Plug-in electric vehicles in the United States

American Recovery and Reinvestment Act

President Barack Obama pledged US$2.4 billion in federal grants to support the development of next-generation electric vehicles and batteries.^[34][35] $1.5 billion in grants to U.S. based manufacturers to produce highly efficient batteries and their components; up to $500 million in grants to U.S. based manufacturers to produce other components needed for electric vehicles, such as electric motors and other components; and up to $400 million to demonstrate and evaluate plug-in hybrids and other electric infrastructure concepts—like truck stop charging station, electric rail, and training for technicians to build and repair electric vehicles (greencollar jobs).^[36]

San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom at the opening of the public plug-in charging stations in front of San Francisco City Hall in 2009

In March 2009, as part of the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act, the U.S. Department of Energy announced the release of two competitive solicitations for up to $2 billion in federal funding for competitively awarded cost-shared agreements for manufacturing of advanced batteries and related drive components as well as up to $400 million for transportation electrification demonstration and deployment projects. This initiative aimed to help meet President Barack Obama's goal of putting one million plug-in electric vehicles on the road by 2015.^[20][37]

In 2008, San Francisco Mayor Gavin Newsom, San Jose Mayor Chuck Reed and Oakland Mayor Ron Dellums announced a nine-step policy plan for transforming the Bay Area into the "Electric Vehicle (EV) Capital of the U.S.".^[38] Other local and state governments have also expressed interest in electric cars.^[39]

A 2013 study published in the journal Energy Policy explored the relative benefits of a vehicle-charging network and plug-in hybrid vehicles with larger batteries. Across the battery-capacity and charging-infrastructure scenarios examined, the lowest-cost solution is for more drivers to switch to traditional hybrid electrics or low-capacity plug-in hybrid electric vehicles (PHEVs). Installing charging infrastructure would provide lower gasoline savings per dollar spent than paying for increased PHEV battery capacity. In addition, the study determined that current federal subsidies are "not aligned with the goal of decreased gasoline consumption in a consistent and efficient manner."^[40][41]

Tax credits

New plug-in electric vehicles

Federal incentives

First the Energy Improvement and Extension Act of 2008, and later the American Clean Energy and Security Act of 2009 (ACES) granted tax credits for new qualified plug-in electric drive motor vehicles.^[17] The American Recovery and Reinvestment Act of 2009 (ARRA) also authorized federal tax credits for converted plug-ins, though the credit is lower than for new PEVs.^[18]

President Barack Obama behind the wheel of a new Chevrolet Volt during his tour of the General Motors Auto Plant in Hamtramck, Michigan in 2010.

As defined by the 2009 ACES Act, a PEV is a vehicle which draws propulsion energy from a traction battery with at least 5 kwh of capacity and uses an offboard source of energy to recharge such battery.^[17] The tax credit for new plug-in electric vehicles is worth US$2,500 plus US$417 for each kilowatt-hour of battery capacity over 5 kwh, and the portion of the credit determined by battery capacity cannot exceed US$5,000. Therefore, the total amount of the credit, between US$2,500 and US$7,500, will vary depending on the capacity of the battery (4 to 16 kWh) used to power the vehicles.^[42]

The qualified plug-in electric vehicle credit phases out for a PEV manufacturer over the one-year period beginning with the second calendar quarter after the calendar quarter in which at least 200,000 qualifying PEVs from that manufacturer have been sold for use in the U.S. Cumulative sales started counting sales after December 31, 2009. After reaching the cap, qualifying PEVs for one quarter still earn the full credit, the second quarter after that quarter PEVS are eligible for 50% of the credit for six months, then 25% of the credit for another six months and finally the credit is phased out.^[17] Both the Nissan Leaf electric vehicle and the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid, launched in December 2010, are eligible for the maximum $7,500 tax credit.^[43] The Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrid, released in January 2012, is eligible for a US$2,500 tax credit due to its smaller battery capacity of 5.2 kWh.^[44] All Tesla cars and Chevrolet Bolts are eligible for the 7,500 tax credit.

A 2016 study conducted by researchers from the University of California, Davis found that the federal tax credit was the reason behind more than 30% of the plug-in electric sales. The impact of the federal tax incentive is higher among owners of the Nissan Leaf, with up to 49% of sales attributable to the federal incentive. The study, based on an stated preference survey of more than 2,882 plug in vehicle owners in 11 states, also found that the federal tax credit shifts buyers from internal combustion engine vehicles to plug-in vehicles and advances the purchase timing of new vehicles by a year or more.^[45]

State incentives

Chevrolet Volt with California's HOV lane access green sticker.

As of November 2014, a total of 37 states and Washington, D.C. have established incentives and tax or fee exemptions for BEVs and PHEVs, or utility-rate breaks, and other non-monetary incentives such as free parking and high-occupancy vehicle lane access regardless of the number of occupants.^[19] In California, for example, the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP) was established to promote the production and use of zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs). Eligible vehicles include only new Air Resources Board-certified or approved zero-emission or plug-in hybrid electric vehicles.^[46] Among the eligible vehicles are neighborhood electric vehicles, battery electric, plug-in hybrid electric, and fuel cell vehicles including cars, trucks, medium- and heavy-duty commercial vehicles, and zero-emission motorcycles. Vehicles must be purchased or leased on or after March 15, 2010. Rebates initially of up to US$5,000 per light-duty vehicle, and later lowered to up to US$2,500, are available for individuals and business owners who purchase or lease new eligible vehicles. Certain zero-emission commercial vehicles are also eligible for rebates up to US$20,000.^[47][48][49] California's zero-emission(ZEV) regulations are anticipated to result in 1.5 million electric vehicles on the road by 2025 ( i.e., 15% sales of total states in 2025), moreover, the California's mixed incentives means to reach 40% of electric vehicle sales in the entire U.S^[50].

All electric vehicle purchases made in any of the 50 states are eligible for the $7,500 federal tax credit. Local governments may offer additional rebates.

The following table summarizes some of the state incentives:^[51][52]

State incentives for plug-in electric vehicles[53]
State	Amount of incentive	Type of PEV/vehicle	Type of incentive	Carpool lane access	Comments
Arizona		BEVs	Lower vehicle licensing tax	Yes	Eligibility for PHEVs depends on the extent to which the vehicle is powered by electricity. Maximum of $75 available to individuals for installation of EV charging outlets.
California	up to $2,500	BEVs	Purchase rebate	Yes	Free access to HOVs through January 1, 2019, which also benefits natural gas vehicles and hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.[54] The amount of subsidies received is limited by annual income as of March 29, 2016.
	up to $2,500	PHEVs	Purchase rebate	Yes	PHEV free access to HOV lanes until January 1, 2019.[30] The cap was originally for the first 70,000 applicants. The cap was later raised to 85,000 and the limit was reached in December 2015. Per SB-838, and effective as of September 13, 2016, the Green Clean Air Vehicle Decal limit imposed by AB 95 has been removed.[55]
	up to $1,500	Electric motorcycles and NEVs	Purchase rebate	Yes	All motorcycles have free access to HOV lanes.
Colorado	up to $6,000	BEVs and PHEVs	Income tax credit	No	Tax credit totaling 75 to 85% of the cost premium for a vehicle that uses or is converted to use an alternative fuel, is a hybrid electric vehicle or has its power source replaced with one that uses an alternative fuel. A 20% rebate also available for EV charger installation.[56]
Connecticut	up to $3,000	BEVs, PHEV	Rebate	No	CHEAPR provides up to $3,000 for fuel cell EV, EV or plug-in hybrid electric vehicle. Rebates are offered on a first-come, first-served basis.
Delaware	up to $2,200	EV	Rebate	No	Customers with at a grid-integrated EV may qualify to receive kilowatt-hour credits for energy discharged to the grid from the EV's battery at the same rate that the customer pays to charge the battery.
District of Columbia		BEVs and PHEVs	Excise tax exemption and reduced registration fees	No	A tax credit up to 50% of the equipment costs for the purchase and installation of electric vehicle charging station, up to $1,000 per residential install.
Florida		BEVs and PHEVs		Yes	Access to HOVs through January 1, 2018 if displaying the EV decal. Florida Statutes protects consumers from additional charges from insurance providers from insuring electric vehicles.
Georgia	$0	ZEVs	Income tax credit	Yes	Tax credit of 20% of the cost of a zero emission vehicle up to $5,000 purchased before July 1, 2015. Plug-in hybrids were not eligible for this incentive.[57] The incentive removal reduced sales of small EVs but had little effect on large EVs.[58]
	up to $2,500	Alternative fuel conversion	Income tax credit	Yes	Tax credit of 10% of the conversion cost for a vehicle converted to run solely on an alternative fuel and meets the standards for a low-emission vehicle up to $2,500.[57]
	up to $20,000	Commercial AFVs	Income tax credit	Yes	Tax credit for new commercial medium-duty or heavy-duty AFVs or Medium-duty hybrid EVs that operate using at least 90% alternative fuel, expires June 30, 2017.[59]
Hawaii		BEVs and PHEVs	Parking	Yes	Carpool lane access and reduced rates for electric vehicle charging. EVs with EV license plates are exempt from certain parking fees charged by any non-federal government authorities.
Idaho		BEVs, PHEV	Inspection Exemption	No	EVs are exempt from state motor vehicle inspection and maintenance programs.
Illinois		BEVs, PHEVs and conversions	Inspection Exemption	No	Vehicles powered exclusively by electricity are exempt from state motor vehicle emissions inspections; this was suspended in March 2015. Covered 80% of cost premium or electric conversion price, up to $4,000.
Indiana	up to $1,650	BEVs, PHEV		No	Credit to install residential charging station and free plug-in electric vehicle charging during off-peak hours until Jan. 31, 2017.
Louisiana	up to $3,000	BEVs, PHEVs and conversions	Inspection Exemption	No	Tax credit of 50% of cost premium for BEV/PHEV purchase, 50% of conversion cost, or a tax credit worth 10% of the cost of a new BEV/PHEV vehicle up to $3,000. This same credit also applies to charge station costs.
Maryland	up to $3,000	BEVs and PHEVs		Yes[60]	Plug-in EVs are eligible for an excise tax credit until July 1, 2017.[61] The state also offers a US$900 rebate for buying and installation of wall connectorsfor individuals; US$5,000 for business, or state or local governments; and US$7,000 for retail service station dealers.[62]
Massachusetts	up to $1,000	BEVs and PHEVs	Purchase rebate		Up to $1,000 rebate for purchasing PEVs, funds are limited.[63]
Michigan		BEVs, PHEV	Inspection exemption	No	Alternative fuel vehicles are exempt from emissions inspection requirements. Indiana Michigan Power, Consumers Energy and DTE Energy offer other incentives.
Minnesota		BEVs, PHEV		No	All public utilities must file a tariff that allows a customer to purchase electricity solely for the purpose of recharging an electric vehicle. The tariff must include either a time-of-day or off-peak rate.
Mississippi		BEVs, PHEV	Income tax credit	No	0% interest loans for public school districts and municipalities to purchase alternative fuel school buses and other motor vehicles, convert school buses and other motor vehicles to use alternative fuels, purchase alternative fuel equipment, and install fueling stations.
Missouri	up to $15,000	BEVs, PHEV		No	Tax credit for the cost of installing a qualified alternative fueling station, until Jan. 1, 2018, and are exempt from state emissions inspection requirements.
Montana	up to $500	Alternative fuel conversion	Income tax credit	No	Credit only available for conversion costs up to $500 or 50% of conversion cost. Includes electric car conversion.[64]
Nebraska		BEVs, PHEV	Loans	No	Provides low-cost loans for purchase of EVs, the conversion of conventional vehicles to operate on alternative fuels, and the construction or purchase of a fueling station or equipment.
Nevada		BEVs, PHEV		Yes	Exempt from emissions testing requirements and local public metered parking areas must have areas for EVs to park without paying a fee. Carpool lane access and reduced rates for electric vehicle charging.
New Hampshire	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A	N/A
New Jersey		BEVs	Sales and use tax exemption	No	Sales tax exemption for qualifying BEVs only, not PHEVs. The Turnpike offers a 10% discount from off-peak toll rates on the New Jersey Turnpike for vehicles that have a fuel economy of 45 miles per gallon or higher.
New York		BEVs, PHEVs and HEVs		Yes	Plug-in electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles with a combined fuel economy rating of at least 45 mpg‑US (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg‑imp) and that also meet the California Air Resources Board SULEV emissions standard, are eligible for the Clean Pass Program. Eligible vehicles which display the Clean Pass vehicle sticker are allowed to use the Long Island Expressway HOV lanes, regardless of the number of occupants.[65] Drivers of qualified vehicles may also receive a 10% discount on established E-ZPass accounts with proof of registration.[66] A tax credit for 50 percent of the cost, up to $5,000, for the purchase and installation of a charging station until Dec. 31, 2017.
North Carolina		PHEV		Yes	Qualified PEVs are exempt from state emissions inspection requirements.
Ohio		EV		Yes	Vehicles powered exclusively by electricity, propane, or natural gas are exempt from state vehicle emissions inspections after receiving a one-time verification inspection.
Oklahoma	75% cost		Income tax credit	No	A tax credit is available for up to 75 percent of the cost of installing charging stations.
Oregon		BEVs	Income tax credit	No	A tax credit for 25% of charging station costs, up to $750 (more for commercial use).
Pennsylvania	up to $2,000	BEVs and PHEVs	Purchase rebate	No	250 rebates to assist with the purchase of new EVs. As of June 24, 2015, 193 rebates remain.[67]
Rhode Island		PHEV	Inspection exemption	No	Vehicles powered exclusively by electricity are exempt from state emissions control inspections.
South Carolina	up to $1,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Income tax credit	No	Tax credit equaling 20% of federal credit for PHEVs and BEVs.
Tennessee	up to $2,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Rebate	Yes	Rebate is limited. HOV lane access.
Texas	up to US$2,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Rebate	No	Only purchases or leases made on or after May 13, 2014 until June 26, 2015 are eligible. The maximum number of vehicles allowed for rebates 2,000 for each plug-in electric drive and natural gas/propane vehicles for the length of the program.[68][69] Texas restored the $2,500 state rebate in 2017 through dealerships. Auto manufacturers without stores in Texas, like Tesla, are not qualified.[70] AirCheckTexas, Drive a Clean Machine program, provides vouchers of $3,500 to qualified individuals for the purchase of hybrid, electric or natural gas vehicles.
Utah	up to $1,500	Conversions only	Income tax credit	Yes	Credit to convert a vehicle to run on propane, natural gas, or electricity. Allowed carpool lane access.
	up to $1,500	BEVs and PHEVs	Income tax credit	Yes	Until Dec. 31, 2016
Virginia		BEVs and PHEVs		No	Alternative fuel and hybrid electric vehicles are exempt from emissions testing.
Washington		BEVs	Sales tax	No	New passenger cars, light-duty trucks, and medium-duty passenger vehicles that operate exclusively on electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, or propane are exempt from state motor vehicle sales and use taxes. Qualified vehicles must also meet the California motor vehicle emissions standards, and comply with the rules of the Washington Department of Ecology. The sales tax exemption applies to vehicles with a fair market value below US$35,000 and expires July 1, 2019, or should end the month after 7,500 qualifying vehicles are sold in the state. The state Department of Licensing was directed to start a tally beginning with PEV registrations since July 15, 2015.[71][72] Alternative fuel and hybrid electric vehicles are exempt from emissions testing. Beginning on July 1, 2016, the sales tax exemption applies to the first US$32,000 of the selling price of a qualifying new plug-in electric car, which translates into a tax savings between US$2,600 to US$3,100 for plug-in car buyers depending on where the dealer is located within the state, as the sales tax vary by county. The incentive applies towards the purchase or lease of a new car all-electric vehicle, or a plug-in hybrid with at least 30 mi (48 km) of all-electric range – such as the Chevrolet Volt and the BMW i3 REx. The new law also raises the previous purchase price cap to US$42,500, which will allow buyers of the Chevrolet Bolt EV, the next generation Nissan Leaf, and the Tesla Model 3 – all with 200 mi (320 km) of electric range – to be eligible for the incentive.[73]
Washington, D.C.		BEVs	Sales tax	No	Vehicles that operate exclusively on electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, or propane are exempt from excise taxes.

