Vegetarianism

Vegetarianism
Description A vegetarian diet is derived from plants, with or without eggs or dairy, but without meat
Varieties Ovo, Lacto, Ovo-lacto, Veganism, Raw veganism, Fruitarianism, Buddhist vegetarianism, Jain vegetarianism

Vegetarianism /vɛdʒɪˈtɛəriənɪzəm/ is the practice of abstaining from the consumption of meat (red meat, poultry, seafood, and the flesh of any other animal), and may also include abstention from by-products of animal slaughter.[1][2][3][4]

Vegetarianism may be adopted for various reasons. Many people object to eating meat out of respect for sentient life. Such ethical motivations have been codified under various religious beliefs, as well as animal rights advocacy. Other motivations for vegetarianism are health-related, political, environmental, cultural, aesthetic, economic, or personal preference. There are variations of the diet as well: an ovo-lacto vegetarian diet includes both eggs and dairy products, an ovo-vegetarian diet includes eggs but not dairy products, and a lacto-vegetarian diet includes dairy products but not eggs. A vegan diet excludes all animal products, including eggs and dairy. Some vegans also avoid other animal products such as beeswax, leather or silk clothing, and goose-fat shoe polish.

Packaged and processed foods, such as cakes, cookies, candies, chocolate, yogurt, and marshmallows, often contain unfamiliar animal ingredients, so may be a special concern for vegetarians due to the likelihood of such additions.[3][5] Often, prior to purchase or consumption, vegetarians will scrutinize products for animal-derived ingredients.[5] Vegetarians' feelings vary with regard to these ingredients. For example, while some vegetarians may be unaware of animal-derived rennet's role in the production of cheese, and may therefore unknowingly consume the product,[3][6][7] other vegetarians may not take issue with its consumption.[3][4]

Semi-vegetarian diets consist largely of vegetarian foods but may include fish or poultry, or sometimes other meats, on an infrequent basis. Those with diets containing fish or poultry may define meat only as mammalian flesh and may identify with vegetarianism.[8][9] A pescetarian diet has been described as "fish but no other meat".[10] The common-use association between such diets and vegetarianism has led vegetarian groups such as the Vegetarian Society to state that diets containing these ingredients are not vegetarian, because fish and birds are also animals.[11]

Etymology

The term "vegetarian" has been in use since sometime before the so far first discovered written use in 1839 to refer to what was previously described as a vegetable regimen or diet, for example in print in 1811.[12] Modern dictionaries based on scientific linguistic principles have always explained its origin as an irregular compound of vegetable (in the adjectival sense of any plant still common today)[13] and the suffix -arian (in the sense of "supporter, believer" as in humanitarian), but there were amateur attempts, even by a Latin scholar not trained in linguistics, to find other origins of the word.[14] The term was popularized with the foundation of the Vegetarian Society in Manchester in 1847,[15] although it may have appeared in print before 1847.[15][16][17] The earliest occurrences of the term seem to be related to Alcott House—a school on the north side of Ham Common, London—which was opened in July 1838 by James Pierrepont Greaves.[16][17][18] From 1841, it was known as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College, from which time the institution began to publish its own pamphlet entitled The Healthian, which provides some of the earliest appearances of the term "vegetarian".[16]

History

Vegetarianism in ancient India

India is a strange country. People do not kill
any living creatures, do not keep pigs and fowl,
and do not sell live cattle.

—Faxian, 4th/5th century CE
Chinese pilgrim to India[19]

The earliest record of vegetarianism comes from Indus Valley Civilization as early as the 7th century BCE,[20] inculcating tolerance towards all living beings.[21][22] Parshwanatha and Mahavira, the 23rd & 24th tirthankaras in Jainism respectively revived and advocated ahimsa and Jain vegetarianism in 8th to 6th century BC; the most comprehensive and strictest form of vegetarianism.[23][24][25] Vegetarianism was also practiced in ancient Greece and the earliest reliable evidence for vegetarian theory and practice in Greece dates from the 6th century BC. The Orphics, a religious movement spreading in Greece at that time, also practiced and promoted vegetarianism.[26] It is unclear whether the Greek religious teacher Pythagoras actually advocated vegetarianism,[27] but later writers presented him as doing so.[27] A fictionalized portrayal of Pythagoras appears in Book XV of Ovid's Metamorphoses,[28] in which he advocates a form of strict vegetarianism.[28] It was through this portrayal that Pythagoras was best known to English-speakers throughout the early modern period[28] and, prior to the coinage of the word "vegetarianism", vegetarians were referred to in English as "Pythagoreans".[28]

Vegetarianism was also practiced about six centuries later in another instance (30 BCE – 50 CE) in the northern Thracian region by the Moesi tribe (who inhabited present-day Serbia and Bulgaria), feeding themselves on honey, milk, and cheese.[29]

In Indian culture, vegetarianism has been closely connected with the attitude of nonviolence towards animals (called ahimsa in India) for millennia and was promoted by religious groups and philosophers.[30] The ancient Indian work of Tirukkural explicitly and unambiguously emphasizes shunning meat and non-killing.[31] Chapter 26 of the Tirukkural, particularly couplets 251–260, deals exclusively on vegetarianism or veganism.[31] Among the Hellenes, Egyptians, and others, vegetarianism had medical or ritual purification purposes.

Labeling is mandatory in India to distinguish vegetarian products (green) from non-vegetarian products (brown).[32]

Following the Christianization of the Roman Empire in late antiquity, vegetarianism practically disappeared from Europe, as it did elsewhere, except in India.[33] Several orders of monks in medieval Europe restricted or banned the consumption of meat for ascetic reasons, but none of them eschewed fish.[34] Moreover, the medieval definition of "fish" included such animals as seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers.[35] Vegetarianism re-emerged during the Renaissance,[36] becoming more widespread in the 19th and 20th centuries. In 1847, the first Vegetarian Society was founded in the United Kingdom;[37] Germany, the Netherlands, and other countries followed. In 1886, the vegetarian colony Nueva Germania was founded in Paraguay, though its vegetarian aspect would prove short-lived.[38]:345–358 The International Vegetarian Union, an association of the national societies, was founded in 1908. In the Western world, the popularity of vegetarianism grew during the 20th century as a result of nutritional, ethical, and—more recently—environmental and economic concerns.

Varieties

A variety of vegan and vegetarian deli foods.
A vegetarian hamburger with potato slices.
Comparison of the main vegetarian diets
MeatEggsDairy
Ovo-lacto vegetarianism NoYesYes
Ovo vegetarianism NoYesNo
Lacto vegetarianism NoNoYes
Vegan diet NoNoNo

There are a number of vegetarian diets that exclude or include various foods:

  • Buddhist vegetarianism. Different Buddhist traditions have differing teachings on diet, which may also vary for ordained monks and nuns compared to others. Many interpret the precept "not to kill" to require abstinence from meat, but not all. In Taiwan, su vegetarianism excludes not only all animal products but also vegetables in the allium family (which have the characteristic aroma of onion and garlic): onion, garlic, scallions, leeks, chives, or shallots.
  • Fruitarianism and Jain vegetarianism permit only fruit, nuts, seeds, and other plant matter that can be gathered without harming the plant.[39] Jain vegetarianism also includes dairy.
  • Macrobiotic diets consist mostly of whole grains and beans.
  • Lacto vegetarianism includes dairy products but not eggs.
  • Ovo vegetarianism includes eggs but not dairy products.
  • Ovo-lacto vegetarianism (or lacto-ovo vegetarianism) includes animal products such as eggs, milk, and honey.
  • Sattvic diet (also known as yogic diet), a plant-based diet which may also include dairy and honey, but excludes eggs, red lentils, durian, mushrooms, alliums, blue cheeses, fermented foods or sauces, and alcoholic drinks. Coffee, black or green tea, chocolate, nutmeg, and any other type of stimulant (including excessively pungent spices) are sometimes excluded, as well.
  • Veganism excludes all animal flesh and by-products, such as milk, honey (not always),[40] and eggs, as well as items refined or manufactured through any such product, such as animal-tested baking soda or white sugar refined with bone char.
    • Raw veganism includes only fresh and uncooked fruit, nuts, seeds, and vegetables. Food must not be heated above 118 °F (48 °C) to be considered "raw". Usually, raw vegan food is only ever "cooked" with a food dehydrator at low temperatures.

Within the "ovo-" groups, there are many who refuse to consume fertilized eggs (with balut being an extreme example); however, such distinction is typically not specifically addressed.

Some vegetarians also avoid products that may use animal ingredients not included in their labels or which use animal products in their manufacturing. For example, sugars that are whitened with bone char, cheeses that use animal rennet (enzymes from animal stomach lining), gelatin (derived from the collagen inside animals' skin, bones, and connective tissue), some cane sugar (but not beet sugar) and beverages (such as apple juice and alcohol) clarified with gelatin or crushed shellfish and sturgeon, while other vegetarians are unaware of, or do not mind, such ingredients.[3][4][5][6]

Individuals sometimes label themselves "vegetarian" while practicing a semi-vegetarian diet,[9][41][42] as some dictionary definitions describe vegetarianism as sometimes including the consumption of fish,[8] or only include mammalian flesh as part of their definition of meat,[8][43] while other definitions exclude fish and all animal flesh.[11] In other cases, individuals may describe themselves as "flexitarian".[41][44] These diets may be followed by those who reduce animal flesh consumed as a way of transitioning to a complete vegetarian diet or for health, ethical, environmental, or other reasons. Semi-vegetarian diets include:

  • Macrobiotic diet consisting mostly of whole grains and beans, but may sometimes include fish.
  • Pescetarianism, which includes fish and possibly other forms of seafood.
  • Pollo-pescetarianism, which includes poultry and fish, or "white meat" only.
  • Pollotarianism, which includes chicken and possibly other poultry.

Semi-vegetarianism is contested by vegetarian groups, such as the Vegetarian Society, which states that vegetarianism excludes all animal flesh.[11]

Health effects

On average, vegetarians consume a lower proportion of calories from fat (particularly saturated fatty acids), fewer overall calories, more fiber, potassium, and vitamin C, than do non-vegetarians. Vegetarians generally have a lower body mass index. These characteristics and other lifestyle factors associated with a vegetarian diet may contribute to the positive health outcomes that have been identified among vegetarians.

Dietary Guidelines for Americans, 2010 – A report issued by the U.S. Department of Agriculture and the U.S. Department of Health and Human Services[45]

Acorn soup
A fruit stall in Barcelona.
Basket of fresh fruit and vegetables grown in Israel.

