Qing dynasty coinage

Various coins from the late Qing dynasty produced under the Guangxu and Xuantong Emperors.

Qing dynasty coinage (simplified Chinese: 清朝货币; traditional Chinese: 清朝貨幣; pinyin: Qīngcháo Huòbì) was based on a bimetallic standard of copper and silver coinage. The Manchu Qing dynasty ruled over China from 1644 until it was overthrown by the Xinhai revolution in 1912.[1][2] The Qing dynasty saw the transformation of a traditional cash coin based cast coinage monetary system into a modern currency system with machine-struck coins, while the old traditional silver ingots would slowly be replaced by silver coins based on those of the Mexican peso.[3][4] After the Qing dynasty was abolished its currency was replaced by the Chinese yuan by the Republic of China.

Later Jin dynasty coinage (1616–1636)

Various coins issued by the Later Jin dynasty.
A Later Jin dynasty cash coin with Manchu inscription reading Abkai fulingga han jiha ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ
ᡶᡠᠯᡳᠩᡤᠠ
ᡥᠠᠨ
ᠵᡳᡴᠠ or "the money of Nurhaci".

Prior to the establishment of the Qing dynasty, the Jurchen people (later renamed the Manchus) created the Jin dynasty after an earlier Jurchen dynasty. For this reason historians refer to this state as the "Later Jin".[5] Nurhaci had united the many tribes of the Jianzhou and Haixi Jurchens under the leadership of the Aisin Gioro clan,[6] and later ordered the creation of Manchu script based on the Mongolian vertical script.[7][8] Hong Taiji renamed the Jin dynasty into the Qing dynasty,[9] and the Jurchen people into the Manchu people, while adopting more ethnic inclusive policies towards Han Chinese people in order not make the same mistakes as the Mongols did before him.[10][11]

In 1616 the Jurchens began producing their own cash coins, the coins issued under Nurhaci were written in an older version of Manchu script without any diacritics, and generally bigger than Later Jin coins with Chinese inscriptions. Under Hong Taiji these coins bore the legend that they had a nominal weight of 10 qián (or 1 tael) modelled after contemporary Ming dynasty coinage, but in reality weighed less.

The following coins were issued by the Jurchens (later Manchus) before the establishment of the Qing:[12][13][14]

InscriptionLatin scriptDenominationsYears of mintageKhan
ᠠᠪᡴᠠᡳ
ᡶᡠᠯᡳᠩᡤᠠ
ᡥᠠᠨ
ᠵᡳᡴᠠ		Abkai fulingga han jiha1 wén1616–1626Abkai fulingga Khan
天命通寳Tiān Mìng Tōng Bǎo1 wén1616–1626Abkai fulingga Khan
ᠰᡠᡵᡝ
ᡥᠠᠨ
ᠨᡳ
ᠵᡳᡴᠠ		Sure han ni jiha10 wén1627–1643Sure Khan

History

In 1644 the Manchus captured Beijing from the Shun dynasty,[15] and then marched south capturing the forces loyal to the Ming. One of the first monetary policies they enacted was accepting Ming dynasty cash coins at only half the value of Qing dynasty cash coins, because of this Ming era coinage was removed from circulation to be melted into Qing dynasty coinage, this is why in modern times even Song dynasty coins are more common than those from the more recent Ming dynasty.

Early history

A Shùn Zhì Tōng Bǎo (順治通寶) coin, the first series of Qing dynasty coins minted outside of Manchuria.

At first the Qing government set the exchange rate between bronze and silver at 1 wén of bronze per lí (釐, or 厘) of silver, and 1000 lí of silver would be 1 tael (两), thus one string of 1000 bronze cash coins equated to a single tael of silver.

The Shunzhi Emperor created the Ministry of Revenue and the Ministry of Public Works in Beijing to oversee the casting of bronze cash coins, these ministries produced 400,000 strings of cash coins annually. Later the Shunzhi Emperor ordered military garrisons to start minting their own coinage, and though the official weight for cash coins was first set at 1 qián, in 1645 this increased to 1.2 qián, and by 1651 this had become 1.25 qián. In 1660 the order was given to re-open provincial mints and have them cast their mint names in Manchu script.[16]

The coins produced under the Shunzhi Emperor were modeled after Tang dynasty Kai Yuan Tong Bao coins, as well as early Ming dynasty coins, and have a Chinese mint mark on their reverses these were produced from 1644 until 1661, though these coins had a large range of mint marks from various provinces all over China, from 1644 until 1645 there were also Shùn Zhì Tōng Bǎo (順治通寶) coins being cast with blank reverses.[17]

Kangxi era

Under the Kangxi Emperor in 1662 the government closed all provincial mints with the notable exception of the one in Jiangning, but in 1667 all of the provincial mints were re-opened but many closed down again soon afterwards as the price of copper had steadily increased. Those responsible for the transportation of copper rarely made the mints in time, and while copper prices were rising daily the Ministry of Revenue still maintained a fixed rate of exchange between copper and silver causing many provincial mints to quickly lose money, while on paper they were still profitable.[18]