New proposals

A 2014 proposal to increase the maximum tax credit for plug-in electric vehicles to US$10,000, would not apply to luxury vehicles with a sales price of over US$45,000, such as the Cadillac ELR (shown) and the Tesla Model S.

Several separate initiatives have been pursued unsuccessfully at the federal level since 2011 to transform the tax credit into an instant cash rebate. The objective of these initiatives is to make new qualifying plug-in electric cars more accessible to buyers by making the incentive more effective. The rebate would be available at the point of sale allowing consumers to avoid a wait of up to a year to apply the tax credit against income tax returns.^[74][75][76]

In March 2014, the Obama Administration included a provision in the FY 2015 Budget to increase the maximum tax credit for plug-in electric vehicles and other advanced vehicles to US$10,000, over the current US$7,500. However, the new maximum tax credit would not apply to luxury vehicles with a sales price of over US$45,000, such as the Tesla Model S and the Cadillac ELR, which would be capped at US$7,500. According to the Treasury Department, the proposal intends to transform the existing tax credit into a rebate available at the point of sale that will be claimable by dealers and passed along to the consumers. The proposal also seeks to remove the 200,000 vehicle cap per manufacturer after which the credit phases out over a year. Instead, the incentives would begin to phase out starting in 2019 for all manufacturers, and the credit would be completely phased out by 2022, and fall to 75% of the current credit starting in 2019.^[77] Despite President Barack Obama's unsuccessful attempts to raise the tax credit to US$10,000 in his previous three annual budgets,^[78] the proposal was included again in the FY 2016 Budget.^[79]

In November 2017, House Republicans proposed scrapping the $7,500 tax credit as part of a sweeping tax overhaul.^[80]

EV Everywhere Challenge

On March 7, 2012, President Barack Obama launched the EV Everywhere Challenge as part of the U.S. Department of Energy’s Clean Energy Grand Challenges, which seeks to solve some of the U.S. biggest energy challenges and make clean energy technologies affordable and accessible to the vast majority of American households and businesses. The EV Everywhere Challenge has the goal of advancing electric vehicle technologies to have the country, by 2022, to produce a five-passenger electric vehicle that would provide both a payback time of less than five years and the ability to be recharged quickly enough to provide enough range for the typical American driver.^[85][86]

DoE graph showing how meeting EV Everywhere targets will significantly lower PEV 5-year cost of ownership (purchase cost plus fuel).^[87]

In January 2013 the Department of Energy (DoE) published the "EV Everywhere Grand Challenge Blueprint," which set the technical targets of the PEV program to fall into four areas: battery research and development; electric drive system research and development; vehicle lightweighting; and advanced climate control technologies. The DoE set several specific goals, established in consultation with stakeholders through a series of workshops held during the second half of 2012.^[87] The key goals to be met over the next five years to make plug-in electric vehicles competitive with conventional fossil fuel vehicles are:

• Cutting battery costs from their current US$500/kWh to US$125/kWh
• Eliminating almost 30% of vehicle weight through lightweighting
• Reducing the cost of electric drive systems from US$30/kW to US$8/kW

Achieving these goals in the next five years will result in an automotive propulsion battery with five-times the present range capacity, costing one-fifth present lithium-ion batteries. The DoE aim is to level the purchase plus operating (fuel) cost of an all-electric vehicle with a 280 mi (450 km) range with the costs of an internal combustion engine (ICE) vehicle of similar size. The DoE expects than even before the latter goals are met, the 5-year cost of ownership of most plug-in hybrid electric vehicles and of all-electric vehicles with shorter ranges, such as 100 mi (160 km), will be comparable to the same cost of ICE vehicles of similar size.^[87][88]

Energy Secretary Steven Chu announcing the new Workplace Charging Challenge at the 2013 Washington Auto Show.

In order to achieve these goals, the DoE is providing up to US$120 million over the next five years to fund the new Joint Center for Energy Storage Research (JCESR), a research center led by the Argonne National Laboratory in Chicago. JCESR is a consortium of five DOE national labs, five universities, and four private-sector enterprises, and it is being likened to the Manhattan Project of battery technology.^[88][89]

An initial progress report for the initiative was released in January 2014. Four key successes of the first year of the initiative were reported:^[90]

• DOE research and development reduced the cost of electric drive vehicle batteries to US$325/ kWhr, 50% lower than 2010 costs.
• In the first year of the Workplace Charging Challenge, more than 50 U.S. employers joined the Challenge and pledged to provide charging access at more than 150 sites.
• DOE investments in EV Everywhere technology topped US$225 million in 2013, addressing key barriers to achieving the Grand Challenge.
• Consumer acceptance of electric vehicles grew: 97,000 plug-in electric vehicles were sold in 2013, nearly doubling 2012 sales.

Workplace Charging Challenge

In January 2013, during the Washington Auto Show, Secretary of Energy Steven Chu announced an initiative to expand the EV Everywhere program with the “Workplace Charging Challenge.” This initiative is a plan to install more electric vehicle charging stations in workplace parking lots. There are 21 founding partners and ambassadors for the program, including Ford, Chrysler, General Motors, Nissan, Tesla Motors, 3M, Google, Verizon, Duke Energy, General Electric, San Diego Gas & Electric, Siemens, Plug In America, and the Rocky Mountain Institute. The initiative's target is to increase the number of U.S. employers offering workplace charging by tenfold in the next five years. Initially, the DoE will not provide funding for this initiative.^[91][92]

U.S. military

The first six neighborhood electric vehicles delivered to the U.S. Army in January 2009 as part of its plan to lease more than 4,000 of the vehicles.

The U.S. Army announced in 2009 that it will lease 4,000 Neighborhood Electric Vehicles (NEVs) within three years. The Army plans to use NEVs at its bases for transporting people around the base, as well as for security patrols and maintenance and delivery services. The Army accepted its first six NEVs at Virginia's Fort Myer in March 2009 and will lease a total of 600 NEVs through the rest of the year, followed by the leasing of 1,600 NEVs for each of the following two years. With a full eight-hour recharge, the NEVs can travel 30 miles (48 km) at a top speed of 25 mph (40 km/h).^[93]

Chevrolet Volt delivered as part of the U.S. Department of Defense and General Services Administration Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles Pilot project.