Studies on the health effects of vegetarian diets observe heterogeneous effects on mortality. One review found a decreased overall risk of all cause mortality, cancer (except breast) and cardiovascular disease;[46] however, a meta-analysis found lower risk for ischemic heart disease and cancer but no effect on overall mortality or cerebrovascular disease.[47] Possible limitations include varying definitions used of vegetarianism, and the observation of increased risk of lung cancer mortality in those on a vegetarian diet for less than five years.[47] An analysis pooling two large studies found vegetarians in the UK have similar all cause mortality as meat eaters.[48] An older meta analysis found similar results, only finding decreased mortality in vegetarians, pescatarians, and irregular meat eaters in ischemic heart disease, but not from any other cause.[49]

Vegetarian diets have been shown to prevent and treat gallstones, cardiovascular disease, rheumatoid arthritis, dementia, diverticular disease, renal disease, hypertension, osteoporosis, cancer, and diabetes.[50]

A vegetarian diet which is poorly planned can lead to hyperhomocysteinemia and platelet disorders; this risk may be offset by ensuring sufficient consumption of vitamin B 12 and polyunsaturated fatty acids.[46]

The Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics and Dietitians of Canada have stated that at all stages of life, a properly planned vegetarian diet is "healthful, nutritionally adequate, and provides health benefits in the prevention and treatment of certain diseases".[51] Large-scale studies have shown that mortality from ischemic heart disease was 30% lower among vegetarian men and 20% lower among vegetarian women than in non-vegetarians.[52][53] Vegetarian diets offer lower levels of saturated fat, cholesterol and animal protein, and higher levels of carbohydrates, fibre, magnesium, potassium, folate, and antioxidants such as vitamins C and E and phytochemicals.[54][55]

"Vegetarian diets can meet guidelines for the treatment of diabetes and some research suggests that diets that are more plant-based reduce risk of type-2 diabetes. Rates of self-reported Seventh-day Adventists (SDA) were less than half of those of the general population, and, among SDA, vegetarians had lower rates of diabetes than non-vegetarians. Among possible explanations for a protective effect of vegetarian diet are the Lower BMI of vegetarians and higher fiber intake, both of which improve insulin sensitivity."[56]

The relationship between vegetarian diet and bone health remains unclear. According to some studies, a vegetarian lifestyle can be associated with vitamin B 12 deficiency and low bone mineral density.[57] However, a study of vegetarian and non-vegetarian adults in Taiwan found no significant difference in bone mineral density between the two groups.[58] Other studies, exploring animal protein's negative effects on bone health, suggest that vegetarians may be less prone to osteoporosis than omnivores, as vegetarian subjects had greater bone mineral density[59] and more bone formation.[60]

The China-Cornell-Oxford Project,[61] a 20-year study conducted by Cornell University, the University of Oxford, and the government of China has established a correlation between the consumption of animal products and a variety of chronic illnesses, such as coronary heart disease, diabetes, and cancers of the breast, prostate and bowel (see The China Study).[62]

A British study of almost 10,000 men found that those who gave up meat were almost twice as likely to suffer from depression as people on a conventional balanced diet. The study found that the 350 committed vegetarians studied had a higher average depression score compared to others.[63]

A vegetarian diet may help reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease, as the most important dietary link to Alzheimer's disease appears to be meat consumption, with eggs and high-fat dairy also contributing.[64]

Nutrition

Western vegetarian diets are typically high in carotenoids, but relatively low in omega-3 fatty acids and vitamin B12.[65] Vegans can have particularly low intake of vitamin B and calcium if they do not eat enough items such as collard greens, leafy greens, tempeh and tofu (soy).[66] High levels of dietary fiber, folic acid, vitamins C and E, and magnesium, and low consumption of saturated fat are all considered to be beneficial aspects of a vegetarian diet.[67] A well planned vegetarian diet will provide all nutrients in a meat-eater's diet to the same level for all stages of life.[68]

Protein

Protein intake in vegetarian diets is lower than in meat diets but can meet the daily requirements for most people.[69] Studies at Harvard University as well as other studies conducted in the United States, United Kingdom, Canada, Australia, New Zealand and various European countries, confirmed vegetarian diets provide sufficient protein intake as long as a variety of plant sources are available and consumed.[70] Pumpkin seeds, peanut butter, hemp seed, almonds, pistachio nuts, flaxseed, tofu, oats, soybeans, walnuts, are great sources of protein for vegetarians. Proteins are composed of amino acids, and a common concern with protein acquired from vegetable sources is an adequate intake of the essential amino acids, which cannot be synthesised by the human body. While dairy and egg products provide complete sources for ovo-lacto vegetarian, several vegetable sources have significant amounts of all eight types of essential amino acids, including lupin beans, soy,[71] hempseed, chia seed,[72] amaranth,[73] buckwheat,[74] pumpkin seeds[75] spirulina,[76] pistachios,[77] and quinoa.[78] However, the essential amino acids can also be obtained by eating a variety of complementary plant sources that, in combination, provide all eight essential amino acids (e.g. brown rice and beans, or hummus and pita, though protein combining in the same meal is not necessary). A 1994 study found a varied intake of such sources can be adequate.[79]

Iron

Vegetarian diets typically contain similar levels of iron to non-vegetarian diets, but this has lower bioavailability than iron from meat sources, and its absorption can sometimes be inhibited by other dietary constituents.[80] According to the Vegetarian Resource Group, consuming food that contains vitamin C, such as citrus fruit or juices, tomatoes, or broccoli, is a good way to increase the amount of iron absorbed at a meal.[81] Vegetarian foods rich in iron include black beans, cashews, hempseed, kidney beans, broccoli, lentils, oatmeal, raisins, spinach, cabbage, lettuce, black-eyed peas, soybeans, many breakfast cereals, sunflower seeds, chickpeas, tomato juice, tempeh, molasses, thyme, and whole-wheat bread.[82] The related vegan diets can often be higher in iron than vegetarian diets, because dairy products are low in iron.[67] Iron stores often tend to be lower in vegetarians than non-vegetarians, and a few small studies report very high rates of iron deficiency (up to 40%,[83] and 58%[84] of the respective vegetarian or vegan groups). However, the American Dietetic Association states that iron deficiency is no more common in vegetarians than non-vegetarians (adult males are rarely iron deficient); iron deficiency anaemia is rare no matter the diet.[85]

Vitamin B12

According to the United States National Institutes of Health, vitamin B12 is not generally present in plants and is naturally found in foods of animal origin.[86] Lacto-ovo vegetarians can obtain B12 from dairy products and eggs, and vegans can obtain it from fortified foods (including some soy products and some breakfast cereals) and dietary supplements.[87][88][89][90][91] Vitamin B12 can also be obtained from fortified yeast extract products.[92]

The recommended dietary allowance of B12 in the United States is, per day, 0.4 mcg (0–6 months), rising to 1.8 mcg (9–13 years), 2.4 mcg (14+ years), and 2.8 mcg (lactating female).[86] While the body's daily requirement for vitamin B12 is very small, deficiency of the vitamin is very serious leading to anemia and irreversible nerve damage.[93]

Fatty acids

Plant-based, or vegetarian, sources of Omega 3 fatty acids include soy, walnuts, pumpkin seeds, canola oil, kiwifruit, hempseed, algae, chia seed, flaxseed, echium seed and leafy vegetables such as lettuce, spinach, cabbage and purslane. Purslane contains more Omega 3 than any other known leafy green. Olives (and olive oil) are another important plant source of unsaturated fatty acids. Plant foods can provide alpha-linolenic acid which the human body uses to synthesize the long-chain n-3 fatty acids EPA and DHA. EPA and DHA can be obtained directly in high amounts from oily fish or fish oils. Vegetarians, and particularly vegans, have lower levels of EPA and DHA than meat-eaters. While the health effects of low levels of EPA and DHA are unknown, it is unlikely that supplementation with alpha-linolenic acid will significantly increase levels.[94] Recently, some companies have begun to market vegetarian DHA supplements containing seaweed extracts. Similar supplements providing both DHA and EPA have also begun to appear.[95] Whole seaweeds are not suitable for supplementation because their high iodine content limits the amount that may be safely consumed. However, certain algae such as spirulina are good sources of gamma-linolenic acid (GLA), alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), linoleic acid (LA), stearidonic acid (SDA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), and arachidonic acid (AA).[96][97]

Calcium

Calcium intake in vegetarians and vegans can be similar to non-vegetarians, as long as the diet is properly planned.[98] Lacto-ovo vegetarians that include dairy products can still obtain calcium from dairy sources like milk, yogurt, and cheese.[99]

Non-dairy milks that are fortified with calcium, such as soymilk and almond milk can also contribute a significant amount of calcium in the diet.[100] The calcium found in broccoli, bok choy, and kale have also been found to have calcium that is well absorbed in the body.[98][99][101] Though the calcium content per serving is lower in these vegetables than a glass of milk, the absorption of the calcium into the body is higher.[99][101] Other foods that contain calcium include calcium-set tofu, blackstrap molasses, turnip greens, mustard greens, soybeans, tempeh, almonds, okra, dried figs, and tahini.[98][100] Though calcium can be found in Spinach, swiss chard, beans and beet greens, they are generally not considered to be a good source since the calcium binds to oxalic acid and is poorly absorbed into the body.[99] Phytic acid found in nuts, seeds, and beans may also impact calcium absorption rates.[99] See the National Institutes of Health Office of Dietary Supplements for calcium needs for various ages,[99] the Vegetarian Resource Group[100] and the Vegetarian Nutrition Calcium Fact Sheet from the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics[98] for more specifics on how to obtain adequate calcium intake on a vegetarian or vegan diet.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D needs can be met via the human body's own generation upon sufficient and sensible exposure to ultraviolet (UV) light in sunlight.[102][103] Products including milk, soy milk and cereal grains may be fortified to provide a source of Vitamin D.[104] For those who do not get adequate sun exposure or food sources, Vitamin D supplementation may be necessary.

Vitamin D2
  • Plants
    • Alfalfa (Medicago sativa subsp. sativa), shoot: 4.8 μg (192 IU) vitamin D2, 0.1 μg (4 IU) vitamin D3[105]
  • Fungus, from USDA nutrient database:[106]
    • Mushrooms, portabella, exposed to ultraviolet light, raw: Vitamin D2: 11.2 μg (446 IU)
    • Mushrooms, portabella, exposed to ultraviolet light, grilled: Vitamin D2: 13.1 μg (524 IU)
    • Mushrooms, shiitake, dried: Vitamin D2: 3.9 μg (154 IU)
    • Mushrooms, shiitake, raw: Vitamin D2: 0.4 μg (18 IU)
    • Mushrooms, portabella, raw: Vitamin D2: 0.3 μg (10 IU)
    • Mushroom powder, any species, illuminated with sunlight or artificial ultraviolet light sources

Vitamin D2, or ergocalciferol is found in fungus (except alfalfa which is a plantae) and created from viosterol, which in turn is created when ultraviolet light activates ergosterol (which is found in fungi and named as a sterol from ergot). Any UV-irradiated fungus including yeast form vitamin D2.[107] Human bioavailability of vitamin D2 from vitamin D2-enhanced button mushrooms via UV-B irradiation is effective in improving vitamin D status and not different from a vitamin D2 supplement according to study.[108] For example, Vitamin D2 from UV-irradiated yeast baked into bread is bioavailable.[109] By visual assessment or using a chromometer, no significant discoloration of irradiated mushrooms, as measured by the degree of "whiteness", was observed[110] making it hard to discover if they have been treated without labeling. Claims have been made that a normal serving (approx. 3 oz or 1/2 cup, or 60 grams) of mushrooms treated with ultraviolet light increase their vitamin D content to levels up to 80 micrograms,[111] or 2700 IU if exposed to just 5 minutes of UV light after being harvested.[112]

Longevity

There have been many comparative and statistical studies of the relationship between diet and longevity, including vegetarianism and longevity.

