Timeline of volcanism on Earth

2011 Puyehue-Cordón Caulle eruption1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens1912 eruption of NovaruptaYellowstone CalderaAD 79 Eruption of Mount Vesuvius1902 eruption of Santa María1280 eruption of Quilotoa1600 eruption of Huaynaputina2010 eruptions of EyjafjallajökullYellowstone Caldera1783 eruption of Laki1477 eruption of Bárðarbunga1650 eruption of KolumboVolcanic activity at SantoriniToba catastrophe theoryKuril IslandsBaekdu MountainKikai Caldera1991 eruption of Mount PinatuboLong Island (Papua New Guinea)1815 eruption of Mount Tambora1883 eruption of Krakatoa2010 eruptions of Mount MerapiBilly Mitchell (volcano)Taupo VolcanoTaupo VolcanoTaupo VolcanoCrater Lake
Clickable imagemap of notable volcanic eruptions. The apparent volume of each bubble is linearly proportional to the volume of tephra ejected, colour-coded by time of eruption as in the legend. Pink lines denote convergent boundaries, blue lines denote divergent boundaries and yellow spots denote hotspots.

This timeline of volcanism on Earth is a list of major volcanic eruptions of approximately at least magnitude 6 on the Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI) or equivalent sulfur dioxide emission around the Quaternary period.

Some eruptions cooled the global climate—inducing a volcanic winter—depending on the amount of sulfur dioxide emitted[1] and the magnitude of the eruption.[2] Before the Holocene epoch, the criteria are less strict because of scarce data availability, partly since later eruptions have destroyed the evidence. So, the known large eruptions after the Paleogene period are listed, and especially those relating to the Yellowstone hotspot, the Santorini caldera, and the Taupo Volcanic Zone. Only some eruptions before the Neogene period are listed.

Active volcanoes such as Stromboli, Mount Etna and Kilauea do not appear on this list, but some back-arc basin volcanoes that generated calderas do appear. Some dangerous volcanoes in "populated areas" appear many times: so Santorini, six times and Yellowstone hotspot, twenty-one times. The Bismarck volcanic arc, New Britain, and the Taupo Volcanic Zone, New Zealand, appear often too.

In addition to the events listed below, are many examples of eruptions in the Holocene on the Kamchatka Peninsula,[3] which are described in a supplemental table by Peter Ward.[4]

Large Quaternary eruptions

The Holocene epoch begins 11,700 years BP[5] (10,000 14C years ago).

