Wind power in the United Kingdom

Blyth's "windmill" at his cottage in Marykirk in 1891

The world's first electricity generating wind turbine was a battery charging machine installed in July 1887 by Scottish academic James Blyth to light his holiday home in Marykirk, Scotland.[35] It was in 1951 that the first utility grid-connected wind turbine to operate in the United Kingdom was built by John Brown & Company in the Orkney Islands.[35][36] In the 1970s, industrial scale wind generation was first proposed as an electricity source for the United Kingdom; the higher working potential of offshore wind was recognised with a capital cost per kilowatt estimated at £150 to £250.[37]

In 2007 the United Kingdom Government agreed to an overall European Union target of generating 20% of the EU's energy supply from renewable sources by 2020. Each EU member state was given its own allocated target: for the United Kingdom it is 15%. This was formalised in January 2009 with the passage of the EU Renewables Directive. As renewable heat and renewable fuel production in the United Kingdom are at extremely low bases, RenewableUK estimated that this would require 35–40% of the United Kingdom's electricity to be generated from renewable sources by that date,[38] to be met largely by 33–35 gigawatts (GW) of installed wind capacity.

In December 2007, the Government announced plans for an expansion of wind energy in the United Kingdom, by conducting a Strategic Environmental Assessment of up to 25 GW worth of wind farm offshore sites in preparation for a new round of development. These proposed sites were in addition to the 8 GW worth of sites already awarded in the 2 earlier rounds of site allocations, Round 1 in 2001 and Round 2 in 2003. Taken together it was estimated that this would result in the construction of over 7,000 offshore wind turbines.[39]

In 2010, 653 MW of offshore wind came online. The following year, only one offshore wind farm, phase 1 of the Walney Wind Farm, was completed in 2011 with a capacity of 183 MW. On 28 December 2011 wind power set a then record contribution to the United Kingdom's demand for electricity of 12.2%.[40]

2012 was a significant year for the offshore wind industry with 4 large wind farms becoming operational with over 1.1 GW of generating capability coming on stream.[41] In the year July 2012 to June 2013, offshore wind farms with a capacity of 1,463 MW were installed, for the first time growing faster than onshore wind which grew by 1,258 MW.[42] The offshore wind industry continued to develop in 2013 with what was once the largest wind farm in the world, the London Array, becoming operational with over 630 MW of generating capability coming on stream.[43]

During 2013, 27.4 TW·h of energy was generated by wind power, which contributed 8.7% of the UK's electricity requirement.[44]

On 1 August 2013 Deputy Prime Minister Nick Clegg opened the Lincs Offshore Wind Farm. On commissioning the total capacity of wind power exceeded 10GW of installed capacity.

During 2014, 28.1 TW·h of energy was generated by wind power (an average of 3.2 GW, about 24% of the 13.5 GW installed capacity at the time), which contributed 9.3% of the UK's electricity requirement.[45] In the same year, Siemens announced plans to build a £310 million ($264 million) facility for making offshore wind turbines in Paull, England, as Britain's wind power capacity rapidly expands. Siemens chose the Hull area on the east coast of England because it is close to other large offshore projects planned in coming years. The new plant began producing turbine rotor blades in December 2016.[46] The plant and the associated service centre, in Green Port Hull nearby, will employ about 1,000 workers.[47]

During 2015, 40.4 TW·h of energy was generated by wind power and the quarterly generation record was set in the three-month period from October to December 2015, with 13% of the nation's electricity demand met by wind.[48] 2015 saw 1.2 GW of new wind power capacity brought online, a 9.6% increase of the total UK installed capacity. Three large offshore wind farms came on stream in 2015, Gwynt y Môr (576 MW max. capacity), Humber Gateway (219 MW) and Westermost Rough (210 MW).

In 2016, the chief executive of DONG Energy (now known as Ørsted A/S), the UK's largest windfarm operator, predicted that wind power could supply more than half of the UK's electricity demand in future. He pointed to the tumbling cost of green energy as evidence that wind and solar could supplant fossil fuels quicker than expected.[49]

Burbo Bank Offshore Wind Farm.