A 1999 metastudy combined data from five studies from western countries.[113] The metastudy reported mortality ratios, where lower numbers indicated fewer deaths, for fish eaters to be 0.82, vegetarians to be 0.84, occasional meat eaters (eat meat less than once per week) to be 0.84. Regular meat eaters had the base mortality rate of 1.0, while the number for vegans was very uncertain (anywhere between 0.7 and 1.44) due to too few data points. The study reported the numbers of deaths in each category, and expected error ranges for each ratio, and adjustments made to the data. However, the "lower mortality was due largely to the relatively low prevalence of smoking in these [vegetarian] cohorts". Out of the major causes of death studied, only one difference in mortality rate was attributed to the difference in diet, as the conclusion states: "...vegetarians had a 24% lower mortality from ischaemic heart disease than non-vegetarians, but no associations of a vegetarian diet with other major causes of death were established".[113]

In Mortality in British vegetarians,[114] a similar conclusion is drawn:

British vegetarians have low mortality compared with the general population. Their death rates are similar to those of comparable non-vegetarians, suggesting that much of this benefit may be attributed to non-dietary lifestyle factors such as a low prevalence of smoking and a generally high socio-economic status, or to aspects of the diet other than the avoidance of meat and fish."[115]

The Adventist Health Studies is ongoing research that documents the life expectancy in Seventh-day Adventists. This is the only study among others with similar methodology which had favourable indication for vegetarianism. The researchers found that a combination of different lifestyle choices could influence life expectancy by as much as 10 years. Among the lifestyle choices investigated, a vegetarian diet was estimated to confer an extra 1–1/2 to 2 years of life. The researchers concluded that "the life expectancies of California Adventist men and women are higher than those of any other well-described natural population" at 78.5 years for men and 82.3 years for women. The life expectancy of California Adventists surviving to age 30 was 83.3 years for men and 85.7 years for women.[116]

The Adventist health study is again incorporated into a metastudy titled "Does low meat consumption increase life expectancy in humans?" published in American Journal of Clinical Nutrition, which concluded that low meat eating (less than once per week) and other lifestyle choices significantly increase life expectancy, relative to a group with high meat intake. The study concluded that "The findings from one cohort of healthy adults raises the possibility that long-term (≥ 2 decades) adherence to a vegetarian diet can further produce a significant 3.6-y increase in life expectancy." However, the study also concluded that "Some of the variation in the survival advantage in vegetarians may have been due to marked differences between studies in adjustment for confounders, the definition of vegetarian, measurement error, age distribution, the healthy volunteer effect, and intake of specific plant foods by the vegetarians." It further states that "This raises the possibility that a low-meat, high plant-food dietary pattern may be the true causal protective factor rather than simply elimination of meat from the diet." In a recent review of studies relating low-meat diet patterns to all-cause mortality, Singh noted that "5 out of 5 studies indicated that adults who followed a low meat, high plant-food diet pattern experienced significant or marginally significant decreases in mortality risk relative to other patterns of intake."[117]

Statistical studies, such as comparing life expectancy with regional areas and local diets in Europe also have found life expectancy considerably greater in southern France, where a low meat, high plant Mediterranean diet is common, than northern France, where a diet with high meat content is more common.[118]

A study by the Institute of Preventive and Clinical Medicine, and Institute of Physiological Chemistry looked at a group of 19 vegetarians (lacto-ovo) and used as a comparison a group of 19 omnivorous subjects recruited from the same region. The study found that this group of vegetarians (lacto-ovo) have a significantly higher amount of plasma carboxymethyllysine and advanced glycation endproducts (AGEs) compared to this group of non-vegetarians.[119] Carboxymethyllysine is a glycation product which represents "a general marker of oxidative stress and long-term damage of proteins in aging, atherosclerosis and diabetes" and "[a]dvanced glycation end products (AGEs) may play an important adverse role in process of atherosclerosis, diabetes, aging and chronic renal failure".[119]

Heart health

According to studies by the Permanente Journal and the National Institute for Health (NIH), vegetarian diets are affordable and can help reduce health risks like high blood pressure, cardiovascular disease, and cholesterol levels. A plant based diet has the potential to lower the risk of heart disease as well as reducing the amount of medications prescribed in instances of chronic illness. A change to a plant based diet, or vegetarianism, has had dramatic positive effects on the health of patients with chronic illnesses, significantly more than exercise alone [120]

Arthritis

Vegetarian diets have been studied to see whether they are of benefit in treating arthritis, but no good supporting evidence has been found.[121]

Alternative medicine

Certain alternative medicines, such as Ayurveda and Siddha, prescribe a vegetarian diet as a normal procedure. Maya Tiwari notes that Ayurveda recommends small portions of meat for some people, though "the rules of hunting and killing the animal, practiced by the native peoples, were very specific and detailed". Now that such methods of hunting and killing are not observed, she does not recommend the use of "any animal meat as food, not even for the Vata types".[122]

Physiology

The human digestive system is omnivorous, capable of consuming a wide variety of plant and animal material.[123][124] Some nutritional experts believe that early hominids evolved into eating meat as a result of huge climatic changes that took place three to four million years ago, when forests and jungles dried up and became open grasslands and opened hunting and scavenging opportunities.[125][126]

Mental disorders

The American Dietetic Association has presented evidence that vegetarian diets may be more common among adolescents with eating disorders. At the same time the association cautions however, that the adoption of a vegetarian diet may not necessarily lead to eating disorders, rather that "vegetarian diets may be selected to camouflage an existing eating disorder".[127] Other studies and statements by dietitians and counselors support this conclusion.[nb 1][129]

Vegetarianism is associated with increased risk of depression, anxiety, and somatoform disorder, although causality cannot be established.[130][131][132]

A vegetarian diet may help reduce the risk of Alzheimer's disease, as the most important dietary link to Alzheimer's disease appears to be meat consumption, with eggs and high-fat dairy also contributing.[64]

Ethics and diet

General

Various ethical reasons have been suggested for choosing vegetarianism, usually predicated on the interests of non-human animals. In many societies, controversy and debate have arisen over the ethics of eating animals. Some people, while not vegetarians, refuse to eat the flesh of certain animals due to cultural taboo, such as cats, dogs, horses or rabbits. Others support meat eating for scientific, nutritional and cultural reasons, including religious ones. Some meat eaters abstain from the meat of animals reared in particular ways, such as factory farms, or avoid certain meats, such as veal or foie gras. Some people follow vegetarian or vegan diets not because of moral concerns involving the raising or consumption of animals in general, but because of concerns about the specific treatment and practises involved in the raising and slaughter of animals, i.e. factory farming and the industrialisation of animal slaughter. Others still avoid meat because meat production is claimed to place a greater burden on the environment than production of an equivalent amount of plant protein.

Ethical objections based on consideration for animals are generally divided into opposition to the act of killing in general, and opposition to certain agricultural practices surrounding the production of meat.

Ethics of killing for food

Princeton University professor and animal rights activist Peter Singer believes that if alternative means of survival exist, one ought to choose the option that does not cause unnecessary harm to animals. Most ethical vegetarians argue that the same reasons exist against killing animals in the flesh to eat as against killing humans to eat, especially humans with cognitive abilities equal or lesser than the animals in question. Singer, in his book Animal Liberation, listed possible qualities of sentience in non-human creatures that gave such creatures the scope to be considered under utilitarian ethics, and this has been widely referenced by animal rights campaigners and vegetarians. Ethical vegetarians also believe that killing an animal, like killing a human, especially one who has equal or lesser cognitive abilities than the animals in question, can only be justified in extreme circumstances and that consuming a living creature for its enjoyable taste, convenience, or nutrition value is not a sufficient cause. Another common view is that humans are morally conscious of their behaviour in a way other animals are not, and therefore subject to higher standards.[133]

McMahan stated that cognitively disabled human do not possess the same rights as non-disabled humans. While mentally disabled people were in the past often treated with extreme brutality, with the progression of morality most people understand that the rights of the cognitively disabled still include a right to life and kind treatment. Increasingly, as moral philosophy progresses further, people understand that, outside of survival situations, denying the right to life to animals with equal or greater cognitive abilities than mentally disabled humans is an arbitrary, discriminatory practice based on habit and desire as opposed to logic.[134]

Opponents of ethical vegetarianism argue that animals are not moral equals to humans and so consider the comparison of eating livestock with killing people to be fallacious. This view does not excuse cruelty, but maintains that animals do not possess the rights a human has.[135]

Dairy and eggs

One of the main differences between a vegan and a typical vegetarian diet is the avoidance of both eggs and dairy products such as milk, cheese, butter and yogurt. Ethical vegans do not consume dairy or eggs because they state that their production causes the animal suffering or a premature death.[136]

To produce milk from dairy cattle, calves are separated from their mothers soon after birth and slaughtered or fed milk replacer in order to retain the cows milk for human consumption.[137] Many vegans state that this breaks the natural mother and calf bond.[137] Unwanted male calves are either slaughtered at birth or sent for veal production.[137] To prolong lactation, dairy cows are almost permanently kept pregnant through artificial insemination.[137] After about five years, once the cow's milk production has dropped, she is considered "spent" and sent to slaughter for beef and her hide. A dairy cow's natural life expectancy is about twenty years.[136]

In battery cage and free-range egg production, unwanted male chicks are culled or discarded at birth during the process of securing a further generation of egg-laying hens.[138]

Treatment of animals

Ethical vegetarianism has become popular in developed countries particularly because of the spread of factory farming, faster communications, and environmental consciousness. Some believe that the current mass demand for meat cannot be satisfied without a mass-production system that disregards the welfare of animals, while others believe that practices like well-managed free-ranging and consumption of game, particularly from species whose natural predators have been significantly eliminated, could substantially alleviate the demand for mass-produced meat.

Classical Greek and Roman philosophy

Pythagoras advocating vegetarianism, painting by Rubens

Ancient Greek philosophy has a long tradition of vegetarianism. Pythagoras was reportedly vegetarian (and studied at Mt. Carmel, where some historians say there was a vegetarian community), as his followers were expected to be.

Roman writer Ovid concluded his magnum opus Metamorphoses, in part, with the impassioned argument (uttered by the character of Pythagoras) that in order for humanity to change, or metamorphose, into a better, more harmonious species, it must strive towards more humane tendencies. He cited vegetarianism as the crucial decision in this metamorphosis, explaining his belief that human life and animal life are so entwined that to kill an animal is virtually the same as killing a fellow human.

Everything changes; nothing dies; the soul roams to and fro, now here, now there, and takes what frame it will, passing from beast to man, from our own form to beast and never dies...Therefore lest appetite and greed destroy the bonds of love and duty, heed my message! Abstain! Never by slaughter dispossess souls that are kin and nourish blood with blood![139]

Religion and diet

Jainism teaches vegetarianism as moral conduct as do some major[140] sects of Hinduism. Buddhism in general does not prohibit meat eating, while Mahayana Buddhism encourages vegetarianism as beneficial for developing compassion.[141] Other denominations that advocate a vegetarian diet include the Seventh-day Adventists, the Rastafari movement, the Ananda Marga movement and the Hare Krishnas. Sikhism[142][143][144] does not equate spirituality with diet and does not specify a vegetarian or meat diet.[145]

Bahá'í Faith

While there are no dietary restrictions in the Bahá'í Faith, `Abdu'l-Bahá, the son of the religion's founder, noted that a vegetarian diet consisting of fruits and grains was desirable, except for people with a weak constitution or those that are sick.[146] He stated that there are no requirements that Bahá'ís become vegetarian, but that a future society should gradually become vegetarian.[146][147][148] `Abdu'l-Bahá also stated that killing animals was contrary to compassion.[146] While Shoghi Effendi, the head of the Bahá'í Faith in the first half of the 20th century, stated that a purely vegetarian diet would be preferable since it avoided killing animals,[149] both he and the Universal House of Justice, the governing body of the Bahá'ís have stated that these teachings do not constitute a Bahá'í practice and that Bahá'ís can choose to eat whatever they wish but should be respectful of others' beliefs.[146]

Buddhism

Theravadins in general eat meat.[150] If Buddhist monks "see, hear or know" a living animal was killed specifically for them to eat, they must refuse it or else incur an offense.[151] However, this does not include eating meat which was given as alms or commercially purchased. In the Theravada canon, Buddha did not make any comment discouraging them from eating meat (except specific types, such as human, elephant meat, horse, dog, snake, lion, tiger, leopard, bear, and hyena flesh[152]) but he specifically refused to institute vegetarianism in his monastic code when a suggestion had been made.[153][154]

In several Sanskrit texts of Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha instructs his followers to avoid meat.[155][156][157][158] However, each branch of Mahayana Buddhism selects which sutra to follow, and some branches, including the majority of Tibetan and Japanese Buddhists, do eat meat, while many Chinese Buddhist branches do not.