Since 1000 AD

  • Pinatubo, island of Luzon, Philippines; 1991, June 15; VEI 6; 6 to 16 km3 (1.4 to 3.8 cu mi) of tephra;[6] an estimated 20,000,000 tonnes (22,000,000 short tons) of SO
    2     were emitted[2]
  • Novarupta, Alaska Peninsula; 1912, June 6; VEI 6; 13 to 15 km3 (3.1 to 3.6 cu mi) of lava[7][8][9]
  • Santa Maria, Guatemala; 1902, October 24; VEI 6; 20 km3 (4.8 cu mi) of tephra[10]
  • Krakatoa, Indonesia; 1883, August 26–27; VEI 6; 21 km3 (5.0 cu mi) of tephra[11]
  • Mount Tambora, Lesser Sunda Islands, Indonesia; 1815, Apr 10; VEI 7; 150 km3 (36 cu mi) of tephra;[6] an estimated 200,000,000 t (220,000,000 short tons) of SO
    2     were emitted, produced the "Year Without a Summer"[12]
  • The "Mysterious 1810 Event" VEI 6-7; discovered from ice cores in the 1980s.[13][14][15]
  • Grímsvötn, Northeastern Iceland; 1783–1785; Laki; 1783–1784; VEI 6; 14 km3 (3.4 cu mi) of lava, an estimated 120,000,000 t (130,000,000 short tons) of SO
    2     were emitted, produced a Volcanic winter, 1783, on the North Hemisphere.[16]
  • Long Island (Papua New Guinea), Northeast of New Guinea; 1660 ±20; VEI 6; 30 km3 (7.2 cu mi) of tephra[6]
  • Kolumbo, Santorini, Greece; 1650, September 27; VEI 5; 2 km3 (0.5 cu mi) of tephra[17]
  • Huaynaputina, Peru; 1600, February 19; VEI 6; 30 km3 (7.2 cu mi) of tephra[18]
  • Billy Mitchell, Bougainville Island, Papua New Guinea; 1580 ±20; VEI 6; 14 km3 (3.4 cu mi) of tephra[6]
  • Bárðarbunga, Northeastern Iceland; 1477; VEI 6; 10 cubic kilometres (2.4 cu mi) of tephra[6]
  • 10 October 1465 mystery eruption "the location of this eruption is uncertain, as it has only been identified from distant ice core records and that of the wedding of King Alfonso II of Naples; it is believed to have been VEI 7 and possibly even larger than Mount Tambora's in 1815.[19][20]
  • 1452-53 New Hebrides arc, Vanuatu; the location of this eruption in the South Pacific is uncertain, as it has been identified from distant ice core records; the only pyroclastic flows are found at Kuwae; 36 to 96 km3 (8.6 to 23.0 cu mi) of tephra; 175,000,000–700,000,000 t (193,000,000–772,000,000 short tons) of sulfuric acid[21][22][23]
  • Quilotoa, Ecuador; 1280(?); VEI 6; 21 km3 (5.0 cu mi) of tephra[6]
  • 1257 Samalas eruption, Rinjani volcanic complex, Lombok Island, Indonesia; 40 km3 (dense-rock equivalent) of tephra, Arctic and Antarctic Ice cores provide compelling evidence to link the ice core sulfate spike of 1258/1259 A.D. to this volcano.[24][25]

Overview of Common Era

This is a sortable summary of 27 major eruptions in the last 2000 years with VEI ≥6, implying an average of about 1.3 per century. The count does not include the notable VEI 5 eruptions of Mount St. Helens and Mount Vesuvius. Date uncertainties, tephra volumes, and references are also not included.

Caldera/ Eruption nameVolcanic arc/ belt
or Subregion or Hotspot		VEIDateKnown/proposed consequences
Mount PinatuboLuzon Volcanic Arc61991, Jun 15Global temperature fell by 0.4 °C
NovaruptaAleutian Range61912, Jun 6
Santa MaríaCentral America Volcanic Arc61902, Oct 24
KrakatoaSunda Arc61883, Aug 26–27At least 30,000 dead
Mount TamboraLesser Sunda Islands71815, Apr 10Year Without a Summer (1816)
1808/1809 mystery eruptionSouthwestern Pacific Ocean61808, DecA sulfate spike in ice cores
Grímsvötn and LakiIceland61783-85Mist Hardships
Long Island (Papua New Guinea)Bismarck Volcanic Arc61660
HuaynaputinaAndes, Central Volcanic Zone61600, Feb 19Russian famine of 1601–1603
Billy MitchellBougainville & Solomon Is.61580
BárðarbungaIceland61477
10 October 1465 mystery eruptionunknown71465Possibly larger than Mount Tambora's
KuwaeNew Hebrides Arc61452-532nd pulse[26] of Little Ice Age?
QuilotoaAndes, Northern Volcanic Zone61280
Samalas (Mount Rinjani)Lombok, Lesser Sunda Islands712571257 Samalas eruption, 1st pulse[27][28] of Little Ice Age? (c.1250)
Baekdu Mountain/Tianchi eruptionChina/ North Korea border7946, Nov-947Limited regional climatic effects.[29]
Katla/Eldgjá eruptionIceland6934-940
CeborucoTrans-Mexican Volcanic Belt6930
DakatauaBismarck Volcanic Arc6800
PagoBismarck Volcanic Arc6710
Mount Churchilleastern Alaska, USA6700
Rabaul CalderaBismarck Volcanic Arc6540 (est.)Extreme weather events of 535–536
IlopangoCentral America Volcanic Arc6450
KsudachKamchatka Peninsula6240
Taupo Caldera/Hatepe eruptionTaupo Volcano7180 or 230Affected skies over Rome and China
Mount Vesuvius/Pompeii eruptionItaly579
Mount Churchilleastern Alaska, USA660
AmbrymNew Hebrides Arc650
ApoyequeCentral America Volcanic Arc650 BC (±100)