The total offshore wind power capacity installed in the United Kingdom as of February 2019 is 8,483 MW, the largest in the world. The United Kingdom became the world leader of offshore wind power generation in October 2008 when it overtook Denmark.[50] In 2013 the 175-turbine London Array wind farm, located off the Kent coast became the largest offshore wind farm in the world; this was surpassed in 2018 by the Walney 3 Extension.

The United Kingdom has been estimated to have over a third of Europe's total offshore wind resource, which is equivalent to three times the electricity needs of the nation at current rates of electricity consumption[51] (In 2010 peak winter demand was 59.3 GW,[52] in summer it drops to about 45 GW). One estimate calculates that wind turbines in one third of United Kingdom waters shallower than 25 metres (82 ft) would, on average, generate 40 GW; turbines in one third of the waters between 25 metres (82 ft) and 50 metres (164 ft) depth would on average generate a further 80 GW, i.e. 120 GW in total.[53] An estimate of the theoretical maximum potential of the United Kingdom's offshore wind resource in all waters to 700 metres (2,300 ft) depth gives the average power as 2200 GW.[54]

The first developments in United Kingdom offshore wind power came about through the now discontinued Non-Fossil Fuel Obligation (NFFO), leading to two wind farms, Blyth Offshore and Gunfleet sands.[55] The NFFO was introduced as part of the Electricity Act 1989 and obliged United Kingdom electricity supply companies to secure specified amounts of electricity from non-fossil sources,[56] which provided the initial spur for the commercial development of renewable energy in the United Kingdom.

Offshore wind projects completed in 2010–11 had a levelised cost of electricity of £136/MWh, which fell to £131/MWh for projects completed in 2012–14 and £121/MWh for projects approved in 2012–14; the industry hopes to get the cost down to £100/MWh for projects approved in 2020.[18] The construction price for offshore windfarms has fallen by almost a third since 2012 while technology improved and developers think a new generation of even larger turbines will enable yet more future cost reductions.[57] In 2017 the UK built 53% of the 3.15GW European offshore wind farm capacity.[58]

Round 1

In 1998 the British Wind Energy Association (now RenewableUK) began discussions with the government to draw up formal procedures for negotiating with the Crown Estate, the owner of almost all the United Kingdom coastline out to distance of 12 nautical miles (22.2 km), to build offshore wind farms. The result was a set of guidelines published in 1999, to build "development" farms designed to give developers a chance to gain technical and environmental experience. The projects were limited to 10 square kilometres in size and with a maximum of 30 turbines. Locations were chosen by potential developers and a large number of applications were submitted. Seventeen of the applications were granted permission to proceed in April 2001, in what has become known as Round 1 of United Kingdom offshore wind development.[59]

The first of the Round 1 projects was North Hoyle Wind Farm, completed in December 2003. The final project, Teesside, was completed in August 2013. Twelve Round 1 farms in total are in operation providing a maximum power generating capacity of 1.2 GW. Five sites were withdrawn, including the Shell Flat site off the coast of Lancashire.[60]

Four offshore wind farms are in the Thames Estuary area: Kentish Flats, Gunfleet Sands, Thanet and London Array. The latter was the largest in the world from April 2013 to September 2018.

Round 2

Delivery of UK's longest onshore turbine blades. 58.7m blades for 145m GE 2.75–120 wind turbines at Muirhall Wind Farm.[61]

Lessons learnt from Round 1, particularly the difficulty in getting planning consent for offshore wind farms, together with the increasing pressure to reduce CO₂ emissions, prompted the Department of Trade and Industry (DTI) to develop a strategic framework for the offshore wind industry. This identified three restricted areas for larger scale development, Liverpool Bay, the Thames Estuary and the area beyond the Wash, called the Greater Wash, in the North Sea. Development was prevented in an exclusion zone between 8 and 13 km offshore to reduce visual impact and avoid shallow feeding grounds for sea birds. The new areas were tendered to prospective developers in a competitive bid process known as Round 2. The results were announced in December 2003 with 15 projects awarded with a combined power generating capacity of 7.2 GW. By far the largest of these is the 900 MW Triton Knoll.[62] As before a full Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) would be needed along with an application for planning consent.