Christianity

Christians have always been free to make their own decisions about what to eat; however, there are groups within Christianity that practice specific dietary restrictions for various reasons.[159] The early sect known as the Ebionites are considered to have practiced vegetarianism. Surviving fragments from their Gospel indicate their belief that – as Christ is the Passover sacrifice and eating the Passover lamb is no longer required – a vegetarian diet may (or should) be observed. However, orthodox Christianity does not accept their teaching as authentic. Indeed, their specific injunction to strict vegetarianism was cited as one of the Ebionites' "errors".[160][161]

At a much later time, the Bible Christian Church founded by Reverend William Cowherd in 1809 followed a vegetarian diet.[162] Cowherd was one of the philosophical forerunners of the Vegetarian Society.[163] Cowherd encouraged members to abstain from eating of meat as a form of temperance.[164]

Seventh-day Adventists are encouraged to engage in healthy eating practices, and ova-lacto-vegetarian diets are recommended by the General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists Nutrition Council (GCNC). They have also sponsored and participated in many scientific studies exploring the impact of dietary decisions upon health outcomes.[165] The GCNC has in addition adapted the USDA's food pyramid for a vegetarian dietary approach.[165][166] However, the only kinds of meat specifically frowned upon by the SDA health message are unclean meats, or those forbidden in scripture.[167]

Additionally, some monastic orders follow a vegetarian diet, and members of the Orthodox Church follow a vegan diet during fasts.[168] There is also a strong association between the Quakers and vegetarianism dating back at least to the 18th century. The association grew in prominence during the 19th century, coupled with growing Quaker concerns in connection with alcohol consumption, anti-vivisection and social purity. The association between the Quaker tradition and vegetarianism, however, becomes most significant with the founding of the Friends' Vegetarian Society in 1902 "to spread a kindlier way of living amongst the Society of Friends."[169]

According to Canon Law, Roman Catholics are required to abstain from meat (defined as all animal flesh excluding water animals) on Ash Wednesday and all Fridays of Lent including Good Friday. Canon Law also obliges Catholics to abstain from meat on the Fridays of the year outside of Lent (excluding certain holy days) unless, with the permission of the local conference of bishops, another penitential act is substituted. The restrictions on eating meat on these days is solely as an act of penance and not because of a religious objection to eating meat.[170]

Seventh-day Adventist

Sanitarium products for sale.

Since the formation of the Seventh-day Adventist Church in the 1860s when the church began, wholeness and health have been an emphasis of the Adventist church, and has been known as the "health message" belief of the church.[171] Adventists are well known for presenting a health message that recommends vegetarianism and expects adherence to the kosher laws in Leviticus 11. Obedience to these laws means abstinence from pork, shellfish, and other animals proscribed as "unclean". The church discourages its members from consuming alcoholic beverages, tobacco or illegal drugs (compare Christianity and alcohol). In addition, some Adventists avoid coffee, tea, cola, and other beverages containing caffeine.

The pioneers of the Adventist Church had much to do with the common acceptance of breakfast cereals into the Western diet, and the "modern commercial concept of cereal food" originated among Adventists.[172] John Harvey Kellogg was one of the early founders of Adventist health work. His development of breakfast cereals as a health food led to the founding of Kellogg's by his brother William. In both Australia and New Zealand, the church-owned Sanitarium Health and Wellbeing Company is a leading manufacturer of health and vegetarian-related products, most prominently Weet-Bix.

Research funded by the U.S. National Institutes of Health has shown that the average Adventist in California lives 4 to 10 years longer than the average Californian. The research, as cited by the cover story of the November 2005 issue of National Geographic, asserts that Adventists live longer because they do not smoke or drink alcohol, have a day of rest every week, and maintain a healthy, low-fat vegetarian diet that is rich in nuts and beans.[173][174] The cohesiveness of Adventists' social networks has also been put forward as an explanation for their extended lifespan.[175] Since Dan Buettner's 2005 National Geographic story about Adventist longevity, his book, The Blue Zones: Lessons for Living Longer From the People Who've Lived the Longest, named Loma Linda, California a "blue zone" because of the large concentration of Seventh-day Adventists. He cites the Adventist emphasis on health, diet, and Sabbath-keeping as primary factors for Adventist longevity.[176][177]

An estimated 35% of Adventists practice vegetarianism or veganism, according to a 2002 worldwide survey of local church leaders.[178][179]

Hinduism

Illustrative of vegetarian Hindu meals.

Though there is no strict rule on what to consume and what not to, paths of Hinduism hold vegetarianism as an ideal. Some reasons are: the principle of nonviolence (ahimsa) applied to animals;[180] the intention to offer only "pure" (vegetarian) food to a deity and then to receive it back as prasad; and the conviction that a sattvic diet is beneficial for a healthy body and mind and that non-vegetarian food is not recommended for a better mind and for spiritual development.

However, the food habits of Hindus vary according to their community, location, custom and varying traditions. Historically and currently, those Hindus who eat meat prescribe Jhatka meat,[181] while some Hindus believe that the cow is a holy animal whose slaughter for meat is forbidden.[182]

Islam

Some followers of Islam, or Muslims, chose to be vegetarian for health, ethical, or personal reasons. However, the choice to become vegetarian for non-medical reasons can sometimes be controversial due to conflicting fatwas and differing interpretations of the Quran. Though some more traditional Muslims may keep quiet about their vegetarian diet, the number of vegetarian Muslims is increasing.[183][184]

Vegetarianism has been practiced by some influential Muslims including the Iraqi theologian, female mystic and poet Rabia of Basra, who died in the year 801, and the Sri Lankan Sufi master Bawa Muhaiyaddeen, who established The Bawa Muhaiyaddeen Fellowship of North America in Philadelphia. The former Indian president Dr. A. P. J. Abdul Kalam was also famously a vegetarian.[185]

In January 1996, The International Vegetarian Union announced the formation of the Muslim Vegetarian/Vegan Society.[186]

Many non-vegetarian Muslims will select vegetarian (or seafood) options when dining in non-halal restaurants. However, this is a matter of not having the right kind of meat rather than preferring not to eat meat on the whole.[184]

Jainism

The food choices of Jains are based on the value of Ahimsa (non-violence).

Followers of Jainism believe that all living organisms whether they are micro-organism are living and have a soul, and have one or more senses out of five senses and they go to great lengths to minimise any harm to any living organism. Most Jains are lacto-vegetarians but more devout Jains do not eat root vegetables because they believe that root vegetables contain a lot more micro-organisms as compared to other vegetables, and that, by eating them, violence of these micro-organisms is inevitable. So they focus on eating beans and fruits, whose cultivation do not involve killing of a lot of micro-organisms. No products obtained from dead animals are allowed, because when a living beings dies, a lot of micro-organisms (called as decomposers) will reproduce in the body which decomposes the body, and in eating the dead bodies, violence of decomposers is inevitable. Jain monks usually do a lot of fasting, and when they knew through spiritual powers that their life is very little, they start fasting until death.[187][188] Some particularly dedicated individuals are fruitarians.[189] Honey is forbidden, because honey is the regurgitation of nectar by bees [190] and may also contain eggs, excreta and dead bees. Some Jains do not consume plant parts that grow underground such as roots and bulbs, because the plants themselves and tiny animals may be killed when the plants are pulled up.[191]

Judaism

While classical Jewish law neither requires nor prohibits the consumption of meat, Jewish vegetarians often cite Jewish principles regarding animal welfare, environmental ethics, moral character, and health as reasons for adopting a vegetarian or vegan diet.[192][193]

A number of medieval rabbis (e.g., Joseph Albo and Isaac Arama) regard vegetarianism as a moral ideal because the slaughter of animals might cause the individual who performs such acts to develop negative character traits. Many modern rabbis, by contrast, advocate vegetarianism or veganism primarily because of concerns about animal welfare, especially in light of the traditional prohibition on causing unnecessary "pain to living creatures" (tza'ar ba'alei hayyim).[194]

According to Genesis, consumption of meat was prohibited to human beings (1:29-30) though Noah was given permission to consume meat after the Great Flood. Some advocates of Jewish vegetarianism, such as Rabbi Abraham Isaac Kook, describe vegetarianism as an eschatological ideal to which all human beings must eventually return.[195] A number of Jewish vegetarian groups and activists promote such ideas and believe that the halakhic permission to eat meat is a temporary leniency for those who are not ready yet to accept the vegetarian diet.[196] For some commentators, such as Rabbi Shlomo Ephraim Luntschitz, the complexity of the laws of sacrifice and slaughter (shechita) was intended to discourage the consumption of meat and make it less painful for the animals.[197]

Jewish vegetarianism and veganism have become especially popular among Israeli Jews. In 2016, Israel was described as "the most vegan country on Earth", as five percent of its population eschewed all animal products.[198] Interest in veganism has grown among both non-Orthodox and Orthodox Jews in Israel.[199]

Rastafari

Within the Afro-Caribbean community, a minority are Rastafari and follow the dietary regulations with varying degrees of strictness. The most orthodox eat only "Ital" or natural foods, in which the matching of herbs or spices with vegetables is the result of long tradition originating from the African ancestry and cultural heritage of Rastafari.[200] "Ital", which is derived from the word vital, means essential to human existence. Ital cooking in its strictest form prohibits the use of salt, meat (especially pork), preservatives, colorings, flavorings and anything artificial.[201] Most Rastafari are vegetarian.[202]

Sikhism

At the Sikh langar, all people eat a vegetarian meal as equals.

The tenets of Sikhism do not advocate a particular stance on either vegetarianism or the consumption of meat,[203][204][205][206] but leave the decision of diet to the individual.[207] The tenth guru, Guru Gobind Singh, however, prohibited "Amritdhari" Sikhs, or those that follow the Sikh Rehat Maryada (the Official Sikh Code of Conduct)[208] from eating Kutha meat, or meat which has been obtained from animals which have been killed in a ritualistic way. This is understood to have been for the political reason of maintaining independence from the then-new Muslim hegemony, as Muslims largely adhere to the ritualistic halal diet.[203][207]

"Amritdharis" that belong to some Sikh sects (e.g. Akhand Kirtani Jatha, Damdami Taksal, Namdhari[209] and Rarionwalay,[210] etc.) are vehemently against the consumption of meat and eggs (though they do consume and encourage the consumption of milk, butter and cheese).[211] This vegetarian stance has been traced back to the times of the British Raj, with the advent of many new Vaishnava converts.[207] In response to the varying views on diet throughout the Sikh population, Sikh Gurus have sought to clarify the Sikh view on diet, stressing their preference only for simplicity of diet. Guru Nanak said that over-consumption of food (Lobh, Greed) involves a drain on the Earth's resources and thus on life.[212][213] Passages from the Guru Granth Sahib (the holy book of Sikhs, also known as the Adi Granth) say that it is "foolish" to argue for the superiority of animal life, because though all life is related, only human life carries more importance: "Only fools argue whether to eat meat or not. Who can define what is meat and what is not meat? Who knows where the sin lies, being a vegetarian or a non-vegetarian?"[207] The Sikh langar, or free temple meal, is largely lacto-vegetarian, though this is understood to be a result of efforts to present a meal that is respectful of the diets of any person who would wish to dine, rather than out of dogma.[206][207]

Environment and diet

Environmental vegetarianism is based on the concern that the production of meat and animal products for mass consumption, especially through factory farming, is environmentally unsustainable. According to a 2006 United Nations initiative, the livestock industry is one of the largest contributors to environmental degradation worldwide, and modern practices of raising animals for food contribute on a "massive scale" to air and water pollution, land degradation, climate change, and loss of biodiversity. The initiative concluded that "the livestock sector emerges as one of the top two or three most significant contributors to the most serious environmental problems, at every scale from local to global."[214]

In addition, animal agriculture is a large source of greenhouse gases. According to a 2006 report it is responsible for 18% of the world's greenhouse gas emissions as estimated in 100-year CO2 equivalents. Livestock sources (including enteric fermentation and manure) account for about 3.1 percent of US anthropogenic GHG emissions expressed as carbon dioxide equivalents.[215] This EPA estimate is based on methodologies agreed to by the Conference of Parties of the UNFCCC, with 100-year global warming potentials from the IPCC Second Assessment Report used in estimating GHG emissions as carbon dioxide equivalents.