Note: Caldera names tend to change over time. For example, Okataina Caldera, Haroharo Caldera, Haroharo volcanic complex, Tarawera volcanic complex had the same magma source in the Taupo Volcanic Zone. Yellowstone Caldera, Henry's Fork Caldera, Island Park Caldera, Heise Volcanic Field had all Yellowstone hotspot as magma source.

Earlier Quaternary eruptions

2.588 ± 0.005 million years BP, the Quaternary period and Pleistocene epoch begin.

Large Neogene eruptions

Pliocene eruptions

Approximately 5.332 million years BP, the Pliocene epoch begins. Most eruptions before the Quaternary period have an unknown VEI.

Santa Rosa-Calico
Virgin Valley
McDermitt
Black Mountain
Silent Canyon
Timber Mountain
Stonewall
Long Valley
Lunar Crater
Nevada/ California:
Volcanism locations.
Cochetopa
La Garita
Lake City
Platoro
Dotsero
Colorado volcanism. Links: La Garita, Cochetopa and North Pass (North Pass), Lake City, and Dotsero.
Valles
Socorro
Potrillo
Zuni-Bandera
Carizzozo
New Mexico volcanism. Links: Valles, Socorro, Potrillo, Carrizozo, and Zuni-Bandera.

Miocene eruptions

Approximately 23.03 million years BP, the Neogene period and Miocene epoch begin.