In 1684 the amount of copper in the alloys if cash coins was reduced from 70% to 60% all while the standard weight was lowered to 1 qián again, while the central government's mints in Beijing started producing cash coins with a weight of 0.7 qián. By 1702 all provincial mints were closed again due to the aforementioned circumstances.[19]

Yongzheng era

Under the Yongzheng Emperor various measures were undertaken to ensure a vast supply of cash coins, though the weight was increased to 1.4 qián per wén, the copper content was lowered from 60% to 50% in 1727. In 1726 the Ministry of Revenue was split into 4 agencies each named after a wind direction, and in 1728 all provincial mints were ordered to open again as only the mint of Yunnan province was operating prior to this order, and finally in 1728 the Ministry of Public Works mint was split into a "new Ministry of Public Works mint", and an "old Ministry of Public Works mint". Though by 1733 the Qing government realised that the costs of making standard cash coins at a weight of 1.4 qián was too much, so they lowered it back to 1.2 qián.[20]

In 1725 the province of Yunnan had 47 operating furnaces. In 1726 the governour of Yunnan, Ortai made the province's coin minting industry more profitable by implementing new systems for regular, and supplemental casting as well as for casting scrap metal making sure that only regular cast coins would carry full production costs, he also closed down mints in the province with a lower production efficiency and started exporting Yunnan's coins to other provinces. This system proved so successful that other provinces started to adopt these reforms.[21]

Qianlong era

A Qián Lóng Tōng Bǎo (乾隆通寶) coin.

During the first few years of the reign of the Qianlong Emperor China had suffered from a shortage of cash coins due to the contemporary scarcity of copper, but soon Yunnan's copper mines started producing a large surplus of copper allowing the Qing government to swiftly increase the money supply and minting more coins at a faster pace. In the middle of the Qianlong era as much as 3,700,000 strings of cash were produced annually. In 1741 coins were ordered to be made of an alloy of 50% copper, 41.5% zinc, 6.5% lead, and 2% tin to reduce the likelihood of people melting down coins to make utensils, all while the Qing government encouraged to sell their utensils to the state mints to be melted into coinage. By the end of the Qianlong era Yunnan's copper mines started depleting the production of cash coins was lowered by the end of the Qianlong era, and the copper content was debased once more. 1794 all provincial mints were forced to close their doors, but subsequently reopened in 1796.[22]

During the Battle of Ngọc Hồi-Đống Đa in 1788 special Qián Lóng Tōng Bǎo coins were minted with An nan (安南) on their reverse sides as a payment for soldiers.[23]

Qianlong coinage in Xinjiang

In 1759 the Qing dynasty had conquered most of what would become the Xinjiang province,[24] as native coinages of the old Khanates were being deprecated in favour of Chinese cash coins, new cash coins made of pure copper to reflect local pūl (ﭘول) coins were minted that were red in colour and weighed 2 qián.[25][26] Under Qianlong new mints were established in Yining City,[27] Aksu, Yarkant,[28] and Ushi city. Xinjiang coins of the Qianlong era had reverse inscriptions in both Manchu and Turkic scripts. Even after the death of the Qianlong Emperor the Jiaqing Emperor ruled that 1 in 5 coins produced in Xinjiang should bear the inscription Qián Lóng Tōng Bǎo (乾隆通寶) to honour Qianlong, and celebrate his conquest of the region, this rule stayed in place even until the end of the Qing dynasty.[29]

Jiaqing era

Under the Jiaqing Emperor the Chinese population had reached 300,000,000 which was twice as much as just a century prior, famines had plagued the land, the government was corrupt, and hoards of secret Anti-Manchu organisations popped up everywhere, stability would not return until 1803 but this had come at tremendously high costs.[30] The Qing government started to increase quotas for the production of copper cash coins while constantly changing the standard content of the alloys beginning with 60% copper, and 40% zinc in 1796 to 54% copper, 43% zinc, and 3% lead not long after. Corruption plagued the provincial mints, and the exchange rate between cash and taels rose from 900 wén for 1 tael of silver to 1200 wén for a single tael, this was also due to a large outflow of silver to European and American merchants which pressured the Chinese monetary system. Under the Jiaqing Emperor an annual quota of 2,586,000 strings of cash coins for production was set, but in reality this number was rarely met.[31]

Daoguang era

Under the Daoguang Emperor China's silver reserves were depleting due to the trade of opium with other countries, and as Chinese cash coins were based on the silver standard this eventually lead to the debasement of Qing era cash coinage under Daoguang because the costs of producing cast copper coins was higher by about one third than the face value of the cast coins themselves, by 1845 2,000 wén was needed for a single tael of silver. Coins produced under the Daoguang Emperor tend to be diminutive compared to earlier Qing dynasty coinage because of this reason.[32][33] Under the Daoguang Emperor a new mint was established at Kucha in the Xinjiang province with coins cast there bearing the mark "庫" as well as coins with the reverse side inscription of "新" to circulate within the aforementioned province that was far away from China proper.

Inflation during the 19th century

A coin bearing Manchu, Arabic, and Chinese characters with a face value of 100 wén.