Meat produced in a laboratory (called in vitro meat) may be more environmentally sustainable than regularly produced meat.[216] Reactions of vegetarians vary.[217] Rearing a relatively small number of grazing animals can be beneficial, as the Food Climate Research Network at Surrey University reports: "A little bit of livestock production is probably a good thing for the environment.[218]

In May 2009, Ghent, Belgium, was reported to be "the first [city] in the world to go vegetarian at least once a week" for environmental reasons, when local authorities decided to implement a "weekly meatless day". Civil servants would eat vegetarian meals one day per week, in recognition of the United Nations' report. Posters were put up by local authorities to encourage the population to take part on vegetarian days, and "veggie street maps" were printed to highlight vegetarian restaurants. In September 2009, schools in Ghent are due to have a weekly veggiedag ("vegetarian day") too.[219]

Labor conditions and diet

Some groups, such as PETA, promote vegetarianism as a way to offset poor treatment and working conditions of workers in the contemporary meat industry.[220] These groups cite studies showing the psychological damage caused by working in the meat industry, especially in factory and industrialised settings, and argue that the meat industry violates its labourers' human rights by assigning difficult and distressing tasks without adequate counselling, training and debriefing.[221][222][223] However, the working conditions of agricultural workers as a whole, particularly non-permanent workers, remain poor and well below conditions prevailing in other economic sectors.[224] Accidents, including pesticide poisoning, among farmers and plantation workers contribute to increased health risks, including increased mortality.[225] According to the International Labour Organization, agriculture is one of the three most dangerous jobs in the world.[226]

Economics and diet

Similar to environmental vegetarianism is the concept of economic vegetarianism. An economic vegetarian is someone who practices vegetarianism from either the philosophical viewpoint concerning issues such as public health and curbing world starvation, the belief that the consumption of meat is economically unsound, part of a conscious simple living strategy or just out of necessity. According to the Worldwatch Institute, "Massive reductions in meat consumption in industrial nations will ease their health care burden while improving public health; declining livestock herds will take pressure off rangelands and grainlands, allowing the agricultural resource base to rejuvenate. As populations grow, lowering meat consumption worldwide will allow more efficient use of declining per capita land and water resources, while at the same time making grain more affordable to the world's chronically hungry."[227]

Demographics

Prejudice researcher Gordon Hodson observes that vegetarians and vegans frequently face discrimination where eating meat is held as a cultural norm.[228]

Gender

A 1992 market research study conducted by the Yankelovich research organisation concluded that "of the 12.4 million people [in the US] who call themselves vegetarian, 68% are female, while only 32% are male".[229]

At least one study indicates that vegetarian women are more likely to have female babies. A study of 6,000 pregnant women in 1998 "found that while the national average in Britain is 106 boys born to every 100 girls, for vegetarian mothers the ratio was just 85 boys to 100 girls".[230] Catherine Collins of the British Dietetic Association has dismissed this as a "statistical fluke" given that it is actually the male's genetic contribution which determines the sex of a baby.[230]

Country-specific information

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ Vesanto Melina, a British Columbian registered dietitian and author of Becoming Vegetarian, stresses there is no cause and effect relationship between vegetarianism and eating disorders, although people who have eating disorders may label themselves as vegetarians "so that they won't have to eat."[128] Indeed, research indicates that the large majority of vegetarian or vegan anorexics and bulimics chose their diets after the onset of their disease. The "restricted" eating patterns of vegetarianism and veganism can legitimize the removal of numerous high-fat, energy-dense foods such as meat, eggs, cheese. However, the eating pattern chosen by those with anorexia or bulimia nervosa is far more restrictive than a healthful vegetarian diet, eliminating nuts, seeds, avocados, and limiting overall caloric intake.