U.S. Air Force officials announced, in August 2011, a plan to establish Los Angeles Air Force Base, California, as the first federal facility to replace 100% of its general purpose fleet with plug-in electric vehicles. As part of the program, all Air Force-owned and -leased general purpose fleet vehicles on the base will be replaced with PEVs. There are approximately 40 eligible vehicles, ranging from passenger sedans to two-ton trucks and shuttle buses. The replacement PEVs include all-electric, plug-in hybrids, and extended-range electric vehicles. The initiative would not include force protection, tactical and emergency response vehicles. The program is also subject to environmental review. Electrification of Los Angeles AFB's general purpose fleet is the first step in a Department of Defense effort to establish strategies for large-scale integration of PEVs.^[94]

By May 2013, it was announced that, as part of a test program created in January 2013, 500 plug-in electric vehicles with vehicle-to-ground (V2G) technology would be in use at six military bases, purchased using an investment of $20 million. If the program succeeds, there will be 3,000 V2G vehicles in 30 bases.^[95]

Safety laws

Due to the low noise typical of electric vehicles at low speeds, the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration ruled that all hybrids and EVs must emit artificial noise when idling, accelerating to 19 mph (30 km/h) or going in reverse by September 2019.^[96]

The Chevrolet Volt and other hybrid and plug-in cars have included a noise generator when operating at low speeds to alert pedestrians to the car's presence since their inception.^[97]

U.S. commitments to the 2015 Paris Agreement

As a signatory party to the 2015 Paris Climate Agreement, the United States government committed to reduce its greenhouse gas emissions, among others, from the transportation sector.^[98] Already in 2015, the Federal government had set targets to reduce its own carbon footprint 30% by 2025, and acquire 20% of all new passenger vehicles as zero emission (all-electric of fuel cell) or plug-in hybrid by 2020, and 50% by 2025.^[98][99] These goals are part of the U.S. nationally determined contributions (NDCs) to achieve the worldwide emissions reduction goal set by the Paris Agreement.^[98][100]

U.S.-China Electric Vehicles Initiative

Building on the first-ever U.S.-China Electric Vehicle Forum in September 2009, US and China unveiled the U.S.-China Electric Vehicles Initiative, which will include developing joint standards, building demonstration projects in more than a dozen cities, creating technical roadmaps, and carrying out public education projects. Both nations said they share an interest in accelerating the deployment of electric vehicles in order to reduce oil dependence, cut greenhouse gas emissions, and promote economic growth.^[101]

EPA estimates

Several Nissan Leafs, Chevrolet Volts and Toyota Prius Plug-in Hybrids charging at a parking lot reserved for plug-in electric vehicles in California.

The following table compares tailpipe and upstream CO₂ emissions estimated by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency for all series production model year 2014 plug-in electric vehicles available in the U.S. market. Total emissions include the emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity used to charge the vehicle, and for plug-in hybrid electric vehicles, it also includes emissions associated with tailpipe emissions produced from the internal combustion engine. These figures were published by the EPA in October 2014 in its annual report "Light-Duty Automotive Technology, Carbon Dioxide Emissions, and Fuel Economy Trends." All emissions are estimated considering average real world city and highway operation based on the EPA 5-cycle label methodology, using a weighted 55% city and 45% highway driving.^[127]

For purposes of an accurate estimation of emissions, the analysis took into consideration the differences in operation between plug-in hybrids. Some, like the Chevrolet Volt, can operate in all-electric mode without using gasoline, and others operate in a blended mode like the Toyota Prius PHV, which uses both energy stored in the battery and energy from the gasoline tank to propel the vehicle, but that can deliver substantial all-electric driving in blended mode. In addition, since the all-electric range of plug-in hybrids depends on the size of the battery pack, the analysis introduced a utility factor as a projection of the share of miles that will be driven using electricity by an average driver, for both, electric only and blended EV modes. Since all-electric cars do not produce tailpipe emissions, the utility factor applies only to plug-in hybrids. The following table shows the overall fuel economy expressed in terms of miles per gallon gasoline equivalent (mpg-e) and the utility factor for the ten MY2014 plug-in hybrids available in the U.S. market, and EPA's best estimate of the CO₂ tailpipe emissions produced by these PHEVs.^[127]

In order to account for the upstream CO₂ emissions associated with the production and distribution of electricity, and since electricity production in the United States varies significantly from region to region, the EPA considered three scenarios/ranges with the low end scenario corresponding to the California powerplant emissions factor, the middle of the range represented by the national average powerplant emissions factor, and the upper end of the range corresponding to the powerplant emissions factor for the Rocky Mountains. The EPA estimates that the electricity GHG emission factors for various regions of the country vary from 346 g CO₂/kWh in California to 986 g CO₂/kWh in the Rockies, with a national average of 648 g CO₂/kWh.^[127]

Union of Concerned Scientists

2015 study

Change from 2009 to 2012 of the percentage of Americans that live in regions where powering an electric vehicle on the regional electricity grid produces lower global warming emissions than a gasoline car expressed in terms of combined cith/highway fuel economy rating. Source: Union of Concerned Scientists.^[182]

External media

Images
2015 vehicle emissions
Video
Video on YouTube

In November 2015 the Union of Concerned Scientists published a new report comparing two battery electric vehicles (BEVs) with similar gasoline vehicles by examining their global warming emissions over their full life-cycle, craddle-to-grave analysis. The two BEVs modeled, midsize and full-size, are based on the two most popular BEV models sold in the United States in 2015, the Nissan Leaf and the Tesla Model S. The study found that all-electric cars representative of those sold today, on average produce less than half the global warming emissions of comparable gasoline-powered vehicles, despite taken into account the higher emissions associated with BEV manufacturing. Considering the regions where the two most popular electric cars are being sold, excess manufacturing emissions are offset within 6 to 16 months of average driving. The study also concluded that driving an average EV results in lower global warming emissions than driving a gasoline car that gets 50 mpg_‑US (4.7 L/100 km) in regions covering two-thirds of the U.S. population, up from 45% in 2009. Based on where EVs are being sold in the United States in 2015, the average EV produces global warming emissions equal to a gasoline vehicle with a 68 mpg_‑US (3.5 L/100 km) fuel economy rating. The authors identified two main reason for the fact that EV-related emissions have become even lower in many parts of the country since the first study was conducted in 2012. Electricity generation has been getting cleaner, as coal-fired generation has declined while lower-carbon alternatives have increased. In addition, electric cars are becoming more efficient. For example, the Nissan Leaf and the Chevrolet Volt, have undergone improvements to increase their efficiencies compared to the original models launched in 2010, and other even more efficient BEV models, such as the most lightweight and efficient BMW i3, have entered the market.^[182]

National Bureau of Economic Research

One criticism to the UCS analysis and several other that have analyze the benefits of PEVs is that these analysis were made using average emissions rates across regions instead of marginal generation at different times of the day. The former approach does not take into account the generation mix within interconnected electricity markets and shifting load profiles throughout the day.^[183][184] An analysis by three economist affiliated with the National Bureau of Economic Research (NBER), published in November 2014, developed a methodology to estimate marginal emissions of electricity demand that vary by location and time of day across the United States. The study used emissions and consumption data for 2007 through 2009, and used the specifications for the Chevrolet Volt (all-electric range of 35 mi (56 km)). The analysis found that marginal emission rates are more than three times as large in the Upper Midwest compared to the Western U.S., and within regions, rates for some hours of the day are more than twice those for others.^[184] Applying the results of the marginal analysis to plug-in electric vehicles, the NBER researchers found that the emissions of charging PEVs vary by region and hours of the day. In some regions, such as the Western U.S. and Texas, CO₂ emissions per mile from driving PEVs are less than those from driving a hybrid car. However, in other regions, such as the Upper Midwest, charging during the recommended hours of midnight to 4 a.m. implies that PEVs generate more emissions per mile than the average car currently on the road. The results show a fundamental tension between electricity load management and environmental goals as the hours when electricity is the least expensive to produce tend to be the hours with the greatest emissions. This occurs because coal-fired units, which have higher emission rates, are most commonly used to meet base-level and off-peak electricity demand; while natural gas units, which have relatively low emissions rates, are often brought online to meet peak demand. This pattern of fuel shifting explains why emission rates tend to be higher at night and lower during periods of peak demand in the morning and evening.^[184]

Highway legal plug-in electric vehicles

U.S. plug-in electric vehicle cumulative sales since 2008 passed the 500,000 unit milestone in August 2016.^[25] Graph shows cumulative sales by month by type of powertrain from December 2010 up to December 2017.^[192][193]

As of December 2017, cumulative sales in the United States totaled 764,666 highway legal plug-in electric cars since the market launch of the Tesla Roadster in 2008,^[2][3] As of December 2016, the American stock represented 28.1% of the global light-duty plug-in stock, down from about 40% in 2014.^[4] Sales in the American market are led by California with over 365,000 plug-in electric vehicles sold up until 2017.^{[4][11][12][13]} California accounted for approximately 48% of cumulative plug-in sales in the American market from 2011 to June 2016. The other nine states that follow California's Zero Emission Vehicle (ZEV) regulations accounted for another 10% of cumulative plug-in car sales in the U.S. during the same period.^[14]

As of December 2014, the United States had the world's largest stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, and led annual plug-in car sales in calendar year 2014.^[194][195] By May 2016, the European stock of light-duty had surpassed the U.S. and became the world's largest regional market.^[196] By the end of September 2016, the Chinese stock of plug-in passenger cars reached the level of the American plug-in stock.^[197] In November 2016, China’s cumulative total plug-in passenger vehicles sales had surpassed those of Europe, allowing China to become the market with the world's largest stock of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, with about 600,000 plug-in passenger cars. As a result, since November 2016 the U.S. has world's third largest stock of plug-in passenger cars.^[194][198] China also surpassed the U.S. and Europe in terms of annual sales of light-duty plug-in electric vehicles, both in calendar years 2015 and 2016.^[194][198] IHS Automotive predicted that due to the more aggressive support of the Chinese government toward the adoption of plug-in electric vehicles, China will reach 1 million annual plug-in car sales in 2019, four years before the United States.^[199]

Comparison of annual sales of highway legal light-duty plug-in electric vehicles in China and the U.S. between 2011 and 2017. Chinese sales surpassed the U.S. market in 2015.^{[3][200][201]}

National sales increased from 17,800 units delivered in 2011 to 53,200 during 2012, and reached 97,100 in 2013, up 83% from the previous year.^[202] During 2014 plug-in electric car sales totaled 123,347 units, up 27.0% from 2013, and fell to 114,248 units in 2015, down 7.4% from 2014.^[8] A total of 157,181 plug-in cars were sold in 2016, up 37.6% from 2015,^[10] and rose to 194,479 in 2017, up 23.7% from 2016.^[3] The market share of plug-in electric passenger cars increased from 0.14% of new car sales in 2011 to 0.37% in 2012, 0.62% in 2013, and reached 0.75% of new car sales during 2014.^[6][7][8] As plug-in car sales slowed down during the 2015, the segment's market share fell to 0.66% of new car sales, with the all-electric segment flat at 0.41%, while plug-in hybrids declined to 0.25% from 0.34% in 2014.^[8][9] The plug-in market share increased to increased to 0.90% in 2016,^[2] and achieved the 1% market share mark for the first time in 2017, with 1.13% of the country's total annual new car sales.^[3]