  • Cerro Guacha, Bolivia; 5.6-5.8 Ma (Guacha ignimbrite).[59]
  • Lord Howe Island, Australia; Mount Lidgbird and Mount Gower are both made of basalt rock, remnants of lava flows that once filled a large volcanic caldera 6.4 Ma.[60]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.51 Ma ±0.13 (Conant Creek Tuff).[58]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 5.6 Ma; 500 cubic kilometers (120 cu mi) of Blue Creek Tuff.[4]
  • Cerro Panizos (size: 18 km wide), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 6.1 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Panizos Ignimbrite.[4][61]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; 6.27 Ma ±0.04 (Walcott Tuff).[58]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Heise volcanic field, Idaho; Blacktail Caldera (size: 100 x 60 km), Idaho; 6.62 Ma ±0.03; 1,500 cubic kilometers (360 cu mi) of Blacktail Tuff.[4][58]
  • Pastos Grandes Caldera (size: 40 x 50 km), Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex, Bolivia; 8.3 Ma; 652 cubic kilometers (156 cu mi) of Sifon Ignimbrite.[4]
  • Manus Island, Admiralty Islands, northern Papua New Guinea; 8–10 Ma
  • Banks Peninsula, New Zealand; Akaroa erupted 9 Ma, Lyttelton erupted 12 Ma.[62]
  • Mascarene Islands were formed in a series of undersea volcanic eruptions 8-10 Ma, as the African plate drifted over the Réunion hotspot.
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Twin Fall volcanic field, Idaho; 8.6 to 10 Ma.[63]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Picabo volcanic field, Idaho; 10.21 Ma ± 0.03 (Arbon Valley Tuff).[58]
  • Mount Cargill, New Zealand; the last eruptive phase ended some 10 Ma. The center of the caldera is about Port Chalmers, the main port of the city of Dunedin.[64][65][66]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Idaho; Bruneau-Jarbidge volcanic field; 10.0 to 12.5 Ma (Ashfall Fossil Beds eruption).[63]
  • Anahim hotspot, British Columbia, Canada; has generated the Anahim Volcanic Belt over the last 13 million years.
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Owyhee-Humboldt volcanic field, Nevada/ Oregon; around 12.8 to 13.9 Ma.[63][67]
  • Tejeda Caldera, Gran Canaria, Spain; 13.9 Ma; the 80 km3 eruption produced a composite ignimbrite (P1) of rhyolite, trachyte and basaltic materials, with a thickness of 30 metres at 10 km from the caldera center[68]
  • Gran Canaria shield basalt eruption, Spain; 14.5 to 14 Ma; 1,000 km3 of tholeiitic to alkali basalts
  • Campi Flegrei, Naples, Italy; 14.9 Ma; 79 cubic kilometers (19 cu mi) of Neapolitan Yellow Tuff.[4]
  • Huaylillas Ignimbrite, Bolivia, southern Peru, northern Chile; 15 Ma ±1; 1,100 cubic kilometers (264 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Whitehorse Caldera (size: 15 km wide), Oregon; 15 Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (10 cu mi) of Whitehorse Creek Tuff.[4][69]
  • Yellowstone hotspot (?), Lake Owyhee volcanic field; 15.0 to 15.5 Ma.[70]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Jordan Meadow Caldera, (size: 10–15 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6 Ma; 350 cubic kilometers (84 cu mi) Longridge Tuff member 2-3.[4][63][69][71]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Longridge Caldera, (size: 33 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.6 Ma; 400 cubic kilometers (96 cu mi) Longridge Tuff member 5.[4][63][69][71]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Calavera Caldera, (size: 17 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 15.7 Ma; 300 cubic kilometers (72 cu mi) of Double H Tuff.[4][63][69][71]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Hoppin Peaks Caldera, 16 Ma; Hoppin Peaks Tuff.[72]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (North), Trout Creek Mountains, Pueblo Caldera (size: 20 x 10 km), Oregon; 15.8 Ma; 40 cubic kilometers (10 cu mi) of Trout Creek Mountains Tuff.[4][69][72]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, McDermitt volcanic field (South), Washburn Caldera, (size: 30 x 25 km wide), Nevada/ Oregon; 16.548 Ma; 250 cubic kilometers (60 cu mi) of Oregon Canyon Tuff.[4][69][71]
  • Yellowstone hotspot (?), Northwest Nevada volcanic field (NWNV), Virgin Valley, High Rock, Hog Ranch, and unnamed calderas; West of Pine Forest Range, Nevada; 15.5 to 16.5 Ma.[73]
  • Yellowstone hotspot, Steens and Columbia River flood basalts, Pueblo, Steens, and Malheur Gorge-region, Pueblo Mountains, Steens Mountain, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho, USA; most vigorous eruptions were from 14–17 Ma; 180,000 cubic kilometers (43,184 cu mi) of lava.[4][74][75][76][77][78][79][80]
  • Mount Lindesay (New South Wales), Australia; is part of the remnants of the Nandewar extinct volcano that ceased activity about 17 Ma after 4 million years of activity.
  • Oxaya Ignimbrites, northern Chile (around 18°S); 19 Ma; 3,000 cubic kilometers (720 cu mi) of tephra.[4]
  • Pemberton Volcanic Belt was erupting about 21 to 22 Ma.[81]

Volcanism before the Neogene

Distribution of selected hotspots. The numbers in the figure are related to the listed hotspots on Hotspot (geology).