References

  1. ↑ "What is a vegetarian?". Vegetarian Society. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
    A vegetarian is someone who lives on a diet of grains, pulses, legumes, nuts, seeds, vegetables, fruits, fungi, algae, yeast and/or some other non-animal-based foods (e.g. salt) with, or without, dairy products, honey and/or eggs. A vegetarian does not eat foods that consist of, or have been produced with the aid of products consisting of or created from, any part of the body of a living or dead animal. This includes meat, poultry, fish, shellfish*, insects, by-products of slaughter** or any food made with processing aids created from these.
  2. ↑ "FAQ: Gelatin". IVU World Vegfest. International Vegetarian Union. March 8, 2013. Archived from the original on April 3, 2014. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
     'Kosher Gelatin Marshmallows: Glatt Kosher and "OU-Pareve",' an article that appeared in Kashrus Magazine, explains the distinctions. A quote from the article is as follows: '...since the gelatin product is from hides or bones—not real flesh—and has undergone such significant changes, it is no longer considered 'fleishig' (meat) but 'pareve', and can be eaten with dairy products.' [...] Rennet is like gelatin in the sense that it's a common food additive but the foods containing it are often considered vegetarian.
  3. 1 2 3 4 5 "Why Avoid Hidden Animal Ingredients?". North American Vegetarian Society. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
    Surprisingly, some people who consider themselves vegetarian continue to consume products that contain remains of slaughtered animals such as gelatin (made from ground-up skin and bones, found in Jell-O, supplement capsules, and photographic film) and rennet (made from the lining of calves' stomachs, used to coagulate hard cheese). Some of these people may be unaware that these hidden animal ingredients even exist. Others know about them but feel that they are just minor components of a product, and that their presence is therefore not important. [...] Many people who do not eat meat for ethical reasons do use animal by-products that are obtained while the animals are still alive. Dairy is a good example, as many vegetarians who consume it rationalize their behavior by pointing out that cows are not killed in order to provide humans with this particular by-product.
  4. 1 2 3 Forrest, Jamie (December 18, 2007). "Is Cheese Vegetarian?". Serious Cheese. Serious Eats. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018. Some vegetarians are OK eating cheeses made with animal rennet, but many will seek out ones made with vegetarian rennet, especially since the latter are quite prevalent nowadays.
  5. 1 2 3 "Fact Sheets: Things to look out for if you are a vegetarian/vegan". Vegetarian Society. September 2015. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
  6. 1 2 Keevican, Michael (November 5, 2003). "What's in Your Cheese?". Vegetarian Resource Group. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018. Many vegetarians don't consider that some of the cheeses they are eating could actually contain unfamiliar animal ingredients. That's right cheese, a common staple in many vegetarian diets, is often made with rennet or rennin, which is used to coagulate the dairy product.
  7. ↑ "FAQ: Food Ingredients". Vegetarian Resource Group. Archived from the original on November 4, 2013. Retrieved March 18, 2018. Why are some cheeses labeled as 'vegetarian cheese'? Why wouldn't cheese be vegetarian? What is rennet?
  8. 1 2 3 Shorter Oxford English Dictionary (2002 and 2007) defines "vegetarian" (noun) as "A person who on principle abstains from animal food; esp. one who avoids meat but will eat dairy produce and eggs and sometimes also fish (cf. VEGAN noun)."
  9. 1 2 Barr SI, Chapman GE (March 2002). "Perceptions and practices of self-defined current vegetarian and nonvegetarian women". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 102 (3): 354–360. doi:10.1016/S0002-8223(02)90083-0. PMID 11902368.
  10. ↑ "Pescetarian". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018. Definition of pescatarian: one whose diet includes fish but no other meat
  11. 1 2 3 "Vegetarians don't eat fish, shellfish or crustacea, but they can still enjoy one of the healthiest diets available". Vegetarian Society. Archived from the original on March 4, 2016. Retrieved March 18, 2018. Many things have changed since the Vegetarian Society was founded way back in 1847, but fish have always been cold-blooded water dwelling animals and vegetarians do not eat animals.
  12. ↑ Rod Preece, Sins of the Flesh: A History of Ethical Vegetarian Thought, Vancouver: University of British Columbia Press, 2008, 12.
  13. ↑
  14. ↑ Davis, John (June 1, 2011). "The Vegetus Myth". VegSource. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018. Vegetarian can equally be seen as derived from the late Latin 'vegetabile' – meaning plant – as in Regnum Vegetabile / Plant Kingdom. Hence vegetable, vegetation – and vegetarian. Though others suggest that 'vegetable' itself is derived from 'vegetus'. But it's very unlikely that the originators went through all that either – they really did just join 'vegetable+arian', as the dictionaries have said all along.
  15. 1 2 OED vol. 19, second edition (1989), p. 476; Webster’s Third New International Dictionary p. 2537; The Oxford Dictionary of English Etymology, Oxford, 1966, p. 972; The Barnhart Dictionary of Etymology (1988), p. 1196; Colin Spencer, The Heretic's Feast. A History of Vegetarianism, London 1993, p. 252. The OED writes that the word came into general use after the formation of the Vegetarian Society at Ramsgate in 1847, though it offers two examples of usage from 1839 and 1842:
    • 1839: "If I had had to be my own cook, I should inevitably become a vegetarian." (F. A. Kemble, Jrnl. Residence on Georgian Plantation (1863) 251)
    • 1842: "To tell a healthy vegetarian that his diet is very uncongenial with the wants of his nature." (Healthian, Apr. 34) The 1839 occurrence remains under discussion; the Oxford English Dictionary's 1839 source is in fact an 1863 publication: Fanny Kemble, Journal of a Residence on a Georgian Plantation 1838–1839. The original manuscript has not been located.
  16. 1 2 3 Davis, John. "History of Vegetarianism: Extracts from some journals 1842–48 – the earliest known uses of the word 'vegetarian'". International Vegetarian Union. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018. In 1841 the [Alcott House] was re-invented as A Concordium, or Industry Harmony College though the building remained 'Alcott House'. Also in 1841 they began printing and publishing their own pamphlets, which now seem to be lost, but we have the relevant extracts, with the earliest known use of 'vegetarian', from their first journal which began in December 1841[.]
  17. 1 2 Davis, John. "History of Vegetarianism: Extracts from some journals 1842–48 – the earliest known uses of the word 'vegetarian' (Appendix 2 – The 1839 journal of Fanny Kemble)". International Vegetarian Union. Archived from the original on March 18, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
  18. ↑ "FAQ: Definitions". IVU World Vegfest. International Vegetarian Union. March 8, 2013. Archived from the original on April 16, 2015. Retrieved March 18, 2018. The term 'Vegetarian' was first used around 1840 by the community closely associated with Alcott House School, near London, and they used it to refer exclusively to foods derived from plants—plus all the ethical values associated today with Veganism. [...] The word 'Vegetarian' was first formally used on September 30th of 1847 at Northwood Villa in Kent, England. The occasion being the inaugural meeting of The Vegetarian Society.
  19. ↑ Anand M. Saxena (2013). The Vegetarian Imperative. Johns Hopkins University Press. pp. 201–202. ISBN 978-14214-02-420.
  20. ↑ Olivelle, transl. from the original Sanskrit by Patrick (1998). Upaniṣads (Reissued ed.). Oxford [u.a.]: Oxford Univ. Press. ISBN 978-0192835765.
  21. ↑ Bajpai, Shiva (2011). The History of India – From Ancient to Modern Times. Himalayan Academy Publications (Hawaii, USA). ISBN 978-1-934145-38-8.
  22. ↑ Spencer, Colin (1996). The Heretic's Feast: A History of Vegetarianism. Fourth Estate Classic House. pp. 33–68, 69–84. ISBN 978-0874517606.
  23. ↑ Singh, Kumar Suresh (2004). People of India: Maharashtra. ISBN 9788179911006.
  24. ↑ Fieldhouse, Paul (2017-04-17). Food, Feasts, and Faith: An Encyclopedia of Food Culture in World Religions [2 volumes]. ISBN 9781610694124.
  25. ↑ Walters, Kerry (2012-06-07). Vegetarianism: A Guide for the Perplexed. ISBN 9781441115294.
  26. ↑ Spencer p. 38–55, 61–63; Haussleiter p. 79–157.
  27. 1 2 Zhmud, Leonid (2012). Pythagoras and the Early Pythagoreans. Translated by Windle, Kevin; Ireland, Rosh. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press. p. 235. ISBN 978-0-19-928931-8.
  28. 1 2 3 4 Borlik, Todd A. (2011). Ecocriticism and Early Modern English Literature: Green Pastures. New York City, New York and London, England: Routledge. pp. 189–192. ISBN 978-0-203-81924-1.
  29. ↑ Jones, Lindsay (2005). Encyclopedia of religion (13 ed.). ISBN 9780028659824.
  30. ↑ Religious Vegetarianism From Hesiod to the Dalai Lama, ed. Kerry S. Walters and Lisa Portmess, Albany 2001, p. 13–46.
  31. 1 2 Pope, GU (1886). Thirukkural English Translation and Commentary (PDF). W.H. Allen, & Co. p. 160.
  32. ↑ Datta, P. T. Jyothi (September 4, 2001). "Health goes dotty with brown eggs & green milk". Hindu Business Line. New Delhi: Kasturi & Sons (published September 5, 2001). Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018. For discerning consumers, a recent Health Ministry notification had made it mandatory for packed food containing animal parts contained in a box, to sport a brown dot prominently on its label.
  33. ↑ Passmore John (1975). "The Treatment of Animals". Journal of the History of Ideas. 36 (2): 196–201. doi:10.2307/2708924. JSTOR 2708924.
  34. ↑ Lutterbach, Hubertus. "Der Fleischverzicht im Christentum", Saeculum 50/II (1999) p. 202.
  35. ↑ Mortimer, Ian (January 2010) [Originally published in Great Britain in 2008 by Random House UK]. "What to Eat and Drink: Noble Households". In Sulkin, Will; Hensgen, Jörg. The Time Traveler's Guide to Medieval England (Hardcover) (1st Touchstone hardcover ed.). New York, NY: Touchstone (Simon & Schuster). p. 140. ISBN 978-1-4391-1289-2. Seals, porpoises, dolphins, barnacle geese, puffins, and beavers are all classed as fish as their lives begin in the sea or in a river. Hence they are eaten gleefully, even on nonmeat days.
  36. ↑ Spencer p. 180–200.
  37. ↑ Spencer p. 252–253, 261–262.
  38. ↑ Bauer, K., "The Domestication of Radical Ideas and Colonial Spaces", in M. Schulze, et al., eds., German Diasporic Experiences (Waterloo, ON: Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2008), pp. 345–358.
  39. ↑ Craig WJ, Mangels AR (July 2009). "Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian Diets". Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. 109 (7): 1266–1282. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027. PMID 19562864. Retrieved January 6, 2016.
  40. ↑ Engber, Daniel (July 30, 2008). "The Great Vegan Honey Debate: Is honey the dairy of the insect world?". Slate. Archived from the original on March 9, 2018. Retrieved March 9, 2018.
  41. 1 2 Yabroff, Jennie (December 30, 2009). "Vegetarians Who Eat Meat". Newsweek. Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018.
  42. ↑ Gale, Catharine R. et al. "IQ in childhood and vegetarianism in adulthood: 1970 British cohort study" Archived March 4, 2016, at the Wayback Machine., British Medial Journal, December 15, 2006, vol 333, issue 7581, p. 245.
  43. ↑ "Meat". Merriam-Webster Online Dictionary. Merriam-Webster. Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018. Definition of meat [2a]: 2b; also: flesh of a mammal as opposed to fowl or fish
  44. ↑ "2003 Words of the Year". American Dialect Society. January 13, 2004. Archived from the original on March 19, 2018. Retrieved March 18, 2018. Most Useful: word or phrase which most fills a need for a new word – Winner flexitarian: noun, a vegetarian who occasionally eats meat. 31–41
  45. ↑ DietaryGuidelines Archived December 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.. (PDF) . Retrieved on May 25, 2011.
  46. 1 2 Li D (2014). "Effect of the vegetarian diet on non-communicable diseases". J. Sci. Food Agric. (Review). 94 (2): 169–73. doi:10.1002/jsfa.6362. PMID 23965907.
  47. 1 2 Huang, Tao; Yang, Bin; Zheng, Jusheng; Li, Guipu; Wahlqvist, Mark L.; Li, Duo (January 1, 2012). "Cardiovascular disease mortality and cancer incidence in vegetarians: a meta-analysis and systematic review". Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 60 (4): 233–240. doi:10.1159/000337301. ISSN 1421-9697. PMID 22677895.
  48. ↑ Appleby, Paul N; Crowe, Francesca L; Bradbury, Kathryn E; Travis, Ruth C; Key, Timothy J (January 20, 2017). "Mortality in vegetarians and comparable nonvegetarians in the United Kingdom123". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 103 (1): 218–230. doi:10.3945/ajcn.115.119461. ISSN 0002-9165. PMC 4691673. PMID 26657045.
  49. ↑ Key, T. J.; Fraser, G. E.; Thorogood, M.; Appleby, P. N.; Beral, V.; Reeves, G.; Burr, M. L.; Chang-Claude, J.; Frentzel-Beyme, R.; Kuzma, J. W.; Mann, J.; McPherson, K. (September 1, 1999). "Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70 (3 Suppl): 516S–524S. doi:10.1079/phn19980006. ISSN 0002-9165. PMID 10479225.
  50. ↑ Leitzmann, Claus (2005). "Vegetarian diets: what are the advantages?". Forum of Nutrition (57): 147–156. ISSN 1660-0347. PMID 15702597.
  51. ↑ "Position of the American Dietetic Association: Vegetarian diets". July 2009. Archived from the original on November 13, 2012. Retrieved November 18, 2012.
  52. ↑ Key TJ, Fraser GE, Thorogood M, Appleby PN, Beral V, Reeves G, Burr ML, Chang-Claude J, Frentzel-Beyme R, Kuzma JW, Mann J, McPherson K (1999). "Mortality in vegetarians and nonvegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70 (3 Suppl): 516S–524S. doi:10.1079/phn19980006. PMID 10479225.