The highest-ever monthly market share for plug-in electric vehicles was achieved in December 2017 with 1.58% of new car sales. The previous record was achieved in September 2017.^[3][203] Monthly sales of plug-in cars in the American market passed the 1% mark for the first time in September 2016 (1.12%).^[204] December 2017 is also the best monthly plug-in sales volume on record ever, with 25,149 units delivered.^[3][203] The previous record was set in December 2016 with 23,288 units delivered.^[2] Records are usually set in the month of December because of the additional consumers seeking to quickly gain back the federal tax credit of up to US$7,500 on purchases.^[203]

The Chevrolet Volt is the all-time top selling plug-in electric car in the U.S. In July 2016, the Volt became the first plug-in vehicle in the American market to achieve the 100,000 unit sales milestone.^[1]

As of December 2017, the Chevrolet Volt plug-in hybrid ranked as the all-time best selling plug-in electric car with 133,838 units of both generations, followed by the Tesla Model S all-electric car with 118,817, the Nissan Leaf with 114,827, the Toyota Prius Prime with 65,703 units of both generations, the Ford Fusion Energi with 52,959, the Ford C-Max Energi with 41,649 units, the Tesla Model X with an estimated 39,940 units, and the BMW i3 with 31,017 units.^{[3][10][205][25][206][207]} The Leaf passed the Chevrolet Volt as the all-time top selling plug-in in March 2015, but the Volt became once again the best selling plug-in car in the American market in March 2016.^[208] In July 2016, the Volt became the first plug-in vehicle in the American market to achieve the 100,000 unit sales milestone.^[1] Leaf sales achieved the 100,000 unit milestone in October 2016, becoming the first all-electric vehicle in the country to pass that mark.^[209] The Model S achieved the mark of 100,000 sales in the U.S. in June 2017, launched in June 2012, the Model S hit this milestone quicker than both the Volt and the Leaf.^[210][211]

Top selling manufacturers of plug-in electric cars sold in the United States. Cumulative sales between 2008 and August 2016.^[25]

During 2013 sales were led by the Chevrolet Volt with 23,094 units, followed by the Nissan Leaf with 22,610 cars, and the Tesla Model S with about 18,000 units.^[212] In 2013 the Model S was the top selling car in the American full-size luxury sedan category, ahead of the Mercedes-Benz S-Class (13,303), the top selling car in the category in 2012, and also surpassing the BMW 7 Series (10,932), Lexus LS (10,727), Audi A8 (6,300) and Porsche Panamera (5,421).^[212] During the first quarter of 2014, plug-in car sales captured a 3.0% market share of the luxury vehicle segment, of which, the Model S represented 94% of the plug-in sales.^[213] In 2014 the Leaf took the lead, with 30,200 units sold, with the Volt ranking second with 18,805, followed by the Model S with 16,689 units.^[8] The Tesla Model S, with 25,202 units delivered, was the top selling plug-in car in 2015, followed by the Nissan Leaf with 17,269 units, the Volt with 15,393, and the BMW i3 with 11,024.^[8] For a second year on a row, the Model S was the top selling plug-in car with about 29,156 units sold in 2016, followed by the Volt with 24,739, Model X with about 18,028, Ford Fusion Energi with 15,938, and the Nissan Leaf with 14,006.^[2] The top five best-selling models in the U.S. accounted for about 65% of total plug-in cars in 2016.^[214] Sales in 2017 were led by the Tesla Model S with about 26,500 units, the top selling plug-in car for the third year running, followed by the Chevrolet Bolt (23,297), Tesla Model X (~21,700), Toyota Prius Prime (20,936), and the Chevrolet Volt (20,349), together accounting for 58% of total sales in 2017.^[3][215]

The Tesla Model S has been the top selling plug-in car in the U.S. for two years running, 2015 and 2016, and has continued to led during the first three quarters of 2017.^[8][10][216]

During 2011, all-electric cars (10,064 units) oversold plug-in hybrids (7,671 units), but increased Volt sales, together with the introduction of the Prius PHV and the Ford C-Max, allowed plug-in hybrids to take the lead over pure electric cars during 2012, with 38,584 PHEVs sold versus 14,251 BEVs.^[192][217] Sales of pure electric cars (about 47,600 units) in 2013 were almost even with plug-in hybrids (about 49,000 units), due to large sales of the Tesla Model S and Nissan Leaf during 2013.^[218] As of December 2014, cumulative sales of plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S. since December 2010 were led by plug-in hybrids, with 150,946 units sold representing 52.7% of all plug-in car sales, while 135,444 all-electric cars (47.3%) had been delivered to retail customers.^[192] During 2015, the all-electric segment grew much faster, with a total of 72,303 all-electric cars sold, up 6.6% year-on-year, while plug-in hybrid were down 22.4% year-on-year, with 42,959 units sold.^[8] These results reversed the trend, and as of December 2015, a total of 206,508 all-electric cars and 193,904 plug-in hybrids have been sold since 2010, with all-electrics now representing 51.6% of cumulative sales.^[192] The lead of battery electric cars continued in 2016, with 84,246 all-electrics sold, up 18.4% from 2015, representing 53.6% of the plug-in segment 2016 sales, while sales of plug-in hybrids totaled 72,935 unis, up 69.1% from 2015.^[10] As of August 2016, the distribution of cumulative sales since 2010 between these two technologies is 52.8% all-electrics and 47.2% plug-in hybrids.^[25]

Cumulative sales of new PEVs are doing better than sales of HEVs in the United States over their respective 24 month introductory periods.^[87]

Sales of series production PEVs during its first two years in the U.S. market were lower than the initial expectations.^{[21][22][32][219][220]} According to a July 2012 study by Pike Research, cumulative sales will reach the 1 million goal set by the Obama Administration only in 2018 instead of 2015.^[26] Cumulative plug-in electric car sales since 2008 reached the 250,000 unit milestone in August 2014,^[221] and the 500,000 unit milestone in August 2016.^[25]

According to the U.S. Department of Energy, combined sales of plug-in hybrids and battery electric cars are climbing more rapidly and outselling by more than double sales of hybrid-electric vehicles over their respective 24 month introductory periods, as shown in the graph at the right.^[87] A more detailed analysis by the Office of Energy Efficiency and Renewable Energy over the same two-year introductory periods found that except for the initial months in the market, monthly sales of the Volt and the Leaf have been higher than the Prius HEV, and the Prius PHEV has outsold the regular Prius during its 8 months in the market. Over the first 24 months from introduction, the Prius HEV achieved monthly sales of over 1,700 in month 18, the Leaf achieved about 1,700 units in month 7, the Prius PHEV achieved nearly 1,900 sales in month 8, and the Volt achieved more than 2,900 sales in month 23.^[222] A 2016 analysis by the Consumer Federation of America (CFA) found that 5 years after its introduction, sales of plug-in electric cars in the U.S. continued to outsell conventional hybrids. The analysis considered sales between January 2011 and December 2015.^[223]

An analysis by Scientific American found a similar trend at the international level when considering the global top selling PEVs over a 36-month introductory period. Monthly sales of the Volt, Prius PHV and Leaf are performing better than the conventional Prius during their respective introductory periods, with the exception of the Mitsubishi i-MiEV, which has been outsold most of the time by the Prius HEV over their 36-month introductory periods.^[224]

Regional markets

By concentration relative to population

Five states had more than two plug-in vehicles registered per 1,000 people in 2015, of which, three are located in the West Coast. California had the highest concentration with 4.68 PEVs per 1,000 people. Hawaii ranked second (2.94) followed by Washington (2.32), Georgia (2.20), and Oregon (2.04). Mississippi (0.09), Louisiana (0.14), North Dakota (0.15), Arkansas (0.15), and Wyoming (0.16) had the lowest concentration of plug-in cars.^[230]

Among the Eastern states, Georgia is the only one with over two PEVs per 1,000 people, likely the result of the generous state incentives that were offered until mid-2015. Other Eastern states with high concentration of plug-ins are Vermont (1.67), Michigan (0.99), Maryland (0.98), Connecticut (0.96), and also the District of Columbia (1.01). Among other regions, Colorado had the highest concentration with 1.09 PEVs per 1,000 people, followed by Arizona (0.93).^[230]

As of July 2016, the U.S. average concentration was 1.51 plug-in cars registered per 1,000 people, while California's concentration had increased to 5.83 registrations per 1,000 people. Only Norway exceeds California's plug-in concentration per capita, by 3.69 times, but California narrowly outpaces the Netherlands (5.63), the world's second largest PEV market after Norway in terms of the plug-in segment market share of new car sales.^[231][232]

U.S. plug-in electric vehicle registrations per 1,000 people by state in 2015. California had the highest concentration of PEVs with 4.68 PEVs per 1,000 people.^[230]

Comparison of concentration of registered plug-in electric cars per 1,000 people among top selling PEV countries and California.^[232]

By market share of new car sales

During 2013 the top selling all-electric car markets at the state level in terms of their market share of new light-vehicle registrations were Washington (1.4%), California (1.28%) and Hawaii (1.21%), while the U.S. average was 0.32%. During the first half of 2014 the leading states were Georgia (1.6%), California (1.41%) and Washington (1.13%), and the national average remained at 0.32%.^[233] In the 12 months between April 2013 and March 2014, the top selling pure electric car metropolitan markets in terms of market share were San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose (3.33%), Atlanta (2.15%), Seattle-Tacoma (1.83%), Honolulu (1.71%), and Monterey-Salinas (1.51%).^[234]

The following table summarizes the ten states and metropolitan areas leading all-electric car adoption in terms of their market share of new light-vehicle registrations or sales.

Top ten selling all-electric vehicle (BEV)
states and metropolitan areas by market share of new car sales

Rank 2014(1)	State[233]	Market share(2) 2014 CYTD(1)	Rank 2013	State[233]	Market share(2) 2013		Rank	Metro Area[234]	Market share 2013-2014(3)
1	Georgia	1.60%	1	Washington	1.40%		1	San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose	3.33%
2	California	1.41%	2	California	1.28%		2	Atlanta	2.15%
3	Washington	1.13%	3	Hawaii	1.21%		3	Seattle-Tacoma	1.83%
4	Hawaii	1.04%	4	Georgia	0.94%		4	Honolulu	1.71%
5	Oregon	0.67%	5	Oregon	0.89%		5	Monterey-Salinas	1.51%
6	Utah	0.31%	6	Washington, D.C.	0.52%		6	San Diego	1.34 %
7	Colorado	0.27%	7	Colorado	0.33%		7	Santa Barbara-Santa Maria-San Luis Obispo	1.29%
8	Arizona	0.20%	8	Utah	0.31%		8	Portland	1.25%
9	Tennessee	0.19%	9	Tennessee	0.28%		9	Los Angeles	1.08%
10	Connecticut	0.19%	10	Illinois	0.25%		10	Eugene	0.86%
U.S. average		0.32%[233]					0.38%[235]
Notes: (1) CYTD: current year-to-date sales as of 30 June 2014 (2) New all-electric vehicle (BEV) registrations as % of total new registrations of light-vehicles only. (3) Sales of new all-electric vehicles as % of total new light-vehicle sales between April 2013 and March 2014.