Notes

Volcanic Explosivity Index (VEI)

VEI and ejecta volume correlation
VEITephra Volume
(cubic kilometers)		Example
0EffusiveMasaya Volcano, Nicaragua, 1570
1>0.00001Poás Volcano, Costa Rica, 1991
2>0.001Mount Ruapehu, New Zealand, 1971
3>0.01Nevado del Ruiz, Colombia, 1985
4>0.1Eyjafjallajökull, Iceland, 2010
5>1Mount St. Helens, United States, 1980
6>10Mount Pinatubo, Philippines, 1991
7>100Mount Tambora, Indonesia, 1815
8>1000Yellowstone Caldera, United States, Pleistocene

       

Volcanic dimming

The global dimming through volcanism (ash aerosol and sulfur dioxide) is quite independent of the eruption VEI.[99][100][101] When sulfur dioxide (boiling point at standard state: -10 °C) reacts with water vapor, it creates sulfate ions (the precursors to sulfuric acid), which are very reflective; ash aerosol on the other hand absorbs Ultraviolet.[102] Global cooling through volcanism is the sum of the influence of the global dimming and the influence of the high albedo of the deposited ash layer.[103] The lower snow line and its higher albedo might prolong this cooling period.[104] Bipolar comparison showed six sulfate events: Tambora (1815), Cosigüina (1835), Krakatoa (1883), Agung (1963), and El Chichón (1982), and the 1808/1809 mystery eruption.[105] And the atmospheric transmission of direct solar radiation data from the Mauna Loa Observatory (MLO), Hawaii (19°32'N) detected only five eruptions:[106]

 