Under the Xianfeng Emperor several large wars such as the Nian, Miao, Panthay and Taiping rebellions, and the Second Opium War plagued the Qing dynasty, because of the military actions undertaken in these wars copper could no longer be shipped from the south (particularly from the copper rich Yunnan province) leading not only to a debasement of the copper content in cash coins, but also to a large increase in denominations to keep paying for the high military expenditures and other governmental costs, this inevitably lead to large inflation.[34][35] Various other factors also lead to inflation such as a rapidly increasing population, and famines.

The Xianfeng Emperor also started issuing large quantities of new banknotes, the Hù Bù Guān Piào (戶部官票), and Dà Qīng Bǎo Chāo (大清寶鈔) were issued as a means to pay for the wars fought under Xianfeng, but because of the Qing dynasty's low silver reserves these banknotes couldn't be backed up.

Coinage struck under Xianfeng wasn't standard either though ranging from denominations as low as 1 wén to as high as 1000 wén, it wasn't uncommon for coins with a face value of 50 wén to be heavier than 100 wén coins, and 100 wén coins to be even be heavier than 1000 wén coins. Despite the larger denominations, existing lower denominations were also heavily debased with the 1 wén denomination being standardised back to 1 qián.[36][37][38] Despite the larger denominations of 500 and 1000 being ordered to be cast of pure copper, and illegal producers of these coins were executed by the government en masse, the general population still had no faith in the larger denominations (mostly because a 1000 wén coin only had the intrinsic value of twenty 1 wén cash coins), eventually all denominations larger than 10 wén were withdrawn and the 10 wén coins would continue to be minted in Beijing until the reign of the Guangxu Emperor.

Tongzhi era

For the first year of the Tongzhi Emperor he bore the reign name of "Qixiang", though a few coins with this inscription were cast they were never put into circulation. Tongzhi's mother the Empress Dowager Cixi changed his reign name to Tongzhi in 1862. Tongzhi's reign saw the end of the Taiping rebellion and the beginning of a large Muslim revolt in Xinjiang. The era also saw the rise of the Self-Strengthening Movement which wanted to adopt western ideas into practice in China including reforming the monetary system.[39]

The coins produced under the Tongzhi Emperor remained of inferior quality with the 10 wén coin being reduced from 4.4 to 3.2 qián in 1867. Copper shortages remained and illegal casting would only become a larger problem as the provincial mints remained closed or barely productive. The first machine-struck cash coins were also produced under the Tongzhi Emperor in Paris at the request of governour Zuo Zongtang in 1866, but the government of the Qing refused to introduce machine-made coinage.[40]

Modernisation under the Guangxu Emperor

A postcard from 1900 showing the contemporary circulating Guangxu era Chinese coinage.

Under the Guangxu Emperor various attempts at reforming the Qing dynasty's currency system were implemented. Machine-made copper coins without square holes were introduced in Guangdong province in 1899,[41] and by 1906 15 machine operated mints operated in 12 provinces. The introduction of these machine-struck coins marked the beginning of the end of coin casting in China. In 1895 the Guangzhou Machine Mint had 90 presses becoming the largest mint in the world followed by the British Royal Mint with only 16 presses.

Many provinces were still slow to adopt machine mints, often due to the high costs associated with them, the machine mint of Tianjin cost 27,000 taels of silver but the cost of making a single string of machine-struck 1 qián cash coins more than twice as high as their face value forcing the Tianjin mint to buy more furnaces until it eventually had to close down in 1900.[42]

Guangxu's reign saw the reclamation of Xinjiang and the presuming of minting red cash there, while Japanese experts revitalised the copper mining industry in Yunnan and many new veins of copper were discovered giving the government more resources to cast (and later strike) coins again.

The new coins often bore the inscription Guāng Xù Yuán Bǎo (光緒元寶) with an image of a Dragon and featured English, Chinese, and Manchu inscriptions. Further these coins tended to have their relation with China's older coinages (most often with cash coins) on the bottom, or their value in relation to silver coinage, and the Manchu words indicated the place of mintage. Meanwhile, the 10 wén "traditional" cash coins were discontinued as the production of these more modern coins began.[43]

In 1906 the General Mint of the Ministry of the Interior and Finance in Tianjin started issuing a new copper coin called the Dà Qīng Tóng Bì (大清銅幣), which like Guāng Xù Yuán Bǎo coins featured the image of a Chinese dragon, and had English, Chinese, and Manchu inscriptions with the English inscription reading "Tai-Ching-Ti-Kuo Copper Coin" in Wade-Giles, coins minted under the Guangxu Emperor featured the inscription of the Chinese characters Guāng Xù Nián Zào (光緒年造). These coins were minted in denominations of 2 wén, 5 wén, 10 wén, and 20 wén and would soon be issued by various mints across the Chinese provinces. These coins were first issued by the Ministry of the Interior and later by the Ministry of Revenue and Expenditure.[44]

Coinage under the Xuantong Emperor

Brass and silver coins issued under the Xuantong Emperor.