A total of 52% of American plug-in electric car registrations from January to May 2013 were concentrated in five metropolitan areas: San Francisco (19.5%), Los Angeles (15.4%), Seattle (8.0%), New York (4.6%) and Atlanta (4.4%).^[236][237] From January to July 2013, the three cities with the highest all-electric car registrations were all located in California, Atherton and Los Altos in the Silicon Valley, followed by Santa Monica, located in Los Angeles County.^[238][239]

California

Main article: Plug-in electric vehicles in California

Cumulative light-duty plug-in electric vehicle sales in California compared to the world's top-selling countries and regional markets as of December 2017.^[5][3][200]

Governor Jerry Brown issued an executive order in March 2012 that established the goal of getting 1.5 million zero-emission vehicles (ZEVs) in California by 2025.^[28][29] In January 2018, Governor Brown set a new goal of getting a total of 5 million zero-emission vehicles in California by 2030.^[240]

California is the largest American car market with about 10% of all new car sales in the country.^[241] As of December 2017, cumulative sales of plug-in cars totaled 365,286 units, making California the leading plug-in market in the country.^{[4][11][12][13]} The state accounted for approximately 48% of cumulative plug-in sales in the American market from 2011 to June 2016, and also accounted for about 50% of nationwide all-electric car sales and 47% of total plug-in hybrid sales.^[14] Plug-in electric cars represented about 0.5% of the passenger fleet on the Californian roads by September 2015.^[242]

Until December 2014 California not only had more plug-in electric vehicles than any other American state but also more than any other country in the world.^[243][244] In 2015 only two countries, Norway (22.4%) and the Netherlands (9.7%), achieved a higher plug-in market share than California.^[245] Sales of plug-in electric cars in the state passed the 200,000 unit milestone in March 2016.^[246] By November 2016, with about 250,000 plug-in cars sold in the state since 2010, China was the only country market that exceeds California in terms of cumulative plug-in electric car sales.^[247] In 2015, California's plug-in car market share was 4.7 times higher than the U.S. market, and registrations of plug-in electric cars in the state in 2015 represented 54.5% of total plug-in car sales in the U.S. that year.^[245] California's plug-in car market share was 3.5% of new car sales in 2016, while the U.S. take-rate was 0.90%.^[10][248] In 2017, the state's market share reached nearly 5%, while the national share was 1.1%.^[13][240][3]

Comparison of annual sales of plug-in electric vehicles in the United States versus California between 2010 and 2017.^{[11][12][193][13]}

Incentives

California's green Clean Air Vehicle sticker for plug-in hybrids

California's white Clean Air Vehicle sticker for all-electric cars

California has been a leader in the promotion of plug-in electric vehicles as the state has in place several financial and non-financial incentives. In addition to the existing federal tax credit, PEVs are eligible for a purchase rebate of up to US$2,500 through the Clean Vehicle Rebate Project (CVRP).^[49] Also, battery electric vehicles and initially, the first 40,000 applicants that purchase or lease a plug-in hybrid meeting California’s Enhanced Advanced Technology Partial Zero Emission Vehicle (Enhanced AT PZEV), are entitled to a clean air sticker that allows the vehicle to be operated by a single occupant in California's carpool or high-occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV). The white access sticker is reserved for zero-emissions vehicles, while plug-in hybrids use the green sticker.^[249] As of September 2016, the limits for plug-in hybrids and experation dates have been extended several timeas, and both the white and green stickers have the same expiration date, January 1, 2019.^[250][251]

In March 2016 California added income-based caps to its rebate system. Buyers with incomes less than 300% of the Federal poverty level will get up to US$3,000 for a plug-in hybrid, US$4,000 for an all-electric car, and US$6,500 for a hydrogen fuel-cell car and the rebate scales down until Californian buyers with incomes over US$250,000 are no longer are eligible for incentives on hybrids or electric cars, however can get US$5,000 for a hydrogen fuel-cell car.^[252] As of March 2016, the Center for Sustainable Energy has issued more than $291 million in the CVRP for over 137,200 vehicles since 2010.^[253] The income-base caps went into effect on 1 November 2016. Residents will not be eligible for rebates if their gross annual income exceeds US$150,000 for single tax filers, US$204,000 for head of household filers and US$300,000 for joint filers. These limits do not apply to the purchase of fuel cell electric vehicles, which represent less than 1% of rebate applications.^[254][255]

Georgia

Georgia ranked second in the U.S. after California in terms of total plug-in electric vehicles on the road by mid-2014 .^[256] During the first half of 2014 Georgia ranked as the top selling all-electric car market in the U.S. at the state level with a 1.6% share of new light-vehicle registrations, ahead of California (1.41%), and up from 0.94% during 2013.^[233] As of August 2014, there were about 12,000 electric vehicles registered in the state, of which, about 80% are registered in metro Atlanta’s five core counties.^[257] In the 12 months between April 2013 and March 2014, metro Atlanta was the second top selling all-electric car metropolitan market in the U.S., with a market share of 2.15% of total new light-vehicle sales in the state, 5.6 times the national average share of 0.38%.^[235] Savannah ranks second in the state after Atlanta, with a market share of 0.13% of total new light-vehicle sales.^[234]

Between August 2013 and May 2014, Atlanta was the top U.S. metropolitan market for the Nissan Leaf for eight out of the ten months,^[235] and until July 2013, Atlanta was the third largest Leaf market behind San Francisco and Los Angeles.^[258] Leaf sales are favored by Georgia's law, which caps sales of electric vehicles sold direct by a manufacturer to 150, setting a restrictive limit to Tesla Model S sales, and the law excluded plug-in hybrids for eligibility to the state's tax credit.^[235]

Tax credits

The State of Georgia considers alternative fuel vehicles (AFVs) those that run solely on alternative fuel and do not run on regular gasoline. AFVs includes vehicles that operate using battery electricity, propane, natural gas, and hydrogen fuel cell.^[259] As incentives to accelerate all-electric vehicle adoption, in addition to the existing US$7,500 federal tax credit, Georgia offers an income tax credit of 20% of the vehicle cost up to US$5,000 for the purchase or leasing of a zero emission vehicle (ZEV). Plug-in hybrids are not eligible for this incentive because sometimes they are powered by electricity from their on-board combustion engine. There is also a 10% tax credit up to US$2,500 for the purchase and installation of qualified electric vehicle charger. This tax credit applies only to non-retail business enterprises and chargers installed at homes do not qualify.^[57]

Tesla Roadster with Georgia's Alternative Fuel Vehicle (AFV) license plate, which allows access to high occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV) regardless of number of passengers.

An income tax credit for the purchase of a new commercial medium-duty or heavy-duty AFVs started on July 1, 2015. Medium-duty hybrid electric vehicles also qualify. Eligible medium-duty AFVs with a gross vehicle weight rating (GVWR) between 8,500 to 26,001 lb (3,856 to 11,794 kg) qualify for a credit of up to US$12,000, while heavy-duty AFVs with a GVWR over 26,001 lb (11,794 kg) qualify for a credit of up to US$20,000. The credit is capped at US$250,000 per taxpayer. Qualified AFVs must be purchased before June 30, 2017, remain registered in Georgia for at least five years, and accumulate at least 75% of their annual mileage in Georgia. Up to US$2.5 million in total credits will be available each fiscal year.^[260]

Access to HOV lanes

The definition of alternate fuel vehicle for the purposes of an AFV License Plate in Georgia is different from the one for tax credit purposes. The Official Code of Georgia Annotated defines an AFV as a vehicle that has been certified by the EPA in accordance with the Federal Clean Air Act, therefore, both all-electric vehicles and plug-in hybrids are eligible for Georgia's AFV license plate.^[261] All vehicles displaying a GA alternative fuel license plate are allowed to use high occupancy vehicle lanes (HOV) regardless of number of passengers. Alternative fuel vehicles displaying the proper alternative fuel license plat may obtain a Peach Pass electronic tag that grants them toll-free access to all Peach Pass controlled high-occupancy toll lanes (HOT) lanes.^[262]

Time-of-use electricity rates

Georgia Power, the primary utility in Atlanta, offers a time-of-use electric vehicle plan designed for plug-in charging. As of September 2014, the plan has about 1,500 customers statewide.^[263] For a monthly fee of US$10, the utility lowers the overnight rate to 1.3 cents per Kilowatt hour (kWh) while raising the peak rate, from 2-7 p.m. from June through September, to 20.3 cents per kWh. There is also a shoulder rate of 6.2 cents per Kwh in between those times.^[263] The average U.S. rate is 11.88 cents per kWh.^[235]

Charging infrastructure

As of April 2014, Georgia had 238 charging stations with 548 public outlets available across the state.^[16] Of these, about 120 public charging stations are located in metro Atlanta, with only about half of these located inside the city limits of Atlanta. Considering the rapid growth of electric cars in the city, there is a shortage of charging infrastructure relative to supply of electric vehicles.^[257]

The city of Atlanta is considering legislation to attend the needs of electric car owners and others who want to provide electric vehicle charging at their business, multifamily dwelling or private home. The measure aims to remove a major barrier to owning an electric vehicle by encouraging office and residential landlords to install electric vehicle chargers and reserved parking. Under the proposal, each electric vehicle charging station would be counted as one parking space, and the minimum parking requirement for developers and builders would be reduced by one space for each charging station provided, allowing up to a 10% reduction in minimum parking requirements. The city also wants to simplify the process required to obtain a permit to install electric vehicle chargers and make the spaces more identifiable.^[257]

Hawaii

A public electric car charging station in Kaka'ako, Honolulu, Oahu, Hawaii.

Hawaii has a high potential for mass adoption of plug-in electric vehicles due to the limited driving range imposed by the island geographies, and its high fuel costs, with gasoline prices, as of September 2013, ranging between US$4.25 and US$5.00 a gallon.^[264][265] The number of registered plug-in electric vehicles increased from 581 units in 2011, to 967 in 2012,^[266] and reached 1,551 units in June 2013.^[267] As of August 2014, a total of 2,821 plug-in highway legal plug-in electric cars have been registered in Hawaii.^[268]

In terms of EV adoption, Hawaii ranked in 2013 as the state with the third highest all-electric car market share with 1.21% of new car sales, and during the first half of 2014 ranked fourth with a 1.04% market share.^[233] Accounting for sales of pure electric cars between April 2013 and March 2014, the Honolulu metropolitan area ranks as the fourth top selling BEV metro market in the United States, with 1.71% of new car sales.^[234]

In January 2011 the state implemented a purchase rebate of up to US$5,000 available for both the purchase of a plug-in electric car purchase and a charging station, but limited to US$4,500 for the vehicle.^[269] The rebate ended in May 2012 as high consumer demand depleted the fund. More than 450 rebates were issued totaling about US$2 million. Several efforts to add more funds were unsuccessful.^[270]

Maryland

Nissan Leaf with Maryland's sticker to identify plug-in electric vehicles eligible to use HOV lanes with solo drivers.

As of December 2015, there were 2,282 all-electric cars registered in Maryland. Sales of the Nissan Leaf and Tesla Model S account for about 70% of the electrics registered in the state.^[271] As part of the incentives to promote electric vehicle adoption, drivers of approved plug-in electric vehicles can use Maryland's high occupancy vehicle (HOV) lanes at all times, even if they are traveling solo. This incentive is in effect until September 30, 2017.^[60]

Plug-in electric vehicles purchased new and titled for the first time between July 1, 2014, and July 1, 2017, are eligible for a credit up to US$3,000, calculated as US$125 per kWh of battery capacity. Buyers of PEVs may apply for a tax credit against the imposed excise tax. The credit is returned to the taxpayer in the form of a check from the state. The tax credit is limited to one vehicle per individual and 10 vehicles per business. A qualified vehicle must meet the following criteria:^[272]

• Has a gross vehicle weight rating of 8,500 pounds or less;
• Can achieve a maximum speed of at least 55 miles per hour;
• Is a two-, three-, or four-wheeled vehicle;
• Is propelled to a significant extent by an electric motor that draws electricity from a battery with a capacity of at least four kilowatt-hours (kWh) in the case of a four-wheeled motor vehicle, or at least two and a half kWh in the case of a two- or three-wheeled motor vehicle;
• Has not been modified from original manufacturer specifications; and
• Is purchased after October 1, 2010.