The first of the Round 2 projects was Gunfleet Sands II, completed in April 2010 and six others are now operational including the London Array, formerly the largest wind farm in the world. Four other Round 2 sites are currently under construction.[60]

Scroby Sands wind farm from Great Yarmouth

The Ardrossan Wind Farm in North Ayrshire, Scotland

The first commercial wind farm was built in 1991 at Delabole in Cornwall;[171] it consisted of 10 turbines each with a capacity to generate a maximum of 400 kW. Following this, the early 1990s saw a small but steady growth with half a dozen farms becoming operational each year; the larger wind farms tended to be built on the hills of Wales, examples being Rhyd-y-Groes, Llandinam, Bryn Titli and Carno. Smaller farms were also appearing on the hills and moors of Northern Ireland and England. The end of 1995 saw the first commercial wind farm in Scotland go into operation at Hagshaw Hill. The late 1990s saw sustained growth as the industry matured. In 2000 the first turbines capable of generating more than 1 MW were installed and the pace of growth started to accelerate as the larger power companies like Scottish Power and Scottish and Southern became increasingly involved in order to meet legal requirements to generate a certain amount of electricity using renewable means (see Renewables obligations below). Wind turbine development continued rapidly and by the mid-2000s 2 MW+ turbines were the norm. In 2007, the German wind turbine producer Enercon installed the first 6 MW model ("E-126"); The nameplate capacity was changed from 6 MW to 7 MW after technical revisions were performed in 2009 and to 7.5 MW in 2010.

Growth continued with bigger farms and larger, more efficient turbines sitting on taller and taller masts. Scotland's sparsely populated, hilly and windy countryside became a popular area for developers and the United Kingdom's first 100 MW+ farm went operational in 2006 at Hadyard Hill in South Ayrshire.[172] 2006 also saw the first use of the 3 MW turbine. In 2008 the largest onshore wind farm in England was completed on Scout Moor[173] and the repowering of the Slieve Rushen Wind Farm created the largest farm in Northern Ireland.[174] In 2009 the largest wind farm in the United Kingdom went live at Whitelee on Eaglesham Moor in Scotland.[175] This is a 539 MW wind farm consisting of 215 turbines. Approval has been granted to build several more 100 MW+ wind farms on hills in Scotland and will feature 3.6 MW turbines.

As of September 2013, there were 458 operational onshore wind farms in the United Kingdom with a total of 6565 MW of nameplate capacity. A further 1564 MW of capacity is currently being constructed, while another 4.8 GW of schemes have planning consent.[41]

In 2009, United Kingdom onshore wind farms generated 7,564 GW·h of electricity; this represents a 2% contribution to the total United Kingdom electricity generation (378.5 TW·h).[176]

Large onshore wind farms are usually directly connected to the National Grid, but smaller wind farms are connected to a regional distribution network, termed "embedded generation". In 2009 nearly half of wind generation capacity was embedded generation, but this is expected to reduce in future years as larger wind farms are built.[177]

Gaining planning permission for onshore wind farms continues to prove difficult, with many schemes stalled in the planning system and a high rate of refusal.[178][179] The RenewableUK (formerly BWEA) figures show that there are approximately 7,000 MW worth of onshore schemes waiting for planning permission. On average, a wind farm planning application takes 2 years to be considered by a local authority, with an approval rate of 40%. This compares extremely unfavourably with other types of major applications, such as housing, retail outlets and roads, 70% of which are decided within the 13- to 16-week statutory deadline; for wind farms the rate is just 6%. Approximately half of all wind farm planning applications, over 4 GW worth of schemes, have objections from airports and traffic control on account of their impact on radar. In 2008 NATS en Route, the BWEA, the Ministry of Defence and other government departments signed a Memorandum of Understanding seeking to establish a mechanism for resolving objections and funding for more technical research.

Wind farms in the UK often have to meet a maximum height limit of 125 metres (excluding Scotland). However, modern lower cost wind turbines installed on the continent are over 200 metres tall.[180] This planning criteria has stunted the development of onshore wind in the UK.