Under the Xuantong Emperor both traditional copper cash coins, and modern machine-struck coins continued to be minted simultaneously, though only the Ministry of Revenue in Beijing and a few provincial mints continued to cast traditional cash coins as most mints had started to exclusively produce machined coins, and Kucha was the only mint still operating in Xinjiang casting "red cash" under the Xuantong Emperor. Under the Xuantong Emperor Beijing's 2 central government operated mints would close. In 1910 new machine-made coins were issued.

New denominations introduced in 1910 include.

Denomination
(in Chinese)		Denomination
(in English)
一厘1 lí
五厘5 lí
一分1 fēn
二分2 fēn
壹圓1 yuán

These denominations weren't produced in large numbers as the Qing dynasty would be overthrown by the Xinhai revolution only a year later.[45] By the end of the Qing dynasty the government's attempts at modernising the monetary system had failed and machined coins circulated alongside traditional coinages, this situation would continue under the Republic of China.

Copper coinage

The copper coinage of the Qing dynasty was officially set at an exchange rate of 1000 wén (or cash coins) for one tael of silver, however actual market rate often changed from low as 700 wén for 1 tael of silver to as high as 1200 wén for a single tael of silver during the 19th century. The actual exchange rates were dependent on a variety of factors such as the quantity of the coinage on the market and quality of individual coins. Most government cast coinage entered the market through soldiers.[46][47]

Because casting is a very simple process many private (illegal) mints started producing fake cash coins known as Sīzhùqián (私鑄錢) because government mints often couldn't meet the market's demand for money, as there barely was a difference in quality between "real" or Zhìqián (制錢) and "fake" coins, the sizhuqian were just as widely accepted by the general population as means of payment. Though barter had remained common during most of the Qing era, by the mid 19th century the Chinese market had evolved to be highly monetised. Due to the inflation caused by various military crises under the Xianfeng Emperor new larger denomination cash coins were issued, cash coins of 4 wén and higher being referred to as Dàqián (大錢).

By the late Qing dynasty it had become apparent that carrying strings of cash coins was inconvenient compared to modern currencies. In 1900, 8 shillings converted into 32.6587 kilograms of copper cash coins and it was noted that if one of the straw strings holding the coins would break that it would cost more picking those coins up in time than the value retrieved from those coins.[48][49] This was one of the factors leading Chinese people to more readily accept the modernisation of the currency.

Purchasing power of cash coins during the Qing dynasty

At the time that Wu Jingzi's the Scholars was written in the 18th century 3 wén could buy a steamed bun, 4 wén could buy school food, 16 wén was enough for one bowl of noodles, and the annual tuition fee for school could be covered by 2,400 wén, but due to inflation the purchasing power of cash coins would decline in the next century.

PeriodAmount of rice for 1000 wén
(or 1 string of cash coins)[50]
1651–166099.6 kg
1681–1690136 kg
1721–1730116 kg
1781–179057.3 kg
1811–182025.2 kg
1841–185021.6 kg

Machine-struck cash coins

A machine-struck Dà Qīng tóngbì (大清銅幣) cash coin of 10 wén.

Due to a shortage of copper at the end of the Qing dynasty, the mint of Guangzhou, Guangdong began striking round copper coins without square holes in 1900. Tóngyuán (銅元) or Tóngbǎn (銅板) and they were struck in denominations of 1, 2, 5, 10, 20 and 30 wén. These struck coins were well received because of their higher quality compared to cast coins and their convenience in carriage, as well as their uniform weight and copper content compared to the less consistent alloys of cast Chinese coinage. As these coins were profitable to manufacture it did not take long before other provinces started making machine-struck cash coins too, and soon 20 bureaus were opened across China.[51] As these coins became more common they eventually replaced the old cast coins as the main medium of exchange for small purchases among the Chinese people.

Counterfeit machine-struck coins

Not long after these new copper coins were introduced, black market counterfeit versions of the 10 wén appeared, illegal mints opened all over China and started producing more coins than the Qing government's set quotas allowed there to be circulating on the market. Both Chinese and foreigners soon started producing struck cash coins of inferior quality often with traces of the Korean 5 fun coins they were overstruck on, or with characters and symbols not found on official government issued coins. These coins were often minted by Korean businessmen and former Japanese Samurai looking to make a profit on exchanging the low value copper coins into silver dollars as a single silver dollar had the purchasing power of 1000 Korean fun. The majority of the counterfeit coins bear the inscription that they were minted in either Zhejiang province or Shandong province, but they circulated all over the coastal regions of China.[52][53]

List of cash coins issued by the Qing dynasty

Qing dynasty era cash coins generally bear the reign title of the Emperor in Chinese characters, with only a single change of reign title occurring with the Qixiang Emperor becoming the Tongzhi Emperor by decision of his mother, Empress Dowager Cixi.[54]