The state also offers a US$900 rebate for buying and installation of wall connectorsfor individuals, US$5,000 for business, or state or local governments, and US$7,000 for retail service station dealers. Between July 1, 2014, and June 30, 2016, rebate amounts are equal to the previous amounts, up to 50% of the costs of acquiring and installing qualified chargers.^[273]

New York

The stock of plug-in electric vehicles in New York climbed from 1,000 units in early 2012, to over 10,000 plug-in vehicles by mid-September 2,014. The state of New York set the goal to deploy up to 3,000 EV charging stations in public and workplace locations across the state by 2018. As of September 2014, there are about 1,000 charging stations.^[274]

Plug-in electric vehicles and hybrid electric vehicles with a combined fuel economy rating of at least 45 mpg_‑US (5.2 L/100 km; 54 mpg_‑imp) and that also meet the California Air Resources Board SULEV emissions standard, are eligible for the Clean Pass Program. Eligible vehicles which display the Clean Pass vehicle sticker are allowed to use the Long Island Expressway HOV lanes, regardless of the number of occupants.^[275] Drivers of qualified vehicles may also receive a 10% discount on established E-ZPass accounts with proof of registration.^[66] In New York state there are no purchase incentives.

Oregon

As of November 2013, there were about 3,500 plug-in electric vehicles registered in Oregon.^[276] In 2013 the state was the fifth top selling all-electric car market in the U.S. at the state level with a 0.89% market share of new light-vehicle registrations, more than twice the national average share of 0.32%. During the first half of 2014 Oregon BEV share fell to 0.67% but continued to rank in the fifth place among the top selling states.^[233]

In the 12 months between April 2013 and March 2014, two metropolitan areas in Oregon ranked among the top ten selling all-electric car metropolitan markets in the U.S. Portland ranked eighth with a 1.25% market share of total new light-vehicle sales, ahead of Los Angeles metropolitan area, and Eugene ranked in number 10 with a market share of 0.86%. The national average share during this period was 0.38%.^[234]

Incentives

A US$1,500 tax credit for the purchase of a new all-electric vehicle is no longer available.^[276][277] There is a tax credit up to US$750 to cover 25% of the cost of purchasing and installing an electric vehicle charger station, and 35% for business owners. Beginning January 1, 2015, business owners that purchase two or more all-electric vehicles may be eligible for a tax credit of 35% of eligible costs for the incremental cost of purchasing the vehicles. This incentive ends on December 31, 2018.^[262]

Electric Avenue

Electric Avenue charging stations at Portland State University.

Electric Avenue is a joint research and development initiative of Portland State University (PSU), Portland General Electric (PGE), and the City of Portland. The Electric Avenue was launched in August 2011 to learn about the interaction and performance of charging stations and a variety of electric vehicles. The initiative also aimed to understand the charging preferences and travel patterns of electric vehicle visitors. The charging infrastructure includes quick chargers and both Level 1 and Level 2 charging stations powered by 100% renewable energy from PGE, and offers charging at standard city parking rates. The site comprises eight on street parking spaces with seven available charging stations located along an entire block. The Electric Avenue is located in the south end of downtown Portland, at the PSU’s campus adjacent to Portland’s Sixth Avenue Transit Mall where light rail trains, electric street cars, buses, cars, bikes, and pedestrians share a well-integrated personal and public transit corridor.^[278]

Texas

Texas is the second largest light-duty vehicle market in the U.S. after California, with over 20 million passenger and light truck vehicles registered at the end of 2013.^[279] As of May 2014, there were about 5,000 plug-in electric vehicles registered in the state.^[280] Accounting for sales of new all-electric vehicles between April 2013 and March 2014, the top three selling metropolitan markets in Texas in terms of market share of total new light-vehicle sales were the Austin metropolitan area with 0.47%, followed by Dallas-Ft. Worth with 0.21% and Houston area with 0.15%.^[234] The national average share for the period was 0.38%, with Austin ranking in 15th place, and together with metro Atlanta, the only two cities in the top 15 that are not located on the West Coast.^[235]

In November 2013 the Texas Commission on Environmental Quality approved a rebate program to provide financial incentives up to US$2,500 for the purchase or lease of new eligible vehicles powered by compressed natural gas (CNG), liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), or plug-in electric drive with battery capacity larger than 4 kWh.^[280] The rebate amount for leasing depends on the lease term, only 4-year lease terms are eligible for the full US$2,500, just like new car purchases.^[68] Total funding for the program is US$7.7 million, and the maximum number of vehicles allowed is 2,000 units for each plug-in electric drive and natural gas/propane vehicles for the length of the program.^[280][68] Only purchases made on or after May 13, 2014 are eligible to apply for a rebate, and the program ends June 26, 2015 or until funding ends. As of 22 September 2014, there were US$6,7 million remaining in the rebate fund.^[69]

Nissan Leaf charging in Houston, Texas

Among plug-in cars sold nationwide, the Tesla Model S is not eligible for the rebate because only new PEVs purchased or leased from a dealer or leasing company licensed to operate in Texas may qualify. Tesla Motors is not authorized to sell its vehicles in the state due to its direct-sales business model.^{[280][281][282]} But customers can buy directly from the company's website like in any other state.

Texas River Cities Plug-In Electric Vehicle Initiative

Despite the low penetration of plug-in electric vehicles in the state, the Texas River Cities Plug-In Electric Vehicle Initiative (TRC) is one of the most comprehensive plans for electric vehicles and their infrastructure aimed to increase the long-term success of PEV adoption. The TRC initiative encompasses two major metropolitan areas in and around Austin and San Antonio.^[283] Austin Energy, one of the project partners, had deployed 239 utility-operated publicly accessible charging stations in the TRC region by 2012. The utility company is the recipient of the U.S. Department of Energy funding for this initiative. The TRC region is projected to have 4,259 PEVs in 2015 and 17,336 in 2020.^[284]

Pecan Street demonstration project

This demonstration project is run by the Pecan Street Inc., a University of Texas based research consortium of research and industry partners focused on developing and testing advanced technology, business model, and customer behavior surrounding energy management systems. The project is supported by a US$10.4 million smart grid demonstration grant from the U.S. Department of Energy and more than US$14 million in matching funds from the project partners. The demonstration project began in 2010 and is taken place with volunteer residents at the Mueller neighborhood, a planned green community in Austin. The Pecan Street hosts an electric vehicle research program and provides incentives to participants with rebates of US$3,000 and US$7,500 to lease or purchase a PEV that is in addition to the federal tax credits. Through the research program, Pecan Street is studying grid load and monitoring home energy use through management equipment. As a result of the incentive program, Mueller has more plug-in electric vehicles per capita than any other U.S. neighborhood.^{[285][286][287]}

General Motors is a sponsor of the Pecan Street demonstration and is supporting the project to learn the charging patterns of plug-in electric car owners, and to study how a residential fleet of electric vehicles might strain the electric grid if all owners try to charge them at the same, which is what the preliminary monitoring found when the plug-in cars return home in the evening. As of June 2013, the community had nearly 60 Chevrolet Volt owners alone thanks to GM's commitment to match the federal government's US$7,500 rebate incentive, which halves the purchase price of the Volt.^[288]

Washington

The state set a goal to have 50,000 electric or other clean vehicles on the road by 2020.^[19] As of 30 June 2016, there were 30,701 battery-powered and plug-in electric cars registered in Washington.^[289] The Seattle metropolitan area concentrated 76% of the state PEV registrations, with 18,154 plug-ins in King County (59%), where the city of Seattle is located, 3,153 in Snohomish County (10.3%), and 2,040 in Pierce County (6.6%). Outside the metro area, Clark County has the largest number of PEV registrations with 1,467 units (4.8%).^[289]

The City of Seattle operates the Nissan Leaf as part of its fleet

Washington was the top selling all-electric car market in the U.S. at the state level in 2013 with a 1.40% market share of new light-vehicle registrations, ahead of California (1.28%). Washington PEV share in 2013 was more than four times the national average share of 0.32%.^[233] In the 12 months between April 2013 and March 2014, Seattle-Tacoma metro ranked as the third top selling all-electric car metropolitan market with a 1.83% market share of total new light-vehicle sales, only behind San Francisco-Oakland-San Jose (3.33%) and Atlanta (2.15%).^[234]

Incentives

New passenger cars, light-duty trucks, and medium-duty passenger vehicles that operate exclusively on electricity, hydrogen, natural gas, or propane are exempt from state motor vehicle sales and use taxes. Qualified vehicles must also meet the California motor vehicle emissions standards, and comply with the rules of the Washington Department of Ecology.^[290] The initial sales tax exemption expired on July 1, 2015.^[290] The sales tax exemption was renewed on July 1, 2015, for four years, but the incentive was limited to new plug-in cars that cost less than US$35,000. The approved cap excludes what legislators considered as luxury cars such as Tesla Motors and BMW i electric models. The same legislations that extended the incentives through 2019, raised the annual registration renewal fee for plug-in car owners from US$100 to US$150. That annual fee is designed to make electric vehicle drivers contribute toward highway maintenance in lieu of the gas taxes PEVs do not pay.^[291]

The Tesla Model S and other plug-in electric cars with purchase price above US$42,500 or plug-in hybrids with an all-electric range of less than 30 mi (48 km) are not eligible for the tax exemption in Washington state.