List of the largest operational and proposed onshore wind farms

UK Onshore wind farms

Wind farm	County	Country	Turbine model	Power (MW) each turbine	No. Turbines	Total capacity (MW)	Commiss- ioned	Notes and references
Crystal Rig	Scottish Borders	Scotland	Nordex N80/ Siemens SWT-2.3	2.5/2.3	25/60	200.5	May 2004	Extended May 2007 (1a) & September 2010 (2 & 2a)
Cefn Croes	Ceredigion	Wales	GE 1.5 se	1.5	39	58.5	June 2005
Black Law	South Lanarkshire	Scotland	Siemens SWT-2.3	2.3	88	124	September 2005	Extended September 2006 (Phase 2)
Hadyard Hill	South Ayrshire	Scotland	Bonus B2300	2.5	52	120	March 2006
Farr	Highland	Scotland	Bonus B2300	2.3	40	92	May 2006
Slieve Rushen	Co Fermanagh	Northern Ireland	Vestas V90	3	18	54	April 2008	Largest onshore farm in Northern Ireland
Scout Moor	Lancashire	England	Nordex N80	2.5	26	65	September 2008
Little Cheyne Court	Kent	England	Nordex 2.3	2.3	26	59.8	November 2008
Whitelee	East Renfrewshire	Scotland	Siemens SWT-2.3	2.3	140	322	November 2008	Largest operational onshore wind farm in the United Kingdom
Arecleoch	South Ayrshire	Scotland	Gamesa G87[181]	2	60	120	June 2011	Construction began October 2008, completed in June 2011[182]
Griffin	Perth & Kinross	Scotland	Siemens SWT-2.3[183]	2.3	68	156.4	February 2012	Construction began August 2010, completed in February 2012[184]
Clyde	South Lanarkshire	Scotland	Siemens SWT-2.3	2.3	152	350	September 2012	Construction began January 2010, completed in September 2012[185]
Fallago Rig	Scottish Borders	Scotland	Vestas V90[186]	3	48	144	April 2013	Construction finished April 2013[187]
Whitelee extension	East Renfrewshire	Scotland	Alstom ECO 100/ECO 74	3/1.6	69/6	217	April 2013	Construction finished April 2013[188]
Keadby Wind Farm	Lincolnshire	England	Vestas V90	2	34	68	July 2014	First power produced September 2013, England's largest onshore wind farm, Completed July 2014 [189]
Harestanes	Dumfries & Galloway	Scotland	Gamesa G87	2	68	136	July 2014	[190]
Bhlaraidh	Highland	Scotland	Vestas V112/V117	3.45	32	108	August 2017	All 32 turbines connected to the grid.[191]
Pen y Cymoedd	Neath Port Talbot & Rhondda Cynon Taf	Wales	Siemens SWT-3.0	3	76	228	September 2017	Officially opened on 28 September.[192] Largest onshore wind farm in Wales.
Kilgallioch (Arecleoch  Phase 2)	Dumfries & Galloway	Scotland	Gamesa G90/G114	2.5	96	239	2017	[193]
Clyde Extension	South Lanarkshire	Scotland	Siemens SWT-3.0	3.2	54	172.8	2017	[194]
Stronelairg	Highland	Scotland		3.45	66	227	December 2018[195]	Construction started March 2017[196] First power in March 2018.[197]
Dorenell	Moray	Scotland		3	59	177	March 2019[198][199]	Last turbine base completed in September 2018.[200]
Viking Energy Wind Farm	Shetland Islands	Scotland		4.3	103	443	estimated 2024	Consent granted April 2012 with reduced number of turbines. Construction scheduled to start in 2020[201]
Stornoway	Western Isles	Scotland		5	36	180		Consent granted in 2012. First use of 5MW turbines onshore.
Muaitheabhal	Western Isles	Scotland		3.6	33	189	estimated 2023/2024	Halted in October 2014 due to external delays[202] Successful in the spring 2019 capacity auction[152]
Hesta Head	Orkney Isles	Scotland		4.08	5	20.40	estimated 2023/2024	Successful in the spring 2019 capacity auction[152]
Druim Leathann	Western Isles	Scotland				49.50	estimated 2024/2025	Successful in the spring 2019 capacity auction[152]
Costa Head	Orkney Isles	Scotland		4.08	4	16.32	estimated 2023/2024	Successful in the spring 2019 capacity auction[152]
Llandinam – Repower	Powys	Wales		3	34	102		Consent granted in 2015.
South Kyle	Dumfries & Galloway	Scotland		3.4	50	170		Consent granted in 2017. Final investment decision to be made by spring 2019.[203]

Specialist trailers deliver turbine components to Dorenell Wind Farm.[204]

Early windfarms, were part financed through the Renewables Obligation where British electricity suppliers were required by law to provide a proportion of their sales from renewable sources such as wind power or pay a penalty fee. The supplier then received a Renewables Obligation Certificate (ROC) for each MW·h of electricity they have purchased.[15] The Energy Act 2008 introduced banded ROCs for different technologies from April 2009. Onshore wind receives 1 ROC per MW·h, however following the Renewables Obligation Banding Review in 2009 offshore wind then received 2 ROCs to reflect its higher costs of generation.[205] Wind energy received approximately 40% of the total revenue generated by the RO.[206] The ROCs were the principal form of support for United Kingdom wind power, providing over half of the revenue from wind generation for early wind farms.

