great storehouses, each family keeping its own small store... They rejoice in cleanliness, and they are good at brewing alcohol. When they kneel in obeisance, they extend one leg; in this they differ from the Buyeo. In moving about on foot they all run... In their public gatherings they all wear colorfully brocaded clothing and adorn themselves with gold and silver.[119]

— Sanguo Zhi

Wuhuan

The Wuhuan, a people similar to the Xianbei, were a loose confederation of nomads that had been subservient to larger and stronger neighboring powers for most of their existence. In 168 the Wuhuan established some degree of independence under their own leaders. The largest of these groups were led by Nanlou in Shanggu, Qiuiliju in Liaoxi, Supuyan in the Dependent State of Liaodong, and Wuyan in Youbeiping.[120] In 187 Qiuliju joined the rebellion of Zhang Chun. Following the defeat of Zhang Chun in 188, Qiuliju attacked Gongsun Zan. In 190 he surrendered to Liu Yu and died in 193.[121] Qiuliju's son Louban was too young to succeed him so his cousin Tadun became acting guardian.[122] In 195 Tadun, Nanlou and Supuyan supported Yuan Shao against Gongsun Zan.[123][124] In 207 Tadun was defeated by Cao Cao at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain and died in battle. After their defeat many of the Wuhuan surrendered to Cao Cao and served as part of Cao Cao's cavalry forces.[124][123] Louban and Supuyan fled to Gongsun Kang, who killed them.[122]

Cao Cao divided the Wuhuan into three groups situated in Dai Commandery. They continued to cause trouble until 218 when Cao Zhang destroyed the last remnants of their power for good.[125]

Xianbei

Xianbei cavalry

The Xianbei rose to power after the Northern Xiongnu were defeated by the Han at the Battle of the Altai Mountains in 89 AD. Their loose confederacy lacked the organization of the Xiongnu but was highly aggressive until the death of their khan Tanshihuai in 182.[126] Tanshihuai's son Helian lacked his father's abilities and was killed in a raid on Beidi in 186.[127] Helian's brother Kuitou succeeded him, but when Helian's son Qianman came of age, he challenged his uncle to succession, destroying the last vestiges of unity among the Xianbei. In 205, Kuitou's brothers Budugen and Fuluohan succeeded him. After Cao Cao defeated the Wuhuan at the Battle of White Wolf Mountain in 207, Budugen and Fuluohan paid tribute to him. In 218, Fuluohan met with the Wuhuan chieftain Nengchendi to form an alliance, but Nengchendi double crossed him and called in another Xianbei khan, Kebineng, who killed Fuluohan.[128] Budugen went to the court of Cao Wei in 224 to ask for assistance against Kebineng, but he eventually betrayed them and allied with Kebineng in 233. Kebineng killed Budugen soon afterwards.[129]

Kebineng was from a minor Xianbei clan. He rose to power west of Dai Commandery by taking in a number of Chinese refugees, who helped him drill his soldiers and make weapons. After the defeat of the Wuhuan in 207, he also sent tribute to Cao Cao, and even provided assistance against the rebel Tian Yin. In 218 he allied himself to the Wuhuan rebel Nengchendi but they were heavily defeated and forced back across the frontier by Cao Zhang. In 220 he acknowledged Cao Pi as emperor of Cao Wei. Eventually he turned on the Wei for frustrating his advances on another Xianbei khan, Sui. Kebineng conducted raids on Cao Wei before he was killed in 235, after which his confederacy disintegrated.[130]

In 258 Tuoba Liwei's people settled in Yanmen Commandery.[131]

The Xianbei went on to found five of the short lived Sixteen Kingdoms: Former Yan (337–370), Later Yan (384–409), Western Qin (385–431), Southern Liang (397–414), and Southern Yan (398–410), as well as one of the Northern and Southern dynasties: Northern Wei (386–535).[132]

Xiongnu

By the time of the Three Kingdoms period the Xiongnu had already ceased to be a major power. Their last stand as a steppe empire was in 89 when Dou Xian led an army of 45,000 and decisively defeated them at the Battle of the Altai Mountains. The Xiongnu Empire was replaced by a loose confederation of disorganized Xianbei tribes, who were nonetheless highly aggressive and proved problematic to their southern neighbors.[133] A southern branch of the Xiongnu split off from their northern neighbors in 50 AD and continued to exist as a Han puppet state in Bing Province. However, in 188 the Xiuchuge clan rebelled against their Chanyu, Qiangqu, for sending troops to aid the Han against the rebels Zhang Ju and Zhang Chun. They replaced Qiangqu with his son Yufuluo, who's hold on power was tenuous, and he was ousted over a marquis of the Xubu clan. When the marquis of Xubu died the next year an elderly king became the nominal head of state without the title of Chanyu and the Southern Xiongnu ceased to exist as a coherent entity.[134] In 216 the Xiongnu of the Ordos were settled but the region remained outside the jurisdiction of Cao Wei's administration.[135]