  53. ↑ "Rejecting meat 'keeps weight low'". BBC News. March 14, 2006. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  54. ↑ "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets" (PDF). Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103 (6): 748–65. 2003. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50142. PMID 12778049.
  55. ↑ Fraser GE (2009). "Vegetarian diets: what do we know of their effects on common chronic diseases?". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 89 (5): 1607S–1612S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736K. PMC 2677008. PMID 19321569.
  56. ↑ "Position of the American Dietetic Association and Dietitians of Canada: Vegetarian diets". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 103 (6): 748–65. 2003. doi:10.1053/jada.2003.50142. PMID 12778049. Retrieved October 27, 2014.
  57. ↑ "Vitamin B12 Linked to Osteoporosis and Bone Loss in Vegetarians". April 29, 2011. Retrieved November 4, 2011.
  58. ↑ Wang YF, Chiu JS, Chuang MH, Chiu JE, Lin CL (2008). "Bone mineral density of vegetarian and non-vegetarian adults in Taiwan". Asia Pac J Clin Nutr. 17 (1): 101–6. PMID 18364334.
  59. ↑ Ellis FR, Holesh S, Ellis JW (1972). "Incidence of osteoporosis in vegetarians and omnivores". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 25 (6): 555–8. doi:10.1093/ajcn/25.6.555. PMID 5033736.
  60. ↑ "Boning Up on Osteoporosis". Ars.usda.gov. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  61. ↑ "China-Cornell-Oxford Project". Cornell University. Archived from the original on February 23, 2009. Retrieved March 31, 2012.
  62. ↑ Brody, Jane E. (May 8, 1990). "Huge Study Of Diet Indicts Fat And Meat". The New York Times.
  63. ↑ Daily Telegraph, p.6, August 7, 2017
  64. 1 2 Grant, WB (July 2016). "Using Multicountry Ecological and Observational Studies to Determine Dietary Risk Factors for Alzheimer's Disease". Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 35 (5): 476–89. doi:10.1080/07315724.2016.1161566. PMID 27454859.
  65. ↑ Key TJ, Appleby PN, Rosell MS (2006). "Health effects of vegetarian and vegan diets". Proceedings of the Nutrition Society. 65 (1): 35–41. doi:10.1079/PNS2005481. PMID 16441942.
  66. ↑ Craig, W. J. (2009). "Health effects of vegan diets". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 89 (5): 1627S–33S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.2009.26736n. PMID 19279075.
  67. 1 2 Davey GK, Spencer EA, Appleby PN, Allen NE, Knox KH, Key TJ (2003). "EPIC-Oxford: lifestyle characteristics and nutrient intakes in a cohort of 33 883 meat-eaters and 31 546 non meat-eaters in the UK". Public Health Nutrition. 6 (3): 259–69. doi:10.1079/PHN2002430. PMID 12740075.
  68. ↑ "Vegetarian and vegan eating | Better Health Channel". Betterhealth.vic.gov.au. Archived from the original on April 2, 2015. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  69. ↑ Peter Emery, Tom Sanders (2002). Molecular Basis of Human Nutrition. Taylor & Francis Ltd. p. 32. ISBN 978-0-7484-0753-8.
  70. ↑ Brenda Davis, Vesanto Melina (2003). The New Becoming Vegetarian. Book Publishing Company. pp. 57–58. ISBN 978-1-57067-144-9.
  71. ↑ "Soybeans, mature seeds, raw". NutritionData.com. Retrieved August 28, 2012.
  72. ↑ "Seeds, chia seeds, dried". NutritionData.com. Retrieved August 28, 2012.
  73. ↑ "Amaranth, uncooked". NutritionData.com. Retrieved August 28, 2012.
  74. ↑ "Buckwheat". NutritionData.com. Retrieved August 28, 2012.
  75. ↑ "Pumpkin Seeds". NutritionData.com. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
  76. ↑ "Spirulina". NutritionData.com. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
  77. ↑ "Pistachio". NutritionData.com. Retrieved October 3, 2013.
  78. ↑ "Quinoa, cooked". NutritionData.com. Retrieved August 28, 2012.
  79. ↑ Young VR, Pellett PL (1994). "Plant proteins in relation to human protein and amino acid nutrition". Am. J. Clinical Nutrition. 59 (5 Suppl): 1203S–1212S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/59.5.1203s. PMID 8172124.
  80. ↑ "Vegetarian Society - Factsheet - Iron". Vegsoc.org. September 22, 2014. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  81. ↑ "Vegetarianism in a Nutshell". Vrg.org. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  82. ↑ "// Health Issues // Optimal Vegan Nutrition". Goveg.com. Retrieved August 9, 2009.
  83. ↑ Waldmann A, Koschizke JW, Leitzmann C, Hahn A (2004). "Dietary Iron Intake and Iron Status of German Female Vegans: Results of the German Vegan Study". Ann Nutr Metab. 48 (2): 103–108. doi:10.1159/000077045. PMID 14988640.
  84. ↑ Krajcovicová-Kudlácková M, Simoncic R, Béderová A, Grancicová E, Magálová T (1997). "Influence of vegetarian and mixed nutrition on selected haematological and biochemical parameters in children". Nahrung. 41 (5): 311–14. doi:10.1002/food.19970410513. PMID 9399258.
  85. ↑ Craig WJ, Mangels AR (2009). "Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets". Journal of the American Dietetic Association. 109 (7): 1266–82. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027. PMID 19562864.
  86. 1 2 "Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin B12". National Institutes of Health: Office of Dietary Supplements. Retrieved November 13, 2009.
  87. ↑ "Food and description" (PDF). Mext.go.jp. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  88. ↑ （科学技術・学術政策局政策課資源室）. "五訂増補日本食品標準成分表：文部科学省". Mext.go.jp. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  89. ↑ "CiNii Articles - Vegans (pure vegetarians) and vitamin B_12 deficiency". Ci.nii.ac.jp. December 20, 2003. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  90. ↑ "What Every Vegan Should Know About Vitamin B12". Vegan Society. October 31, 2001. Retrieved October 27, 2010.
  91. ↑ Donaldson MS (2000). "Metabolic vitamin B12 status on a mostly raw vegan diet with follow-up using tablets, nutritional yeast, or probiotic supplements". Annals of Nutrition & Metabolism. 44 (5–6): 229–34. doi:10.1159/000046689. PMID 11146329.
  92. ↑ "Vitamins and minerals - NHS Choices". Nhs.uk. February 18, 2015. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  93. ↑ Mozafar, A. (1997). "Is there vitamin B12 in plants or not? A plant nutritionist's view". Vegetarian Nutrition: an International Journal (1/2). pp. 50–52.
  94. ↑ Rosell MS, Lloyd-Wright Z, Appleby PN, Sanders TA, Allen NE, Key TJ (2003). "Long-chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids in plasma in British meat-eating, vegetarian, and vegan men". Am J Clin Nutr. 82 (2): 327–34. doi:10.1093/ajcn.82.2.327. PMID 16087975.
  95. ↑ "Water4life: health-giving vegetarian dietary supplements". Retrieved May 17, 2008.
  96. ↑ Babadzhanov A; Abdusamatova N; Yusupova F; Faizullaeva N; Mezhlumyan LG; Malikova MKh (2004). "Chemical Composition of Spirulina platensis Cultivated in Uzbekistan". Chemistry of Natural Compounds. 40 (3): 276–279. doi:10.1023/B:CONC.0000039141.98247.e8.
  97. ↑ Tokuşoglu Ö, Uunal MK (2003). "Biomass Nutrient Profiles of Three Microalgae: Spirulina platensis, Chlorella vulgaris, and Isochrisis galena". Journal of Food Science. 68 (4): 1144–1148. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2621.2003.tb09615.x.
  98. 1 2 3 4 "Meeting Calcium Recommendations on a Vegan Diet" (PDF). Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics. Retrieved April 29, 2014.
  99. 1 2 3 4 5 6 "Calcium Fact Sheet". Retrieved April 29, 2014.
  100. 1 2 3 Mangels, Reed. "Calcium in the Vegan Diet". Retrieved April 29, 2014.
  101. 1 2 NIH. "Overview of Calcium". Retrieved April 29, 2014.
  102. ↑ "Vitamin D is Synthesized From Cholesterol and Found in Cholesterol-Rich Foods". Cholesterol and Health.
  103. ↑ Crissey SD, Ange KD, Jacobsen KL, Slifka KA, Bowen PE, Stacewicz-Sapuntzakis M, Langman CB, Sadler W, Kahn S, Ward A (2003). "Serum concentrations of lipids, vitamin D metabolites, retinol, retinyl esters, tocopherols and selected carotenoids in twelve captive wild felid species at four zoos". The Journal of Nutrition. 133 (1): 160–6. doi:10.1093/jn/133.1.160. PMID 12514284.
  104. ↑ "Dietary Supplement Fact Sheet: Vitamin D". National Institutes of Health. Archived from the original on September 10, 2007. Retrieved September 10, 2007.
  105. ↑ "Dr. Duke's Phytochemical and Ethnobotanical Databases". Sun.ars-grin.gov. Archived from the original on October 16, 2015. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  106. ↑ "USDA nutrient database – use the keyword 'portabella' and then click submit".
  107. ↑ Bowerman, Susan (March 31, 2008). "If mushrooms see the light". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved March 25, 2010.
  108. ↑ P Urbain; F Singler; G Ihorst; H-K Biesalski; H Bertz (May 4, 2011). "Bioavailability of vitamin D2 from UV-B-irradiated button mushrooms in healthy adults deficient in serum 25-hydroxyvitamin D: a randomized controlled trial". European Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 65 (8): 965–971. doi:10.1038/ejcn.2011.53. PMID 21540874. Retrieved January 8, 2016.
  109. ↑ Hohman EE, Martin BR, Lachcik PJ, Gordon DT, Fleet JC, Weaver CM (May 24, 2012). "Bioavailability and Efficacy of Vitamin D 2 from UV-Irradiated Yeast in Growing, Vitamin D-Deficient Rats". J. Agric. Food Chem. 59 (6): 2341–6. doi:10.1021/jf104679c. PMC 3235799. PMID 21332187.
  110. ↑ Koyyalamudi SR, Jeong SC, Song CH, Cho KY, Pang G (2009). "Vitamin D2 formation and bioavailability from Agaricus bisporus button mushrooms treated with ultraviolet irradiation". Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry. 57 (8): 3351–5. doi:10.1021/jf803908q. PMID 19281276.
  111. ↑ Using Fresh Mushrooms as a Source of Vitamin D. "Using Fresh Mushrooms as a Source of Vitamin D / Nutrition / Healthy Eating". Fitday.com. Retrieved September 12, 2012.
  112. ↑ "Bringing Mushrooms Out of the Dark". MSNBC. April 18, 2006. Retrieved August 6, 2007.
  113. 1 2 Key TJ, Fraser GE, Thorogood M, Appleby PN, Beral V, Reeves G, Burr ML, Chang-Claude J, Frentzel-Beyme R, Kuzma JW, Mann J, McPherson K (September 1999). "Mortality in vegetarians and non-vegetarians: detailed findings from a collaborative analysis of 5 prospective studies". American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 70 (3): 516S–524S. doi:10.1079/phn19980006. PMID 10479225. Retrieved October 30, 2009.
  114. ↑ Key TJ, Appleby PN, Davey GK, Allen NE, Spencer EA, Travis RC (2003). "Mortality in British vegetarians: review and preliminary results from EPIC-Oxford". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 78 (3 Suppl): 533S–538S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/78.3.533S. PMID 12936946.
  115. ↑ Appleby PN, Key TJ, Thorogood M, Burr ML, Mann J (2002). "Mortality in British vegetarians" (PDF). Public Health Nutrition. 5 (1): 29–36. doi:10.1079/PHN2001248. PMID 12001975.
  116. ↑ Loma Linda University Adventist Health Sciences Center, New Adventist Health Study research noted in Archives of Internal Medicine, Loma Linda University, July 26, 2001. Retrieved January 9, 2010.
  117. ↑ Singh PN, Sabaté J, Fraser GE (2003). "Does low meat consumption increase life expectancy in humans". Am J Clin Nutr. 78 (3): 526S–532S. doi:10.1093/ajcn/78.3.526S. PMID 12936945. Retrieved September 28, 2012.
  118. ↑ Trichopoulou A, Orfanos P, Norat T, Bueno-de-Mesquita B, Ocké MC, Peeters PH, van der Schouw YT, Boeing H, Hoffmann K, Boffetta P, Nagel G, Masala G, Krogh V, Panico S, Tumino R, Vineis P, Bamia C, Naska A, Benetou V, Ferrari P, Slimani N, Pera G, Martinez-Garcia C, Navarro C, Rodriguez-Barranco M, Dorronsoro M, Spencer EA, Key TJ, Bingham S, Khaw KT, Kesse E, Clavel-Chapelon F, Boutron-Ruault MC, Berglund G, Wirfalt E, Hallmans G, Johansson I, Tjonneland A, Olsen A, Overvad K, Hundborg HH, Riboli E, Trichopoulos D (2005). "Modified Mediterranean diet and survival: EPIC-elderly prospective cohort study". BMJ. 330 (7498): 991. doi:10.1136/bmj.38415.644155.8F. PMC 557144. PMID 15820966. Lay summary.
  119. 1 2 "Advanced Glycation End Products and Nutrition". PHYSIOLOGY RESEARCH. Retrieved April 11, 2008.
  120. ↑ Tuso, Philip J; et al. (2013). "Nutritional Update for Physicians: Plant-Based Diets". The Permanente Journal (17.2): 61–66.
  121. ↑ Hagen KB, Byfuglien MG, Falzon L, Olsen SU, Smedslund G (2009). Hagen, Kåre Birger, ed. "Dietary interventions for rheumatoid arthritis". Cochrane Database Syst Rev (1): CD006400. doi:10.1002/14651858.CD006400.pub2. PMID 19160281.
  122. ↑ Maya Tiwari. Ayurveda: A Life of Balance Healing Arts Press. Rochester, VT. 1995.
  123. ↑ Haenel H (1989). "Phylogenesis and nutrition". Nahrung. 33 (9): 867–87. PMID 2697806.
  124. ↑ Cordain, Loren (2007). "Implications of Plio-pleistocene diets for modern humans". In Peter S. Ungar. Evolution of the human diet: the known, the unknown and the unknowable. pp. 264–5. "Since the evolutionary split between homininis and pongids approximately 7 million years ago, the available evidence shows that all species of hominins ate an omnivorous diet composed of minimally processed, wild-plant, and animal foods.
  125. ↑ Milton, Katharine, "A hypothesis to explain the role of meat-eating in human evolution", Evolutionary Anthropology: Issues, News, and Reviews Volume 8, Issue 1, 1999, Pages: 11–21
  126. ↑ "ABC". ABC. February 25, 2003. Archived from the original on June 9, 2008. Retrieved August 9, 2009.
  127. ↑ Craig WJ, Mangels AR (2009). "Position of the American Dietetic Association: vegetarian diets". J Am Diet Assoc. 109 (7): 1266–1282. doi:10.1016/j.jada.2009.05.027. PMID 19562864. Archived from the original on January 26, 2016. Retrieved February 3, 2016.
  128. ↑ Katherine Dedyna, Healthy lifestyle, or politically correct eating disorder?, Victoria Times Colonist, CanWest MediaWorks Publications Inc., January 30, 2004. Retrieved January 10, 2010.
  129. ↑ O'Connor MA, Touyz SW, Dunn SM, Beumont PJ (1987). "Vegetarianism in anorexia nervosa? A review of 116 consecutive cases". Med J Aust. 147 (11–12): 540–2. PMID 3696039. In only four (6.3%) of these did meat avoidance predate the onset of their anorexia nervosa.