In April 2016 governor Jay Inslee signed legislation to provide up to about US$3,100 off the purchase or lease of a new car all-electric vehicle, or a plug-in hybrid with at least 30 mi (48 km) of all-electric range – such as the Chevrolet Volt and the BMW i3 REx. The new law also raises the previous purchase price cap to US$42,500, which will allow buyers of the Chevrolet Bolt EV, the next generation Nissan Leaf, and the Tesla Model 3 – all with 200 mi (320 km) of electric range – to be eligible for the incentive. The new law goes into effect on July 1, 2016. Under the updatede scheme, the sales tax exemption applies to the first US$32,000 of the selling price of a qualifying new plug-in electric car, which translates into a tax savings between US$2,600 to US$3,100 for plug-in car buyers depending on where the dealer is located within the state, as the sales tax vary by county. The tax exemption could expire before July 2019 if sales of electric vehicles accelerate because legislators established that the tax break should end the month after 7,500 qualifying vehicles are sold in the state. The state Department of Licensing was directed to start a tally beginning with PEV registrations since July 15, 2015.^[73][72] As of April 2016, the state sales tax is 6.5%, and increases up to 9.8% depending on the county rate.^[73]

Puget Sound Energy (PSE) provides a US$500 rebate to the first 5,000 qualified customers for the purchase and installation of Level 2 electric vehicle charging station (EVSE). Eligible applicants must be PSE residential electric schedule 7 customers, must be the registered owner of an electric vehicle, and must install the charging station within a specified timeframe. PSE expects the rebate program to remain available until November 1, 2016, depending on available funds.^[292][293]

Sales by model

As of December 2017, there were 41 highway legal plug-in cars available in the American market for retail sales, 16 all-electric cars and 25 plug-in hybrids.^[15] As of December 2016, sales were concentrated to a few models, with only seven selling more than 1,000 units sold in December 2016, and the top 5 best selling plug-in cars accounting for about 65% of total 2016 sales.^[214] Car manufacturers are offering plug-in electric cars in the U.S. for retail customers under 19 brands or marques: Audi, BMW, Cadillac, Chevrolet, Chrysler, Fiat, Ford, Honda, Hyundai, Kia, Mercedes-Benz, Mitsubishi, Nissan, Porsche, Smart, Tesla, Toyota, Volkswagen, and Volvo.^[214]

As of September 2016, only the Chevrolet Volt, Nissan Leaf, Tesla's Model S and Model X, BMW i3, Mitsubishi i, Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid, Cadillac ELR, and Ford’s C-Max and Fusion Energi plug-in hybrids were available nationwide. Several models, such as the Toyota RAV4, Fiat 500e, Honda Fit EV, and Chevrolet Spark EV, are compliance cars sold in limited markets, mainly California, available in order to raise an automaker’s fleet average fuel economy to satisfy regulator requirements.^{[294][295][296][297]} As of April 2016, out of the 14 plug-in hybrid models available in the American market, nine were upscale models affordable only for high income customers, namely the BMW X5 xDrive, Audi A3 e-tron, Porsche Cayenne and Panamera S E-Hybrids, Volvo XC90 T8, Mercedes S500, BMW i8, 3 Series iPerformance, and the Cadillac ELR, all priced above US$40,000. Among all-electric cars, the BMW i3, Tesla Model S and Model X are also in the upscale category.^[298]

The following table presents key features and cumulative sales of highway-capable plug-in electric cars launched in the American market since 2008 through December 2016.

Key features and sales of series-production plug-in electric cars available for retail sales or leasing in the United States (as of 31 December 2016 )
Model	Type of PEV	All-electric range	Market launch	Production/Sales
Chevrolet Volt first generation Chevrolet Volt second generation	Plug-in hybrid (EREV)	1st generation MY 2011/12 35 mi (56 km) MY 2013/15 38 mi (61 km) 2nd generation 53 mi (85 km)	Dec 2010	113,489 units sold through December 2016.[2] The Volt is the all-time top selling plug-in electric car in the U.S.[25][208] Production of the first generation 2015 model year Volt ended in mid-May 2015.[299] Deliveries of the second generation Volt began in October 2015.[300]
Nissan Leaf	Electric car	MY 2011/12 73 mi (117 km) to MY 2017 (30 kWh) 107 mi (172 km)	Dec 2010	103,597 Leafs sold through December 2016.[10][205] The Leaf is the all-time top selling all-electric car in the U.S.[208]
Smart ED	Electric car	63 mi (101 km)	Jan 2011	6,088 units registered through December 2016. (includes 2nd and 3rd gen models).[10][6][8][9][301][302] Deliveries of the third generation model began in May 2013.[303]
Mitsubishi i	Electric car	62 miles (100 km)	Dec 2011	2,102 units sold through December 2016.[10][8][304]
Ford Focus Electric	Electric car	76 mi (122 km)[305]	Dec 2011	6,849 units sold through December 2016.[10][6][8][9][301][306] Deliveries to retail customers began in May 2012. Availability is limited to New York, New Jersey and California.[307][308]
Toyota Prius PHV first generation Toyota Prius Prime second generation	Plug-in hybrid	1st generation MY 2012/15 11 mi (18 km) 2nd generation MY 2017 25 mi (40 km)	Feb 2012	44,767 first generation units sold through December 2016.[10][206][207][25] Production of the first generation Prius Plug-in ended in June 2015.[309] Dealerships run out of stock of the first generation model in September 2016.[310] Deliveries of the second generation Prius Prime began in November 2016.[311] Sales of the second generation Prius Prime totaled 2,422 units in 2016.[312]
Tesla Model S	Electric car	From 210 mi (340 km) (60 kW·h - RWD) to 315 mi (507 km) (100 kW·h - P100DL)	Jun 2012	~92,317 units sold through December 2016.[2] The Model S was the top selling plug-in car in the U.S. in 2015, and again in 2016.[2]
Ford C-Max Energi	Plug-in hybrid	20 mi (32 km)	Oct 2012	33,509 units sold through December 2016.[10][206][207][25]
Ford Fusion Energi	Plug-in hybrid	20 mi (32 km)	Feb 2013	43,327 units sold through December 2016.[10][206][207][25]
BYD e6	Electric car	127 mi (204 km)	May 2013 (fleet only)	About 80 units through December 2015, mostly for taxi and ride-hailing purposes.[313] Available for leasing only to fleet customers.[314]
Chevrolet Spark EV	Electric car	82 mi (132 km)	Jun 2013	7,348 units sold through December 2016.[10][8][9][301] Initial availability limited to California and Oregon.
Fiat 500e	Electric car	87 mi (140 km)	Jul 2013	About 18,966 units sold through December 2016.[315][316]
Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid	Plug-in hybrid	16 mi (26 km)	Oct 2013	1,765 units sold through December 2016.[10][8][9]
Cadillac ELR	Plug-in hybrid (EREV)	35 mi (56 km)	Dec 2013	2,874 units sold though December 2016.[10][8][9][301] Production ended in February 2016.[317]
BMW i3	Electric/REx	All-electric from 81 mi (130 km) (60 A·h) to 114 mi (183 km) (94 A·h)	May 2014	24,741 units through December 2016.[10][25] REx variant sales account for 19,130 units (REx/BEV sales ratio of 3:1).[318]
Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive	Electric	87 mi (140 km)	Jul 2014	3,312 units were sold through December 2016.[10][8][9]
BMW i8	Plug-in hybrid	15 mi (24 km)	Aug 2014	4,414 units delivered through December 2016.[10][8][9]
Kia Soul EV	Electric car	93 mi (150 km)	Oct 2014	3,102 units delivered through December 2016.[10][8][9]
Volkswagen e-Golf	Electric car	83 mi (134 km)	Oct 2014	8,526 units delivered through December 2016.[10][25]
Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid	Plug-in hybrid	14 mi (23 km)	Nov 2014	3,386 units were sold through December 2016.[10][8][9]
Mercedes-Benz S 500 e	Plug-in hybrid	17 mi (27 km)	Jul 2015	668 units sold through December 2016.[10][8]
Volvo XC90 T8	Plug-in hybrid	17 mi (27 km)	Aug 2015	2,106 units sold through December 2016.[10][8]
Tesla Model X	Electric SUV	257 mi (414 km)	Sep 2015	18,236 units sold through December 2016.[10][8]
Bolloré Bluecar	Electric car	160 mi (260 km)	Sep 2015[319] (fleet only)	230 units deployed for the BlueIndy carsharing service in Indianapolis that began operations in September 2015.[320]
BMW X5 xDrive40e	Plug-in hybrid	14 mi (23 km)	Oct 2015	6,887 units sold through December 2016.[10][8]
Hyundai Sonata PHEV	Plug-in hybrid	27 mi (43 km)	Nov 2015	3,150 units sold through December 2016.[10][8]
Audi A3 Sportback e-tron	Plug-in hybrid	31 mi (50 km)	Dec 2015	4,329 units delivered through December 2016.[10][321]
BMW 330e iPerformance	Plug-in hybrid	14 mi (23 km)	Mar 2016	880 units sold through December 2016.[10]
Mercedes-Benz GLE 550e	Plug-in hybrid	12 mi (19 km)	Jun 2016	231 units sold through December 2016.[10]
BMW 740e iPerformance	Plug-in hybrid	14 mi (23 km)	Nov 2016	68 units sold through December 2016.[10]
Chevrolet Bolt EV	Electric car	238 mi (383 km)	Dec 2016	579 units sold in December 2016.[322]
Out-of-production plug-in electric cars that were available for retail sales or leasing in the United States since 2008
Tesla Roadster	Electric car	245 mi (394 km)	Mar 2008	About 1,800 units sold through December 2011.[323] Production ended in January 2012.[324]
Mini E	Electric car	100 mi (160 km)	Jun 2009	500 units leased for field testing that ended in December 2011.[325][326]
Th!nk City	Electric car	100 mi (160 km)	Late 2010	About 100 units sold mostly in Indiana through March 2011[327] After Think Global filed for bankruptcy in June 2011,[328] the remaining 150 cars in stock in the U.S. were put on sale at a discounted price.[329]
Wheego Whip LiFe	Electric car	100 mi (160 km)	Apr 2011[330]	34 units sold by March 2012.[331]
Fisker Karma	Plug-in hybrid (EREV)	32 mi (51 km)	Nov 2011	About 1,600 units were sold through December 2013.[323] Production was suspended in November 2012.[332] Fisker Automotive filed for bankruptcy in November 2013.[333]
BMW ActiveE	Electric car	94 mi (151 km)[334]	Jan 2012	673 units were leased in the U.S. through December 2012.[335] Limited production available only for leasing as part of a demonstration program.[325][336]
Coda	Electric car	88 mi (142 km)	Mar 2012	117 units were delivered in California through April 2013.[337] By September 2013, a total of 50 cars left in stock and 100 gliders were available for sale at a discounted price in the U.S. and abroad.[338]
RAV4 EV second generation	Electric SUV	103 mi (166 km)	Sep 2012	2,489 units were sold through April 2015.[6][9][301][339] Available only in California.[340] Production was limited to 2,600 units. The battery supply deal between Toyota and Tesla concluded by the end of 2014.[341] Production run ended in September 2014.[342]
Honda Fit EV	Electric car	82 mi (132 km)	Jul 2012	1,070 units delivered through April 2015.[6][9][301][339] Production was limited to 1,100 units over three years. Initial availability was limited to California and Oregon.[343] In July 2014 Honda announced the end of production of the Fit EV for the 2015 model, together with the Honda Insight hybrid and the Honda FCX Clarity hydrogen fuel-cell car.[344]
Porsche 918 Spyder	Plug-in hybrid	12 mi (19 km)	Jun 2014	297 units delivered through September 2015.[345] The limited production run was sold out in December 2014. The production run ended in June 2015.[346] The country with the most orders was the U.S. with 297 units out of 918 produced.[347]
Honda Accord PHEV	Plug-in hybrid	13 mi (21 km)	Jan 2013	1,039 units have been sold through December 2015.[8][9][301] In June 2015 Honda announced that the Accord Plug-in Hybrid was discontinued after the 2015 model year. A new dedicated plug-in hybrid and battery electric models are scheduled after the introduction of Honda's next generation fuel cell vehicle in 2016.[348]
McLaren P1	Plug-in hybrid	19 mi (31 km)	May 2014	About 127 units sold through December 2015 (34% of production).[349] The production run ended in December 2015.[349]

Car dealers reluctance to sell

With the exception of Tesla Motors, almost all new cars in the United States are sold through dealerships, so they play a crucial role in the sales of electric vehicles, and negative attitudes can hinder early adoption of plug-in electric vehicles.^[350][351] Dealers decide which cars they want to stock, and a salesperson can have a big impact on how someone feels about a prospective purchase. Sales people have ample knowledge of internal combustion cars while they do not have time to learn about a technology that represents a fraction of overall sales.^[350] As with any new technology, and in the particular case of advanced technology vehicles, retailers are central to ensuring that buyers, especially those switching to a new technology, have the information and support they need to gain the full benefits of adopting this new technology.^[351] A 2016 study indicated that 60% of Americans were not aware of electric cars.^[352]

Car dealerships play a crucial role in the sales of plug-in electric vehicles. Shown a Chevrolet dealership exhibiting first generation Volts.