But very large sulfur dioxide emissions overdrive the oxidizing capacity of the atmosphere. Carbon monoxide's and methane's concentration goes up (greenhouse gases), global temperature goes up, ocean's temperature goes up, and ocean's carbon dioxide solubility goes down.[1]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways". Thin Solid Films. 517 (11): 3188–3203. Bibcode:2009TSF...517.3188W. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005.
  2. 1 2 3 Robock, A., C.M. Ammann, L. Oman, D. Shindell, S. Levis, and G. Stenchikov (2009). "Did the Toba volcanic eruption of ~74k BP produce widespread glaciation?". Journal of Geophysical Research. 114: D10107. Bibcode:2009JGRD..11410107R. doi:10.1029/2008JD011652.
  3. ↑ "Holocene Kamchatka volcanoes. Institute of Volcanology and Seismology". www.kscnet.ru. Retrieved 2018-04-30.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24 25 26 27 28 29 30 31 32 "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
  5. ↑ "International Stratigraphic Chart" (PDF). International Commission on Stratigraphy. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-12-29. Retrieved 2009-12-23.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 http://www.volcano.si.edu/world/largeeruptions.cfm Large Holocene Eruptions
  7. ↑ Brantley, Steven R. (1999-01-04). Volcanoes of the United States. Online Version 1.1. United States Geological Survey. p. 30. ISBN 0-16-045054-3. OCLC 156941033. Retrieved 2008-09-12.
  8. ↑ Judy Fierstein; Wes Hildreth; James W. Hendley II; Peter H. Stauffer (1998). "Can Another Great Volcanic Eruption Happen in Alaska? - U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 075-98". Version 1.0. United States Geological Survey. Retrieved 2008-09-10.
  9. ↑ Fierstein, Judy; Wes Hildreth (2004-12-11). "The plinian eruptions of 1912 at Novarupta, Katmai National Park, Alaska". Bulletin of Volcanology. Springer. 54 (8): 646–684. Bibcode:1992BVol...54..646F. doi:10.1007/BF00430778.
  10. ↑ "Santa Maria". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
  11. ↑ Hopkinson, Deborah (January 2004). "The Volcano That Shook the world: Krakatoa 1883". 11 (4). New York: Storyworks. Scholastic.com: 8.
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  13. ↑ Bristol, University of. "September: Unknown eruption - News - University of Bristol". www.bris.ac.uk.
  14. ↑ "Undocumented volcano contributed to extremely cold decade from 1810-1819".
  15. ↑ Guevara-Murua, A.; Williams, C. A.; Hendy, E. J.; Rust, A. C.; Cashman, K. V. (2014). "Observations of a stratospheric aerosol veil from a tropical volcanic eruption in December 1808: is this the "Unknown" ~1809 eruption?". Climate of the Past Discussions. 10 (2): 1901–1932. Bibcode:2014CliPD..10.1901G. doi:10.5194/cpd-10-1901-2014. ISSN 1814-9359.
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  17. ↑ Sigurdsson Haraldur; Carey S.; Mandeville C. (1990). "Assessment of mass, dynamics and environmental effects of the Minoan eruption of the Santorini volcano". Thera and the Aegean World III: Proceedings of the Third Thera Conference. II: 100–12.
  18. ↑ "Huaynaputina". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  19. ↑ http://www.bbc.com/future/story/20170630-the-massive-volcano-that-scientists-cant-find
  20. ↑ https://www.academia.edu/14139518/The_day_the_sun_turned_blue._A_volcanic_eruption_in_the_early_1460s_and_its_putative_climatic_impact_a_globally_perceived_volcanic_disaster_in_the_Late_Middle_Ages
  21. ↑ Nemeth, Karoly; Shane J. Cronin; James D.L. White (2007). "Kuwae caldera and climate confusion". The Open Geology Journal. 1 (5): 7–11. Bibcode:2007OGJ.....1....7N. doi:10.2174/1874262900701010007.
  22. ↑ Gao, Chaochao; A. Robock; S. Self; J. B. Witter; J. P. Steffenson; H. B. Clausen; M.-L. Siggaard-Andersen; S. Johnsen; P. A. Mayewski; C. Ammann (27 June 2006). "The 1452 or 1453 A.D. Kuwae eruption signal derived from multiple ice core records: Greatest volcanic sulfate event of the past 700 years". Journal of Geophysical Research. 111: D12107. Bibcode:2006JGRD..11112107G. doi:10.1029/2005JD006710. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
  23. ↑ Witter, J.B.; Self S. (January 2007). "The Kuwae (Vanuatu) eruption of AD 1452: potential magnitude and volatile release". Bulletin of Volcanology. 69 (3): 301–318. Bibcode:2007BVol...69..301W. doi:10.1007/s00445-006-0075-4.
  24. ↑ Lavigne, Franck (4 September 2013). "Source of the great A.D. 1257 mystery eruption unveiled, Samalas volcano, Rinjani Volcanic Complex, Indonesia". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America. 110 (42): 16742–7. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11016742L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1307520110. PMC 3801080. PMID 24082132. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
  25. ↑ "Mystery 13th Century eruption traced to Lombok, Indonesia". BBC News. 30 September 2013. Retrieved 1 October 2013.