InscriptionTraditional ChineseSimplified ChineseHànyǔ PīnyīnDenominationsYears of mintageImageEmperor
Shunzhi Tongbao順治通寶顺治通宝shùn zhì tōng bǎo1 wén1643–1661Shunzhi Emperor
Kangxi Tongbao康熙通寶康熙通宝kāng xī tōng bǎo1 wén1661–1722Kangxi Emperor
Yongzheng Tongbao雍正通寶雍正通宝yōng zhèng tōng bǎo1 wén1722–1735Yongzheng Emperor
Qianlong Tongbao乾隆通寶乾隆通宝qián lóng tōng bǎo1 wén, 10 wén1735–1796 (1912)[lower-alpha 1]Qianlong Emperor
Jiaqing Tongbao嘉慶通寶嘉庆通宝jiā qìng tōng bǎo1 wén1796–1820Jiaqing Emperor
Daoguang Tongbao道光通寶道光通宝dào guāng tōng bǎo1 wén, 5 wén, 10 wén1820–1850Daoguang Emperor
Xianfeng Tongbao咸豐通寶咸丰通宝xián fēng tōng bǎo1 wén, 5 wén, 10 wén, 50 wén, 100 wén1850–1861Xianfeng Emperor
Xianfeng Zhongbao咸豐重寶咸丰重宝xián fēng zhòng bǎo4 wén, 5 wén, 8 wén, 10 wén, 20 wén, 30 wén, 40 wén, 50 wén, 100 wén1850–1861Xianfeng Emperor
Xianfeng Yuanbao咸豐元寶咸丰元宝xián fēng yuán bǎo80 wén, 100 wén, 200 wén, 300 wén, 500 wén, 1000 wén1850–1861Xianfeng Emperor
Qixiang Tongbao祺祥通寶祺祥通宝qí xiáng tōng bǎo1 wén1861Tongzhi Emperor
Qixiang Zhongbao祺祥重寶祺祥重宝qí xiáng zhòng bǎo10 wén1861Tongzhi Emperor
Tongzhi Tongbao同治通寶同治通宝tóng zhì tōng bǎo1 wén, 5 wén, 10 wén1862–1875Tongzhi Emperor
Tongzhi Zhongbao同治重寶同治重宝tóng zhì zhòng bǎo4 wén, 10 wén1862–1875Tongzhi Emperor
Guangxu Tongbao光緒通寶光绪通宝guāng xù tōng bǎo1 wén, 10 wén1875–1908Guangxu Emperor
Guangxu Zhongbao光緒重寶光绪重宝guāng xù zhòng bǎo5 wén, 10 wén1875–1908Guangxu Emperor
Xuantong Tongbao宣統通寶宣统通宝xuān tǒng tōng bǎo1 wén, 10 wén1909–1911Xuantong Emperor

Silver coinage

A Chinese silver dollar made in 1904.

During the early days of the Qing dynasty silver Spanish dollars, known to the Chinese as "double balls" (雙球) because of the two globes featured on the coins, continued to circulate in the coastal areas of China, while sycees were regularly manufactured inland. Trade with the Spanish Empire continued as Chinese junks brought on average 80,000 pesos from Manila on every voyage, and by the mid-18th century the amount rose to 235,370,000 pesos. A lot of silver from Portugal, the Dutch Republic, and Japan continued to enter China during this period. After Mexico had become independent Mexican pesos (or "Eagle coins", 鷹洋) replaced the old Spanish dollars while the old Spanish dollars still remained important in China, the Treaty of Nanking ending the First Opium War in 1842 had its payments accounted in Spanish dollars.[55]

Many other forms of silver coins circulating in China caused the Qing government to eventually start producing its own silver coinage (銀圓 or 銀元) in 1821 with the first machine-struck silver coins being made a year later by the Jilin Arsenal in 1822. In 1887 Zhang Zhidong, the Viceroy of Liangguang started producing silver coinage in Guangzhou, these coins weighed 0.73 taels and had the English inscription of "Kwang-tung Province, 7 Mace and 3 Candareens" and were decorated with a large Dragon earning them the nickname "Guangdong Dragon dollars" (廣東龍洋) or they were referred to simply as "Yuán", an abbreviation of Yuánbǎo (元寶) which was featured on the inscription,[56] though this design was similar to silver Japanese coins circulating in China at the time which also featured a Dragon. These coins proved popular and soon other provinces started to cast their own variants of these silver coins. These coins were manufactured independently by each province and it wasn't until 1910 that the government of the Qing dynasty standardised them at 0.72 taels.[57][58]

The usage of silver coins was more common in Chinese trading ports after these were opened to foreign traders, eventually the usage of foreign paper money to exchange silver also became popular as foreign banks like The Hongkong and Shanghai Banking Corporation began issuing banknotes denominated in taels for the Chinese market.[59]

Prior to 1 tael being standardised at 50 g. by the government of the People's Republic of China in 1959, the weight "tael" differed substantially from province to province, the Qing government maintained that 1 tael equals 37.5 g. and this measurement was referred to as the Kuping tael (庫平两), and by official Qing government standards 1 Kuping tael = 10 Mace = 100 Candareens. Under the Guangxu Emperor several Kuping tael coins were struck in Tianjin from 1903 until 1907, and mostly served as salary for the soldiers. Despite the central government's attempts at unifying the standards provincial coinage remained the de facto standard across China.[60] Under the Xuantong Emperor another attempt at standardising the Qing dynasty's silver coinage was made in 1911 (Xuantong 3) a large amount of "dragon dollars" bearing the inscription "壹圓" (yīyuán) were minted, these were the only Qing dynasty coins with that inscription and also featured the English legend "One Dollar". These coins were all cast at the Central Tianjin Mint.[61]