There are several reasons for the reluctance of some dealers to sell plug-in electric vehicles. PEVs do not offer car dealers the same profits as gasoline-powered car. Plug-in electric vehicles take more time to sell because of the explaining required, which hurts overall sales and sales people commissions. Electric vehicles also may require less maintenance, resulting in loss of service revenue, and thus undermining the biggest source of dealer profits, their service departments. According to the National Automobile Dealers Association (NADS), dealers on average make three times as much profit from service as they do from new car sales. However, a NADS spokesman said there was not sufficient data to prove that electric cars would require less maintenance.^[350] According to the New York Times, BMW and Nissan are among the companies whose dealers tend to be more enthusiastic and informed, but only about 10% of dealers are knowledgeable on the new technology.^[350]

A study conducted at the Institute of Transportation Studies (ITS), at the University of California, Davis (UC Davis) published in 2014 found that many car dealers are less than enthusiastic about plug-in vehicles. ITS conducted 43 interviews with six automakers and 20 new car dealers selling plug-in vehicles in California’s major metro markets. The study also analyzed national and state-level J.D. Power 2013 Sales Satisfaction Index (SSI) study data on customer satisfaction with new car dealerships and Tesla retail stores. The researchers found that buyers of plug-in electric vehicles were significantly less satisfied and rated the dealer purchase experience much lower than buyers of non-premium conventional cars, while Tesla Motors earned industry-high scores. According to the findings, plug-in buyers expect more from dealers than conventional buyers, including product knowledge and support that extends beyond traditional offerings.^[351][353]

In 2014 Consumer Reports published results from a survey conducted with 19 secret shoppers that went to 85 dealerships in four states, making anonymous visits between December 2013 and March 2014. The secret shoppers asked a number of specific questions about cars to test the salespeople’s knowledge about electric cars. The consumer magazine decided to conduct the survey after several consumers who wanted to buy a plug-in car reported to the organization that some dealerships were steering them toward gasoline-powered models. The survey found that not all sales people seemed enthusiastic about making PEV sales; a few outright discouraged it, and even one dealer was reluctant to even show a plug-in model despite having one in stock. And many sales people seemed not to have a good understanding of electric-car tax breaks and other incentives or of charging needs and costs. Consumer Reports also found that when it came to answering basic questions, sales people at Chevrolet, Ford, and Nissan dealerships tended to be better informed than those at Honda and Toyota. The survey found that most of the Toyota dealerships visited recommended against buying a Prius Plug-in and suggested buying a standard Prius hybrid instead. Overall, the secret shoppers reported that only 13 dealers “discouraged sale of EV,” with seven of them being in New York. However, at 35 of the 85 dealerships visited, the secret shoppers said sales people recommended buying a gasoline-powered car instead.^[354]

The ITS-Davis study also found that a small but influential minority of dealers have introduced new approaches to better meet the needs of plug-in customers. Examples include marketing carpool lane stickers, enrolling buyers in charging networks, and preparing incentive paperwork for customers. Some dealers assign seasoned sales people as plug-in experts, many of whom drive plug-ins themselves to learn and be familiar with the technology and relate the car’s benefits to potential buyers. The study concluded also that carmakers could do much more to support dealers selling PEVs.^[351]

Future trends

President Obama driving a Volt at the White House.

According to a 2011 study by Pike Research, annual sales of plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S. were predicted to reach 360,000 vehicles by 2017. The study projected that the highest sales between 2011 and 2017 would take place in California, New York and Florida.^[355] In 2012, and as sales have fallen short of projections, Pike Research projected that annual sales of plug-in electric vehicles in the U.S. will reach 400,073 units in 2020, with California as the state with the highest PEV sales over the remainder of this decade, with nearly 25% of all PEVs sold in the United States between 2012 and 2020. In terms of market share, California will be followed by New York, Florida, Texas, and Washington, but Hawaii is expected by 2020 to have the highest penetration rate of PEVs as a percentage of all light duty vehicle sales. California is predicted to have four of the top ten metropolitan areas for PEV sales: Los Angeles–Long Beach, San Francisco Bay Area, Silicon Valley, and Greater Sacramento. Pike Research forecasts that cumulative sales of PEVs in the largest 102 American cities will reach more than 1.8 million from 2012 through 2020, with a share of more than 25% of all annual sales concentrated in the top five metropolitan areas for PEV sales: New York, Los Angeles, San Francisco, Seattle, and Portland.^{[356][357][358]}

In a separate analysis published in September 2013, Navigant Research forecasts that PEVs will represent a 2.4% market share of total new vehicle sales in the United States in 2022. Navigant also predicted that Hawaii will have the highest concentration of plug-in electric vehicle sales in the U.S., with 10.1% of total Hawaiian new light-duty vehicle sales in 2022; followed by Northern California with 9.7%, California as a whole will be 6.0%, and Oregon with 5.8%.^[359] Hawaii has a high potential for mass adoption of plug-in electric vehicles due to the limited driving range imposed by the islands size and its high fuel costs.^[264][265] In an updated report published in April 2014 Navigant forecasts that the United States will remain the largest national market for light-duty plug-in electric vehicles during the next 10 years, with the PEV segment growing at a compound annual growth rate of 16.3% between 2014 and 2023, predicting that annual PEV sales in the U.S. will exceed 514,000 in 2023.^[360]

According to forecasts made by Pike Research in January 2013, the United States was expected to continue to be the largest market for PEVs in 2020, but the European market was anticipated to have a higher market penetration (4.0% market share) due to its higher gasoline prices and supportive government policies, while Japan was expected to become the largest market for hybrid electric vehicles.^[219][361] A similar trend was predicted by Navigant Research in a geographical forecast published in April 2014. Navigant predicted that by 2023 the fleet of light duty plug-in electric vehicles in use in Oslo is expected to represent 10.7% of the city's total registered light-duty fleet, 7.7% in Amsterdam, and 2.5% in Paris. Navigant also predicts that by 2020 annual PEV sales in the Greater Tokyo Area will surpass Los Angeles, currently the city with the largest PEV market. The PEV fleet in Tokyo is expected to reach a market penetration of 2.3% of the city's light-duty stock in 2023, and become the world's largest PEV city market with a PEV stock of around 260,000 in 2023, while Los Angeles is expected to have a stock of over 250,000 PEVs.^[362]

Neighborhood electric vehicles

The chart and table are based on Department of Energy tables.^[363] (Table V1 and the Historical Data.) Figures for electric vehicles do not include privately owned vehicles, but do include Low-Speed Vehicles (LSVs), defined as "four-wheeled motor vehicles whose top speed is ...20 to 25 mph (32 to 40 km/h) ... to be used in residential areas, planned communities, industrial sites, and other areas with low density traffic, and low-speed zones."^[364] LSVs, more commonly known as neighborhood electric vehicles (NEVs), were defined in 1998 by the National Highway Traffic Safety Administration's Federal Motor Vehicle Safety Standard No. 500, which required safety features such as windshields and seat belts, but not doors or side walls.^{[365][366][367]}

The GEM is the best selling low-speed neighborhood electric vehicle in the U.S.

Since 1998 Global Electric Motorcars (GEM), the market leader in North America, has sold more than 50,000 GEM battery-electric vehicles worldwide as of October 2015.^[368]

1990-2003

• Chrysler TEVan (1993-1995)
• General Motors EV1 (1996-2003)
• Toyota RAV4 EV (1997-2003)
• Honda EV Plus (1997-1999)
• Nissan Altra (1998-2001)
• Dodge Caravan EPIC (1999 to 2001)
• Ford TH!NK City (1999-2003)

2008-2017

2008

• Tesla Roadster (production ended in 2011)

2009

• Mini E (demonstration program ended in 2011)

2010

• Chevrolet Volt (replaced by second generation in 2015)
• Nissan Leaf
• Navistar eStar utility van

2011

• Th!nk City (no longer in production)
• Smart ED 2nd gen (available for leasing only)
• Wheego Whip LiFe (no longer in production)
• Fisker Karma (no longer in production)
• Azure Transit Connect Electric delivery van (no longer in production)
• Mitsubishi i (Mitsubishi i MiEV in the rest of the world)
• Smith Newton delivery truck

2012

• BMW ActiveE (demonstration program ended in 2014)
• Coda (no longer in production)
• Ford Focus Electric (limited production)
• Toyota Prius PHV (production ended in 2015)
• Boulder DV-500 delivery truck
• Amp Electric Vehicles (SUV and light truck conversions)
• Tesla Model S
• Honda Fit EV (limited production)
• Toyota RAV4 EV (2nd gen) (limited production)
• Ford C-Max Energi

2013

• Honda Accord Plug-in Hybrid
• Ford Fusion Energi
• Scion iQ EV (limited production available only for carsharing fleets, not for retail customers)
• Smart electric drive 3rd gen (available with battery leasing option)
• Chevrolet Spark EV (limited production)
• Fiat 500e (limited production)
• Porsche Panamera S E-Hybrid
• Cadillac ELR (limited production)

2014

• BMW i3
• Porsche 918 Spyder (limited edition)
• Mercedes-Benz B-Class Electric Drive
• BMW i8
• Volkswagen e-Golf
• Kia Soul EV
• Porsche Cayenne S E-Hybrid

2015

• Mercedes-Benz S 500 Plug-in Hybrid
• Volvo XC 90 PHEV
• Tesla Model X
• Bolloré Bluecar (available only for the BlueIndy carsharing fleet)
• Chevrolet Volt (second generation)
• BMW X5 xDrive40e
• Hyundai Sonata PHEV
• Audi A3 Sportback e-tron

2016

• BMW 330e iPerformance
• Mercedes-Benz GLE 550e Plug-in Hybrid
• Toyota Prius Prime (second generation Prius PHEV)
• Chevrolet Bolt EV
• BMW 740e iPerformance
• Mercedes-Benz C 350e Plug-in Hybrid

2017

• Chrysler Pacifica Hybrid
• BMW 530e iPerformance
• Tesla Model 3
• Kia Optima PHEV
• Honda Clarity Electric
• Honda Clarity Plug-in Hybrid
• Volvo XC60 Plug-in Hybrid
• Mini Cooper S E ALL4
• Hyundai Ioniq Electric
• Cadillac CT6 Plug-in Hybrid
• Volvo S90 T8 Plug-in Hybrid
• Mitsubishi Outlander P-HEV

Future cars

The following is a list of plug-in hybrids with market launch scheduled between 2017 and 2020.^{[369][370][371][372]}

2018

• Hyundai Ioniq Plug-in
• Karma Revero (updated version of the Fisker Karma)
• Mercedes-Benz E 350e Plug-in Hybrid
• Mercedes-Benz GLC 350e 4MATIC
• Audi Q7 e-tron Quattro
• Audi Q6 e-tron Quattro
• Jaguar I-Pace
• Bentley Continental Plug-In Hybrid
• Aston Martin RapidE

2019

• Audi Q8 e-tron Quattro

2020

• Porsche Mission E
• Mercedes-Benz Generation EQ