  26. ↑ Miller et al. 2012. "Abrupt onset of the Little Ice Age triggered by volcanism and sustained by sea-ice/ocean feedbacks" Geophysical Research Letters 39, January 31
  27. ↑ Lavigne, Franck; et al. (2013). "Source of the great A.D. 1257 mystery eruption unveiled, Samalas volcano, Rinjani Volcanic Complex, Indonesia". PNAS. 110 (42): 16742–16747. Bibcode:2013PNAS..11016742L. doi:10.1073/pnas.1307520110. PMC 3801080. PMID 24082132.
  28. ↑ Was the Little Ice Age Triggered by Massive Volcanic Eruptions? ScienceDaily, 30 January 2012 (accessed 21 May 2012)
  29. ↑ Jiandong Xu et al. 2013. "Climatic impact of the Millennium eruption of Changbaishan volcano in China: New insights from high-precision radiocarbon wiggle-match dating" Geophysical Research Letters 40 http://academiccommons.columbia.edu/download/fedora_content/download/ac:162055/CONTENT/XU_et_al_2013_GRL.pdf
  30. ↑ van den Bogaard, P (1995). 40Ar/(39Ar) ages of sanidine phenocrysts from Laacher See Tephra (12,900 yr BP): Chronostratigraphic and petrological significance
  31. ↑ De Klerk, Pim; Janke, Wolfgang; Kühn, Peter; Theuerkauf, Martin (2008), "Environmental impact of the Laacher See eruption at a large distance from the volcano: Integrated palaeoecological studies from Vorpommern (NE Germany)", Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology, 270: 196, doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2008.09.013
  32. ↑ Baales, Michael; Jöris, Olaf; Street, Martin; Bittmann, Felix; Weninger, Bernhard; Wiethold, Julian (November 2002). "Impact of the Late Glacial Eruption of the Laacher See Volcano, Central Rhineland, Germany". Quaternary Research. 58 (3): 273–288. Bibcode:2002QuRes..58..273B. doi:10.1006/qres.2002.2379.
  33. ↑ Forscher warnen vor Vulkan-Gefahr in der Eifel. Spiegel Online, 13. February 2007. Retrieved January 11, 2008
  34. ↑ Carey, Steven N.; Sigurdsson, Haraldur (1980). "The Roseau Ash: Deep-sea Tephra Deposits from a Major Eruption on Dominica, Lesser Antilles Arc". Journal of Volcanology and Geothermal Research. 7 (1–2): 67–86. Bibcode:1980JVGR....7...67C. doi:10.1016/0377-0273(80)90020-7.
  35. ↑ Alloway, Brent V.; Agung Pribadi; John A. Westgate; Michael Bird; L. Keith Fifield; Alan Hogg; Ian Smith (30 October 2004). "Correspondence between glass-FT and 14C ages of silicic pyroclastic flow deposits sourced from Maninjau caldera, west-central Sumatra". Earth and Planetary Science Letters. Elsevier. 227 (1–2): 121–133. Bibcode:2004E&PSL.227..121A. doi:10.1016/j.epsl.2004.08.014.
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  37. ↑ Jones, S.C. (2007) The Toba supervolcanic eruption: Tephra-fall deposits in India and Paleoanthropological implications; in The evolution and history of human populations in South Asia (eds.) M D Petraglia and B Allchin (New York: Springer Press) pp 173-200
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  39. ↑ Ninkovich, D.; N.J. Shackleton; A.A. Abdel-Monem; J.D. Obradovich; G. Izett (7 December 1978). "K−Ar age of the late Pleistocene eruption of Toba, north Sumatra". Nature. Nature Publishing Group. 276 (5688): 574–577. Bibcode:1978Natur.276..574N. doi:10.1038/276574a0.
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  41. ↑ "Cities on Volcanoes 5". www.eri.u-tokyo.ac.jp.
  42. ↑ "Sierra la Primavera". Global Volcanism Program. Smithsonian Institution. Retrieved 2010-03-24.
  43. ↑ "GEOLOGIC SETTING OF THE UZON CALDERA, KAMCHATKA, FAR EAST RUSSIA". gsa.confex.com.
  44. ↑ Uzon, Global Volcanism Program, Smithsonian Institution
  45. ↑ Sruoga, Patricia; Eduardo J. Llambías; Luis Fauqué; David Schonwandt; David G. Repol (September 2005). "Volcanological and geochemical evolution of the Diamante Caldera–Maipo volcano complex in the southern Andes of Argentina (34°10′S)". Journal of South American Earth Sciences. 19 (4): 399–414. Bibcode:2005JSAES..19..399S. doi:10.1016/j.jsames.2005.06.003.
  46. ↑ Karlstrom, K.; Crow, R.; Peters, L.; McIntosh, W.; Raucci, J.; Crossey, L.; Umhoefer, P. (2007). "40Ar/39Ar and field studies of Quaternary basalts in Grand Canyon and model for carving Grand Canyon: Quantifying the interaction of river incision and normal faulting across the western edge of the Colorado Plateau". GSA Bulletin. 119 (11/12): 1283–1312. Bibcode:2007GSAB..119.1283K. doi:10.1130/0016-7606(2007)119[1283:AAFSOQ]2.0.CO;2.
  47. ↑ Hildreth, W. (1979), Sarna-Wojcicki et al. (2000).
  48. ↑ Izett, Glen A. (1981).
  49. ↑ Heiken et al. (1990).
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  51. ↑ Wood, Charles A.; Jűrgen Kienle (1990). Volcanoes of North America. Cambridge University Press. pp. 170–172.
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  53. ↑ Ort, M. H.; de Silva, S.; Jiminez, N.; Salisbury, M.; Jicha, B. R. and Singer, B. S. (2009). Two new supereruptions in the Altiplano-Puna Volcanic Complex of the Central Andes.
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Further reading