After the fall of the Qing dynasty sycees were demonetised in 1933 and Qing dynasty silver coins in 1935 as they were replaced with paper money.[62]

Mint marks

In total there had been more than 50 local mints established that each bore their own unique mint marks, however several of these mints operated only for a brief time before discontinuing their casting of cash coins, mint marks on Qing dynasty coinage can be categorised into 7 main categories based on the scripts on the reverse sides of the coins: 1) only have Manchu script mint marks; 2) Only have mint marks in Chinese script with the weight of the coin in lí; 3) have both Manchu, and Chinese script mint marks; 4) only have a single Chinese character indicating the mint on the top of the reverse side; 5) Only contain the character "一" (1) on the reserve 6) have both Manchu, and Chinese scripts together on the right and left sides of the coin, plus the denomination of the denomination on the top and bottom, and 7) have Chinese, Manchu, and Arabic script together on the reverse side of the coin.[63]

Chinese mint marks

Mint marks on coins issued from 1644 until 1661:

Mint mark
(Traditional Chinese)		Mint mark
(Simplified Chinese)		Issuing officeImage
戶户The Board of Revenue,
Beijing
工工The Ministry of Public Works,
Beijing
陝陕Xi'an,
Shaanxi
臨临Linqing garrison,
Shandong
宣宣Xuanhua garrison,
Zhili
延延Yansui garrison,
Shanxi
原原Taiyuan,
Shanxi
西西Shanxi provincial mint
雲云Miyun garrison,
Zhili
同同Datong garrison,
Shanxi
荊荆Jingzhou garrison,
Hubei
河河Kaifeng,
Henan
昌昌Wuchang,
Hubei
甯宁Jiangning,
Jiangsu
江江Nanchang,
Jiangxi
浙浙Hangzhou,
Zhejiang
福福Fuzhou,
Fujian
陽阳Yanghe garrison,
Shaanxi
襄襄Xiangyang,
Hubei

From 1653 until 1657 another type of cash coin was simultaneously cast with the above series, but these coins contained the extra inscription of "一厘" (Equals one lí of silver) on the back. They were generally minted at the same mints as the above cash coin series but weren't minted at the Yansui garrison, the Shanxi province, and the Jingzhou garrison while another mint at Jinan, Shandong was opened for these coins, with coins cast there bearing the mark "東". Additionally there were also coins cast with no mint mark that only contain the character "一" (1) on their reserves indicating their value in Ií.

Between 1660 and 1661 cash coins were manufactured with both a Manchu (on the left), and a Chinese (on the right) character as mint marks. The following mints produced these coins:

Mint mark
(Traditional Chinese)		Mint mark
(Simplified Chinese)		Issuing officeImage
陝陕Xi'an,
Shaanxi
臨临Linqing garrison,
Shandong
宣宣Xuanhua garrison,
Zhili
薊蓟Jizhou garrison,
Zhili
原原Taiyuan,
Shanxi
同同Datong garrison,
Shanxi
河河Kaifeng,
Henan
昌昌Wuchang,
Hubei
甯宁Jiangning,
Jiangsu
寧宁Ningbo, Zhejiang
江江Nanchang,
Jiangxi
浙浙Hangzhou,
Zhejiang
東东Jinan,
Shandong

Under the reign of the Kangxi Emperor coins with only Manchu reverse inscriptions and both Manchu and Chinese reverse inscriptions were cast. The coins of the Kangxi Emperor were also the basis for the coins of the Yongzheng, Qianlong, and Jiaqing Emperors.

Under the Kangxi Emperor coins were produced at these mints:

Mint mark
(Traditional Chinese)		Mint mark
(Simplified Chinese)		Issuing officeImage
同同Datong garrison,
Shanxi
福福Fuzhou,
Fujian
臨临Linqing garrison,
Shandong
東东Jinan,
Shandong
江江Nanchang,
Jiangxi
宣宣Xuanhua garrison,
Zhili
原原Taiyuan,
Shanxi
蘇苏Suzhou,
Jiangsu
薊蓟Jizhou garrison,
Zhili
昌昌Wuchang,
Hubei
甯宁Jiangning,
Jiangsu
河河Kaifeng,
Henan
南南Changsha,
Hunan
廣广Guangzhou,
Guangdong
浙浙Hangzhou,
Zhejiang
臺台Taiwan
桂桂Guilin,
Guangxi
陝陕Xi'an,
Shaanxi
雲云Yunnan Province
漳漳Zhangzhou,
Fujian
鞏巩Gongchang,
Gansu
西西Shanxi provincial mint
寧宁Ningbo, Zhejiang

Manchu mint marks

ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠶᠣᠨᠨ mint mark on a Xuān Tǒng Tōng Bǎo (宣統通寶) coin indicating that it was cast in Kunming, Yunnan.