A 2004 study by the Royal Academy of Engineering using "simplification and approximation" found that wind power cost 5.4 pence per kW·h for onshore installations and 7.2 pence per kW·h for offshore, compared to 2.2p/kW·h for gas and 2.3p/kW·h for nuclear.[207] By 2011 onshore wind costs at 8.3p/kW·h had fallen below new nuclear at 9.6p/kW·h, though it had been recognised that offshore wind costs at 16.9p/kW·h were significantly higher than early estimates mainly due to higher build and finance costs, according to a study by the engineering consultancy Mott MacDonald.[208] Wind farms are made profitable by subsidies through Renewable Obligation Certificates which provide over half of wind farm revenue.[209] The total annual cost of the Renewables Obligation topped £1 billion in 2009 and is expected to reach £5 billion by 2020, of which about 40% is for wind power.[210] This cost is added to end-user electricity bills. Sir David King has warned that this could increase UK levels of fuel poverty.[211]

However, as the technology developed the cost of electricty generation by wind has fallen significantly. In the 2019 CfD round, 6GW of wind was added to the grid at £47/MWh at 2019 prices; the first round that prices were lower than current generation costs.[24][25]

The government announced on 18 June 2015 that it intended to close the Renewables Obligation to new onshore wind power projects on 1 April 2016 (bringing the deadline forward by one year).[212] Support for offshore wind was moved into the government's Contract for Difference support regime.[213]

As of 2020 costs for offshore wind power stations is the lowest cost of any other UK electricity generation, less than 50% of the cost of Nuclear Power.[214][215]

Wind-generated power is a variable resource, and the amount of electricity produced at any given point in time by a given plant will depend on wind speeds, air density and turbine characteristics (among other factors). If wind speed is too low (less than about 2.5 m/s) then the wind turbines will not be able to make electricity, and if it is too high (more than about 25 m/s) the turbines will have to be shut down to avoid damage. When this happens other power sources must have the capacity to meet demand.[51][217] Three reports on the wind variability in the United Kingdom issued in 2009, generally agree that variability of the wind does not make the grid unmanageable; and the additional costs, which are modest, can be quantified.[218] For wind power market penetration of up to 20% studies in the UK show a cost of £3-5/MWh.[219] In the United Kingdom, demand for electricity is higher in winter than in summer and so are wind speeds.[220][221]

While the output from a single turbine can vary greatly and rapidly as local wind speeds vary, as more turbines are connected over larger and larger areas the average power output becomes less variable.[222] Studies by Graham Sinden suggest that, in practice, the variations in thousands of wind turbines, spread out over several different sites and wind regimes, are smoothed, rather than intermittent. As the distance between sites increases, the correlation between wind speeds measured at those sites, decreases.[216][223]

Surveys of public attitudes across Europe and in many other countries show strong public support for wind power.[7][8][9] About 80 percent of EU citizens support wind power.[10]

Which should be increased in Scotland?[238]

A 2003 survey of residents living around Scotland's 10 existing wind farms found high levels of community acceptance and strong support for wind power, with much support from those who lived closest to the wind farms. The results of this survey support those of an earlier Scottish Executive survey 'Public attitudes to the Environment in Scotland 2002', which found that the Scottish public would prefer the majority of their electricity to come from renewables and which rated wind power as the cleanest source of renewable energy.[239] A survey conducted in 2005 showed that 74% of people in Scotland agree that wind farms are necessary to meet current and future energy needs. When people were asked the same question in a Scottish renewables study conducted in 2010, 78% agreed. The increase is significant as there were twice as many wind farms in 2010 as there were in 2005. The 2010 survey also showed that 52% disagreed with the statement that wind farms are "ugly and a blot on the landscape". 59% agreed that wind farms were necessary and that how they looked was unimportant.[11] Scotland is planning to obtain 100% of electricity from renewable sources by 2020.[12]