  130. ↑ Perry, CL; Mcguire, MT; Neumark-Sztainer, D; Story, M (December 2001). "Characteristics of vegetarian adolescents in a multiethnic urban population". The Journal of Adolescent Health : Official Publication of the Society for Adolescent Medicine. 29 (6): 406–16. doi:10.1016/s1054-139x(01)00258-0. PMID 11728890.
  131. ↑ Michalak, J; Zhang, XC; Jacobi, F (June 7, 2012). "Vegetarian diet and mental disorders: results from a representative community survey". The International Journal of Behavioral Nutrition and Physical Activity. 9: 67. doi:10.1186/1479-5868-9-67. PMC 3466124. PMID 22676203.
  132. ↑ Rich, JL; Byrne, JM; Curryer, C; Byles, JE; Loxton, D (October 21, 2013). "Prevalence and correlates of depression among Australian women: a systematic literature review, January 1999- January 2010". BMC Research Notes. 6: 424. doi:10.1186/1756-0500-6-424. PMC 3827921. PMID 24138703.
  133. ↑ David Benatar (2001). "Why the Naive Argument against Moral Vegetarianism Really is Naive". Environmental Values. 10 (1): 103–112. doi:10.3197/096327101129340769.
  134. ↑ McMahan, Jeff (2002). The Ethics of Killing. Oxford University Press.
  135. ↑ "Animals and Ethics [Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy]". Iep.utm.edu. January 13, 2010. Retrieved September 12, 2012.
  136. 1 2 Erik Marcus (2000). Vegan: The New Ethics of Eating. ISBN 9781590133446.
  137. 1 2 3 4 Vegetarian Society. "Dairy Cows & Welfare".
  138. ↑ Vegetarian Society. "Egg Production & Welfare".
  139. ↑ Ovid, Metamorphoses, Book XV, translated by A.D. Melville, Oxford University Press, 1986.
  140. ↑ Kochhal, M. (October 2004). "Vegetarianism: Jainism and vegetarianism (ahisma)". Archived from the original on July 20, 2011.
  141. ↑ Teachings on Love, Thich Nhat Hanh, Berkeley: Parallax Press, 1998.
  142. ↑ Junior Encyclopaedia of Sikhism (1985)l by H. S. Singha; p. 124 ISBN 0-7069-2844-X / 0-7069-2844-X
  143. ↑ Kakshi, S.R. (2007). "12". In S. R. Bakshi; Rashmi Pathak. Punjab Through the Ages. 4 (1st ed.). New Delhi: Sarup and Sons. p. 241. ISBN 978-81-7625-738-1.
  144. ↑ "Shiromani Gurudwara Prabhandhak Committee". Sgpc.net. Archived from the original on May 25, 2009. Retrieved August 29, 2009.
  145. ↑ "The Sikhism Home Page". Sikhs.org. February 15, 1980. Retrieved August 29, 2009.
  146. 1 2 3 4 Smith, Peter (2000). "Diet". A concise encyclopedia of the Bahá'í Faith. Oxford: Oneworld Publications. pp. 121–122. ISBN 978-1-85168-184-6.
  147. ↑ Esslemont, J.E. (1980). Bahá'u'lláh and the New Era (5th ed.). Wilmette, Illinois, USA: Bahá'í Publishing Trust. ISBN 978-0-87743-160-2.
  148. ↑ `Abdu'l-Bahá (1912). MacNutt, ed. The Promulgation of Universal Peace. Wilmette, Illinois, US: Bahá'í Publishing Trust (published 1982). ISBN 978-0-87743-172-5.
  149. ↑ Research Department, Universal House of Justice. "Writings Concerning Health, Healing, and Nutrition". Retrieved May 25, 2009.
  150. ↑ "Buddhist Studies: Vegetarianism". Buddhanet.net. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  151. ↑ Archived October 7, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  152. ↑ Mahavagga Pali – Bhesajjakkhandhaka – Vinaya Pitaka
  153. ↑ "Buddhism and Vegetarianism, The Rationale for the Buddha's Views on the Consumption of Meat" Archived October 7, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. by Dr V. A. Gunasekara" 'The rule of vegetarianism was the fifth of a list of rules which Devadatta had proposed to the Buddha. Devadatta was the founder of the tapasa movement in Buddhism and his special rules involved ascetic and austere practices (forest-dwelling, wearing only rags, etc). The Buddha rejected all the proposed revisions of Devadatta, and it was in this context that he reiterated the tikoiparisuddha rule. (On this see the author's Western Buddhism and a Theravada heterodoxy, BSQ Tracts on Buddhism'
  154. ↑ "Buddhism and Eating Meat". Urbandharma.org. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  155. ↑ "Life as a Vegetarian Tibetan Buddhist Practitioner". Serv-online.org. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  156. ↑ Gyatso, Janet (November 1999). Apparitions of the Self: The Secret Autobiographies of a Tibetan Visionary - Google Books. ISBN 978-0691009483. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  157. ↑ The Life of Shabkar: The Autobiography of a Tibetan Yogin - Google Books. June 3, 2014. ISBN 9781559398749. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  158. ↑ Archived November 5, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  159. ↑ "Code of Canon Law". vatican.va. Retrieved July 28, 2013.
  160. ↑ Epiphanius, Panarion, 30.22.4
  161. ↑ Isidore of Seville, Etymologies, VIII.v.36
  162. ↑ "The Bible Christian Church". International Vegetarian Union.
  163. ↑ "History of Vegetarianism – Early Ideas". The Vegetarian Society. Retrieved July 8, 2008. ; Gregory, James (2007) Of Victorians and Vegetarians. London: I. B. Tauris pp. 30–35.
  164. ↑ "William Cowherd (brief information)". Oxford Dictionary of National Biography. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
  165. 1 2 "Position Statement on Vegetarian Diet". Sdada.org. Archived from the original on May 29, 2012. Retrieved September 12, 2012.
  166. ↑ Archived May 13, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  167. ↑ "The Seventh-day Adventist Health Message". Sdada.org. Archived from the original on May 13, 2013. Retrieved November 28, 2012.
  168. ↑ "Living an Orthodox Life: Fasting". Orthodoxinfo.com. May 27, 1997. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
  169. ↑ "The Great War and the Interwar Period". ivu.org. Retrieved August 14, 2009.
  170. ↑ "Fast and Abstinence". EWTN. Retrieved November 2, 2015.
  171. ↑ "Health". Archived from the original on October 3, 2006. Retrieved October 6, 2006.
  172. ↑ Britannica.com
  173. ↑ Buettner, Dan (November 16, 2005). "The Secrets of Long Life". National Geographic. 208 (5): 2–27. ISSN 0027-9358. Retrieved June 6, 2006. Excerpt. See also National Geographic, "Sights & Sounds of Longevity"
  174. ↑ Anderson Cooper, Gary Tuchman (November 16, 2005). "CNN Transcripts on Living Longer". Retrieved August 25, 2006. See CNN excerpt on YouTube
  175. ↑ Kolata, Gina (January 3, 2007). "A Surprising Secret to a Long Life: Stay in School". The New York Times.
  176. ↑ Archived February 25, 2009, at the Wayback Machine.
  177. ↑ The Blue Zone on YouTube
  178. ↑ "Three Strategic Issues: A World Survey". General Conference of Seventh-day Adventists, 2002. See question 26, on page 14 etc. Archived December 2, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  179. ↑ See also "The Myth of Vegetarianism" Keith Lockhart. Spectrum 34 (Winter 2006), p22–27
  180. ↑ Tähtinen, Unto: Ahimsa. Non-Violence in Indian Tradition, London 1976, p. 107–109.
  181. ↑ "The Hindu : Sci Tech / Speaking Of Science : Changes in the Indian menu over the ages". Hinduonnet.com. October 21, 2004. Archived from the original on August 26, 2010. Retrieved February 3, 2010.
  182. ↑ "The states where cow slaughter is legal in India". The Indian Express. October 8, 2015.
  183. ↑ "Vegetarian Muslim: Turning Away From a Meat-Based Diet". Huffington Post. Retrieved June 14, 2016.
  184. 1 2 "Muslims can't be Vegetarian? : Islam : Dietery Law". Ipaki.com. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  185. ↑ "lokpriya!". Lokpriya.com. Archived from the original on March 21, 2015. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  186. ↑ "IVU News – Islam and Vegetarianism". Ivu.org. Retrieved August 9, 2009.
  187. ↑ "Vegetarianism Good For The Self And Good For The Environment" Archived January 1, 2016, at the Wayback Machine. at The Jain Study Circle
  188. ↑ "Spiritual Traditions and Vegetarianism" at the Vegetarian Society of Colorado website. Archived March 1, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
  189. ↑ Matthews, Warren: World Religions, 4th edition, Belmont: Thomson/Wadsworth 2005, p. 180. ISBN 0-534-52762-0
  190. ↑ Noah Lewis. "Why honey is not vegan". vegetus.org. Retrieved December 30, 2015.
  191. ↑ Archived October 2, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  192. ↑ "Animal Welfare - Hazon". Hazon. Retrieved March 26, 2018.
  193. ↑ Mary L. Zamore, ed. The Sacred Table: Creating a Jewish Food Ethic (New York, NY: CCAR Press, 2011).
  194. ↑ Kalechofsky, Roberta (1995). Rabbis and Vegetarianism: An Evolving Tradition. Micah Publications.
  195. ↑ Kook, Avraham Yitzhak (1961). Cohen, David, ed. "A Vision of Vegetarianism and Peace" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on October 15, 2013.
  196. ↑ "Judaism & Vegetarianism". Jewishveg.com. Archived from the original on September 2, 2009. Retrieved August 9, 2009.
  197. ↑ "The Vision of Eden: Animal Welfare and Vegetarianism" in "Jewish Law and Mysticism", Orot 2003
  198. ↑ "How Israel Became the Global Center of Veganism". The Tower. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
  199. ↑ "The Rise of Israel's Orthodox Vegan Movement – Tablet Magazine". www.tabletmag.com. Retrieved May 23, 2018.
  200. ↑ Osborne, L (1980), The Rasta Cookbook, 3rd ed. Mac Donald, London.
  201. ↑ "Ital Cooking". Eat Jamaican. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  202. ↑ Kebede, A., & Knotternus, D. (1998). "Beyond the pales of babylon: the ideational components and social psychological foundations of rastafari". Sociological Perspectives. 41 (3): 499–517. doi:10.2307/1389561. JSTOR 1389561.
  203. 1 2 "Sikhism Religion of the Sikh People". Sikhs.org. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  204. ↑ I.J. Singh, Sikhs and Sikhism, Manohar, Delhi ISBN 978-81-7304-058-0: "Throughout Sikh history, there have been movements or subsects of Sikhism which have espoused vegetarianism. I think there is no basis for such dogma or practice in Sikhism."
  205. ↑ Surindar Singh Kohli, Guru Granth Sahib, An Analytical Study, Singh Bros. Amritsar ISBN 81-7205-060-7: "The ideas of devotion and service in Vaishnavism have been accepted by Adi Granth, but the insistence of Vaishnavas on vegetarian diet has been rejected."
  206. 1 2 Gopal Singh, History of the Sikh People, World Sikh Univ. Press, Delhi, ISBN 978-81-7023-139-4: "Nowadays in the Community Kitchen attached to the Sikh temples, and called the Guru's Kitchen (or Guru-ka-langar), meat dishes are not served at all. Maybe it is on account of its being, perhaps, expensive or not easy to keep for long. Or perhaps the Vaishnava tradition is too strong to be shaken off."
  207. 1 2 3 4 5 Randip Singh, Fools Who Wrangle Over Flesh, Sikh Philosophy Network, December 7, 2006. Retrieved January 15, 2010.
  208. ↑ "Sikh Reht Maryada, The Definition of Sikh, Sikh Conduct & Conventions, Sikh Religion Living, India". sgpc.net. Archived from the original on August 20, 2009. Retrieved August 29, 2009.
  209. ↑ Jane Srivastava, "Vegetarianism and Meat-Eating in 8 Religions", Hinduism Today, Spring 2007. Retrieved January 9, 2010.
  210. ↑ Gyani Sher Singh, Philosophy of Sikhism, Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee, Amritsar: "As a true Vaisnavite, Kabir remained a strict vegetarian. Kabir, far from defying Brahmanical tradition as to the eating of meat, would not permit so much as the plucking of a flower (G.G.S. p. 479), whereas Nanak deemed all such scruples to be superstitions."
  211. ↑ "Volunteer. Guru Ka Langar. Mata Khivi Made Langar a Reality". Sikhwomen.com. March 6, 2005. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  212. ↑ "Sikhism Home Page". Sikhs.org. Retrieved August 9, 2009.
  213. ↑ Singh, Prithi Pal (2006). "3 Guru Amar Das". The History of Sikh Gurus. New Delhi: Lotus Press. p. 38. ISBN 978-81-8382-075-2.
  214. ↑ "Livestock's Long Shadow – Environmental issues and options". Fao.org. Retrieved August 9, 2009.
  215. ↑ EPA. 2011. Inventory of U.S. greenhouse gas emissions and sinks: 1990–2009. United States Environmental Protection Agency. EPA 430-R-11-005. 459 pp.
  216. ↑ Olsson, Anna (July 8, 2008). "Comment: Lab-grown meat could ease food shortage". New Scientist. Retrieved November 17, 2008.
  217. ↑ "Could vegetarians eat a 'test tube' burger? - BBC News". Bbc.co.uk. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  218. ↑ "Why eating less meat could cut global warming | Environment". Guardian.co.uk. November 10, 2007. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  219. ↑ Mason, Chris (May 12, 2009). "Europe | Belgian city plans 'veggie' days". News.bbc.co.uk. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  220. ↑ "Killing for a Living: How the Meat Industry Exploits Workers". Retrieved July 16, 2009.
  221. ↑ "Worker Health and Safety in the Meat and Poultry Industry". Hrw.org. Retrieved August 9, 2009.
  222. ↑ "Food Safety, the Slaughterhouse, and Rights". Ncrlc.com. March 30, 2004. Archived from the original on December 23, 2007. Retrieved August 9, 2009.
  223. ↑ Positive Safety Culture. The key to a safer meat industry Archived April 12, 2011, at the Wayback Machine., A literature review July 2000, safework.sa.gov.au
  224. ↑ "Sectoral Policies Department (SECTOR)". Ilo.org. Retrieved March 31, 2015.
  225. ↑ Archived December 3, 2013, at the Wayback Machine.
  226. ↑ World Development Report 2008: Agriculture for Development, Published by World Bank Publications p. 207
  227. ↑ "Archived copy". Archived from the original on May 17, 2008. Retrieved February 6, 2016.
  228. ↑ Hodson, Gordon (September 1, 2012). "Prejudice Against "Group X" (Asexuals)". Psychology Today. Retrieved December 30, 2013.
  229. ↑ Joanne McAllister Smart (February 1995). "The gender gap: if you're a vegetarian, odds are you're a woman. Why?". Vegetarian Times (210): 74. ISSN 0164-8497. Retrieved January 12, 2016.
  230. 1 2 "'More girl babies' for vegetarians". BBC News. August 7, 2000. Retrieved August 9, 2009.

Further reading

  • Adam D. Shprintzen. The Vegetarian Crusade: The Rise of an American Reform Movement, 1817–1921. Chapel Hill, NC: University of North Carolina Press, 2013.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.