Another series of bronze cash coins was introduced with Manchu script on the reverse sides of the coin from 1657, many mints contained the Manchu word ᠪᠣᠣ (Boo) on the left, which is Manchu for "寶" (indicating "treasure" or "currency") on the obverse side of these coins. To the right of them would often appear a word indicating the issuing agency of the coin. Qing dynasty coinage with exclusive Manchu mint marks are by far the most commonly produced type. Large denomination coins of the Xianfeng Emperor bore Manchu mint marks on the left and right sides of the reverse sides, and the value of the coin on the top and bottom. Coins with exclusive Manchu inscriptions continued to be cast until the end of the Qing dynasty.[64][65][66][67][68]

Manchu mint marks are:

Mint markMöllendorffPlace of mintingProvinceTime in operationImage
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠴᡳᠣᠸᠠᠨ		Boo CiowanMinistry of Revenue (hùbù, 戶部), BeijingZhili1644–1911
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠶᡠᠸᠠᠨ		Boo YuwanMinistry of Public Works (gōngbù, 工部), BeijingZhili1644–1908
ᠰᡳᡠᠸᠠᠨSiowanXuanfuZhili1644–1671
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠰᠠᠨ		Boo SanXi'anShaanxi1644–1908
ᠯᡳᠨLinLinqingShandong1645–1675
ᡤᡳGiJizhouZhili1645–1671
1854–Unknown
ᡨᡠᠩTungDatongShanxi1645–1649
1656–1674
ᠶᡠᠸᠠᠨ (1645–1729)
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠵᡳᠨ (1729–1908)		Boo Yuwan (1645–1729)
Jin (1729–1908)		TaiyuanShanxi1645–1908
ᠶᡡᠨYūnMiyunZhili1645–1671
ᠴᠠᠩ (1646–1729)
ᡠ (1729–1908)		Cang (1646–1729)
U (1729–1908)		WuhanHubei1646–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡥᠣ		Boo HoKaifengHenan1647
1729–1731
1854–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡶᡠᠩ		Boo FungFengtianFengtian1647–1648
1880–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠴᠠᠩ (1647–1729)
ᡤᡳᠶᠠᠩ (1729–1908)		Boo Chang (1647–1729)
Giyang (1729–1908)		NanchangJiangxi1647–1908
ᠨᡳᠩNingJiangningJiangsu1648–1731
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡶᡠ		Boo FuFuzhouFujian1649–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠵᡝ		Boo JeHangzhouZhejiang1649–1908
ᡩᡠᠩ (1649–1729; 1887–1908)
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠵᡳ (1729–1887)		Dung (1649–1729; 1887–1908)
Boo Ji (1729–1887)		JinanShandong1649–1738
1854–1870
1887–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠶᠣᠨᠨ		Boo YonnKunmingYunnan1653–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠴᡠᠸᠠᠨ		Boo CuwanChengduSichuan1667–1908
ᡤᡠᠩGungGongchangGansu1667–1740
1855–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠰᡠ		Boo SuSuzhouJiangsu1667–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠨᠠᠨ		Boo NanChangshaHunan1667–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡤᡠᠸᠠᠩ		Boo GuwangGuangzhouGuangdong1668–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡤᡠᡳ		Boo GuiGuilinJiangxi1668–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡤᡳᠶᠠᠨ		Boo GiyanGuiyangGuizhou1668–1908
ᠵᠠᠩJangZhangzhouFujian1680–1682
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡨᠠᡳ		Boo TaiTaiwan-FuTaiwan1689–1740
1855–Unknown
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠠᠨ		Boo AnAnqingAnhui1731–Unknown
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡷᡳ		Boo JyBaodingZhili1745–1908
ᠶᡝᡵᡴᡳᠶᠠᠩYerkiyangYarkantXinjiang1759–1864
ᡠᠰᡥᡳUshiUšiXinjiang1766–1911
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡳ		Boo IGhuljaXinjiang1775–1866
ᡩᡠᠩDungDongchuanYunnan1800–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡬᡳ		Boo GiUnknownHebei (1851–1861)
Jilin (1861–1912)		1851–1912
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡩᡝ		Boo DeJeholZhili1854–1858
ᡴᠠᠰᡥᡤᠠᡵKashgarKashgarXinjiang1855–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡩᡳ (1855–1886; 1907–1908)
ᠶᡠᠸᠠᠨ (1886–1907)		Boo Di (1855–1886; 1907–1908)
Yuwan (1886–1907)		ÜrümqiXinjiang1855–1864
1886–1890
1907–1908
ᡴᡠᠴᠠKucaKuchaXinjiang1857–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠵᡳᠶᡝᠨ		Boo JiyenTianjinZhili1880–1908
ᡥᡡHuDaguZhili1880–1908
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡠ		Boo UWuchangHubei
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡤᡠᠩ		Boo GungKunshanJiangsu
ᠠᡴᠰᡠAksuAksuXinjiang
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᡩᠣᠩ		Boo DongUnknownYunnan
ᠪᠣᠣ
ᠵᡳᠩ		Boo JingUnknownHubei

Chinese, Manchu, and Uyghur mint marks

Additionally coins from the Southern Xinjiang province can also have 3 different scripts on the reverse side of the coin being Manchu, Chinese, and Arabic scripts. An example would be a coin from Aksu would have the Chinese 阿 on top, the Manchu ᠠᡴᠰᡠ on the left, and the Uyghur Perso-Arabic ئاقسۇ on the right. Another differentiating feature of Xinjiang coins is that they tend to be more red in colour reflecting on the colour of the local copper mined in the province.