A British 2015 survey showed 68% support and 10% opposition to onshore wind farms.[240]

In the UK, the ruling Conservative government is opposed to further onshore wind turbines and has cancelled subsidies for new onshore wind turbines from April 2016.[241] The former prime minister David Cameron stated that “We will halt the spread of onshore wind farms",[242] and claimed that "People are fed up with onshore wind" though polls of public opinion showed the converse.[243] Leo Murray of 10:10 said, “It looks increasingly absurd that the Conservatives have effectively banned Britain’s cheapest source of new power.”[215] As the UK's Conservative government was opposed to onshore wind power it attempted to cancel existing subsidies for onshore wind turbines a year early from April 2016, although the House of Lords struck those changes down.[244]

The wind power industry has claimed that the policy will increase electricity prices for consumers as onshore wind is one of the cheapest power technologies,[242] although the government disputes this,[241] and it is estimated that 2,500 turbines will not now be built.[241] Questions have been raised about whether the country will now meet its renewable obligations, as Committee on Climate Change has stated that 25GW of onshore wind may be needed by 2030.[245]

In 2020 the Boris Johnson led government decided to stop the block on onshore wind power, and from 2021 onshore wind developers will be able to compete in subsidy auctions with solar power and offshore wind.[246]

December 2014 was a record breaking month for UK wind power. A total of 3.90 TWh of electricity was generated in the month – supplying 13.9% of the UK's electricity demand.[247] On 19 October 2014, wind power supplied just under 20% of the UK's electrical energy that day. Additionally, as a result of 8 of 16 nuclear reactors being offline for maintenance or repair, wind produced more energy than nuclear did that day.[248][249] The week starting 16 December 2013, wind generated a record 783,886 MWh – providing 13% of Britain's total electricity needs that week. And on 21 December, a record daily amount of electricity was produced with 132,812 MWh generated, representing 17% of the nation's total electricity demand on that day.[250]

In January 2018 metered wind power peaked at over 10 GW and contributed up to a peak of 42% of the UK's total electricity supply.[251] In March, maximum wind power generation reached 14 GW, meaning nearly 37% of the nation's electricity was generated by wind power operating at over 70% capacity.[252] On 5 December 2019, maximum wind power generation reached 15.6 GW.[253] At around 2am on 1 July 2019, wind power was producing 50.64% of the electricity supply, perhaps the first time that over half of the UK's electricity was produced by wind,[254] while at 2:00am on 8 February 2019, wind power was producing 56.05% of the electricity supply.[255] Wind power first exceeded 16GW on 8 December 2019 during Storm Atiyah.[256]

As of 2020, there are no major UK based Wind Turbine Manufacturers, the majority of which being headquartered in Denmark, Germany and the USA.

In 2014, Siemens announced plans to build facilities for offshore wind turbines in Kingston upon Hull, England, as Britain's wind power rapidly expands. The new plant was expected to begin producing turbine rotor blades in 2016. By 2019 blades were being shipped in large numbers [257] The plant and the associated service centre, in Green Port Hull nearby, will employ about 1,000 workers. The facilities will serve the UK market, where the electricity that major power producers generate from wind grew by about 38 percent in 2013, representing about 6 percent of total electricity, according to government figures. At the time there were plans to continue to increase Britain's wind-generating capacity, to 14 gigawatts by 2020.[47] In fact, that figure was exceeded in late 2015.

On 16 October 2014, TAG Energy Solutions announced the mothballing and semi closure of its Haverton Hill construction base near Billingham with between 70 and 100 staff redundancies after failing to secure any subsequent work following the order for 16 steel foundations for the Humber Estuary in East Yorkshire.[258]

In June 2016 Global Energy Group announced it had signed a contract in association with Siemens to fabricate and assemble turbines for the Beatrice Wind Farm, at its Nigg Energy Park site. It hopes in the future to become a centre for excellence and has opened a skills academy to help re-train previous offshore workers for green energy projects.[77]

• The Case for and against onshore wind energy in the United Kingdom; Grantham Institute, Climate Change and the Environment, Centre for Climate Change Economics and Policy

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