  • Ammann, Caspar M.; Philippe Naveau (6 March 2003). "Statistical analysis of tropical explosive volcanism occurrences over the last 6 centuries" (PDF). Geophysical Research Letters. 30 (5): 1210. Bibcode:2003GeoRL..30.1210A. doi:10.1029/2002GL016388. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
  • Froggatt, P.C.; Lowe, D.J. (1990). "A review of late Quaternary silicic and some other tephra formations from New Zealand: their stratigraphy, nomenclature, distribution, volume, and age". New Zealand Journal of Geology and Geophysics. 33: 89–109. doi:10.1080/00288306.1990.10427576. Archived from the original on October 21, 2008. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
  • Lipman, P.W. (September 30, 1984). "The Roots of Ash Flow Calderas in Western North America: Windows Into the Tops of Granitic Batholiths". Journal of Geophysical Research. 89 (B10): 8801–8841. Bibcode:1984JGR....89.8801L. doi:10.1029/JB089iB10p08801.
  • Mason, Ben G.; Pyle, David M.; Oppenheimer, Clive (2004). "The size and frequency of the largest explosive eruptions on Earth". Bulletin of Volcanology. 66 (8): 735–748. Bibcode:2004BVol...66..735M. doi:10.1007/s00445-004-0355-9.
  • Newhall, Christopher G., Dzurisin, Daniel (1988); Historical unrest at large calderas of the world, USGS Bulletin 1855, p. 1108
  • Siebert L., and Simkin T. (2002-). Volcanoes of the World: an Illustrated Catalog of Holocene Volcanoes and their Eruptions. Smithsonian Institution, Global Volcanism Program, Digital Information Series, GVP-3, (http://www.volcano.si.edu/).
  • Simkin T. & Siebert L. (1994). Volcanoes of the World. Geoscience Press, Tucson, 2nd edition. p. 349. ISBN 0-945005-12-1.
  • Simkin T. & Siebert L. (2000). Sigurdsson H., eds. "Encyclopedia of Volcanoes". San Diego: Academic Press: 249–261 |contribution= ignored (help)
  • Simkin, T.; Siebert L.; McClelland L.; Bridge D.; Newhall C.; Latter J.H. (1981). Volcanoes of the World: A Regional Directory, Gazetteer, and Chronology of Volcanism During the Last 10,000 Years. Hutchinson-Ross, Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. p. 232. ISBN 0-87933-408-8.
  • Stern, Charles R. (December 2004). "Active Andean volcanism: its geologic and tectonic setting". Revista Geológica de Chile. 31 (2): 161–206. doi:10.4067/S0716-02082004000200001. Retrieved 2010-03-17.
  • United States Geological Survey; Cascades Volcano Observatory, Vancouver, Washington; Index to CVO online volcanoes
  • Ward, Peter L. (2 April 2009). "Sulfur Dioxide Initiates Global Climate Change in Four Ways" (PDF). Thin Solid Films. 517 (11): 3188–3203. Bibcode:2009TSF...517.3188W. doi:10.1016/j.tsf.2009.01.005. Archived from the original (PDF) on 20 January 2010. Retrieved 2010-03-19.
    • Supplementary Table I: "Supplementary Table to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009) Major volcanic eruptions and provinces" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
    • Supplementary Table II: "Supplementary References to P.L. Ward, Thin Solid Films (2009)" (PDF). Teton Tectonics. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2010-01-20. Retrieved 2010-03-16.
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