Yufuluo fled to the Han court but found no support after the death of Emperor Ling of Han in 189. He became a wandering mercenary and died in 194.[136] Yufuluo's brother Huchuquan attempted to regain his position as Chanyu of the Southern Xiongnu but was driven back by the same rebels. He came to serve under Yuan Shang in 202 and was defeated by Cao Cao's officer Zhong Yao, after which he surrendered. Yufuluo's remaining Xiongnu followers were split into five divisions and settled in Taiyuan Commandery under the supervision of his son Liu Bao and niece Liu Qubei.[137]

The Xiongnu went on to found three of the short lived Sixteen Kingdoms: Former Zhao (304–329), Northern Liang (397–439), and Xia (407–431). Later Zhao (319–351) was also founded by one of the 19 Southern Xiongnu tribes, but was of Yuezhi descent.[138]

References

  1. ↑ di Cosmo 2009, p. 110-111.
  2. ↑ Graff 2002, p. 38.
  3. ↑ de Crespigny 2010, p. 172-173.
  4. ↑ "Later Han Military Organisation". Retrieved July 25, 2018.
  5. ↑ de Crespigny 2010, p. 186.
  6. ↑ de Crespigny 2010, p. 154-155.
  7. ↑ de Crespigny 2010, p. 155.
  8. ↑ de Crespigny 2010, p. 167-168.
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  11. ↑ de Crespigny 2010, p. 173-175.
  12. ↑ 公孫瓚擊青州黃巾賊，大破之，還屯廣宗，改易守令，冀州長吏無不望風響應，開門受之。紹自往征瓚，合戰于界橋南二十里。瓚步兵三萬餘人為方陳，騎為兩翼，左右各五千餘匹，白馬義從為中堅，亦分作兩校，左射右，右射左，旌旗鎧甲，光照天地。義久在涼州，曉習羌鬥，兵皆驍銳。瓚見其兵少，便放騎欲陵蹈之。義兵皆伏楯下不動，未至數十步，乃同時俱起，揚塵大叫，直前衝突，彊弩雷發，所中必倒，臨陳斬瓚所署冀州刺史嚴綱甲首千餘級。令麴義以八百兵為先登，彊弩千張夾承之，紹自以步兵數萬結陳于後。瓚軍敗績，步騎奔走，不復還營。義追至界橋；瓚殿兵還戰橋上，義復破之，遂到瓚營，拔其牙門，營中餘眾皆復散走。
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  25. ↑ (魏書曰：議者多言「關西兵彊，習長矛，非精選前鋒，則不可以當也」。公謂諸將曰：「戰在我，非在賊也。賊雖習長矛，將使不得以刺，諸君但觀之耳。」) Wei Shu annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 1.
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  29. 1 2 Liang 2006.
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  32. ↑ (英雄記曰：郭汜在城北。布開城門，將兵就汜，言「且却兵，但身決勝負」。汜、布乃獨共對戰，布以矛刺中汜，汜後騎遂前救汜，汜、布遂各兩罷。) (Rough Translation: Guo Si approached the city from the north. Lü Bu opened the city gate and approached GUo Si, saying, "Let us withdraw our soldiers and settle this by ourselves." Guo Si and Lü Bu engaged in single combat. Lü Bu pierced Guo Si with his spear and Guo Si's men came forward, rescuing him. Both sides withdrew.) Yingxiong Ji annotation in Sanguozhi vol. 7.
  33. ↑ (時獨與一騎卒遇策。策從騎十三，皆韓當、宋謙、黃蓋輩也。慈便前鬬，正與策對。策刺慈馬，而擥得慈項上手戟，慈亦得策兜鍪。會兩家兵騎並各來赴，於是解散。) (Rough translation: At one time Taishi Ci met Sun Ce while accompanied by one rider. Sun Ce had 13 riders, including Han Dang, Song Qian, and Huang Gai. Taishi Ci rode forth to do battle with Sun Ce. Sun Ce pierced Taishi Ci's horse and grabbed hold of his halberd while Taishi Ci removed Sun Ce's helmet. When the two sides' cavalry forces showed up, the battle was dissolved.) Sanguozhi vol. 49.
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  88. ↑ 布常御良馬，號曰赤菟，能馳城飛塹， ...
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See also

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