Tibetan coinage under the Qing

The obverse of a Sichuan Rupee featuring the head of a Chinese Mandarin.
The reverse of a Sichuan Rupee reading "Sichuan's provincial currency" (四川省造)
An Indian rupee coin from which it is derived.

Up until the 20th century Chinese silver ingots (sycee) were used for larger transactions, and were referred to as rta rmig ma ("horse hoof") and normally weighed 50 tael, or 50 srang. During the Qing period there also circulated silver ingots of smaller size, named gyag rmig ma (yak hoof) and yet smaller ones, referred to as ra rmig ma (goat hoof). In the early 20th century sycees were worth about 60–70 Indian rupees, the ingots of medium size 12–14 rupees and the smallest ingots 2–3 rupees.[69] British-Indian authors occasionally refer to the silver bars found in Tibet, some of which were imported from Kashgar, Xinjiang as "yambus", an expression which was derived from the Chinese "yuánbǎo". Silver cins that were extensively used in southern Tibet were supplied by the Nepalese Malla Kingdoms and the first kings of the subsequent Shah dynasty from about 1640 until 1791.[70] However, due to a dispute between Nepal and Tibet regarding the silver content of the coinage supplied by Nepal, the export of these coins was disrupted after the mid-eighteenth century.[71][72][73][74][75] In order to overcome the shortage of coins in Tibet at that time, the Tibetan government started striking its own coins, modelled on Nepalese prototypes. This occurred in 1763–64 and again in 1785 without any interference by the Chinese government.[71][72][73][75] After this, the Nepalese repeatedly attempted to reintroduce their silver coins back on the Tibetan market and the Tibetan government repeatedly attempted to mint its own silver coinage.[75] And in order to keep the profitable trade with Tibet the Nepalese attempted to invade Tibet in 1788 and again in 1790/91, eventually the Tibetan and Chinese armies drove the Nepalese out in 1792.

The Qing government took this opportunity to tighten their grip on Tibet's monetary system, and issued an edict which among other dispositions stipulated the introduction of a new silver coinage, struck in the name of the Qianlong Emperor. Simultaneously banning the import of silver coins from Nepal. Though due to a shortage of silver the Qing allowed the Tibetan government to strike coins derived from the Nepalese silver coins to circulate in Tibet under the supervision of both the Qing and Tibetan governments. In 1791 the Qing planned to cast copper cash coins in Tibet, however this was deemed too expensive to transport copper from China proper to Lhasa. From this point onward Tibetan silver coinage bore the reign names and eras of Qing Emperors.

During the second part of the 19th and the first third of the 20th century numerous foreign silver coins circulated in Tibet. Most of them were traded by weight, such as Mexican and Spanish American silver dollars, Russian roubles and German marks. The exception were British Indian rupees, particularly the ones with the portrait of Queen Victoria, which widely circulated in Tibet and were mostly preferred to Tibetan coins. These rupees were of good silver and had a fixed value, exchanging for three tangkas until about 1920,[76][77] and in later years of the 20th century they considerably increased in value. The Qing government saw the popularity of the Indian rupees among Tibetan traders with misgivings and in 1902 started striking their own rupees which were close copies of the Indian Victoria rupees, the portrait of the Queen being replaced by that of a Chinese mandarin, or, as most numismatists believe, of the Guangxu Emperor of China. The Chinese rupees were struck in Chengdu during the Qing dynasty.[78] These coins would continued to be produced by the Republic of China.[79]

Xinjiang

A "Red Cash" Dào Guāng Tōng Bǎo (道光通寶) minted in Aksu bearing the mint marks ᠠᡴᠰᡠ and ئاقسۇ.

Early history

The region of Xinjiang was conquered by the Qing dynasty after the Dzungar–Qing Wars ended with the territory of the Dzungar Khanate coming under Manchu administration by 1759, the Muslim leaders and the armies of the conquered territories fled to Badakhshan. On 28 July 1759 the leader of Badakhshan formally recognised Manchu rule.[80][81][82]{{page needed|date=September 2018}][83][84] Under Qing rule, Xinjiang was administered as 3 circuits, the southern circuit being the former Dzungar Khanate paid with pūl coins. Zhao Hui, General of Ili requested to the Qianlong Emperor permission to take pūl coins from the locals and use the copper to cast Qing Chinese cash coins, Zhao Hui ensured that these cash coins would weigh the same as the old pūl coins and would preserve the previous Dzungar monetary system. General Zhao Hui set the exchange rate between pūls and Qing cash coins at 2 Dzungar pūls for 1 cash, further Xinjiang cash coins being the same weight as Dzungar pūl coins weighed 2 qián (7.46 g) as opposed to the 1.2 qián (4.476 g) circulating in contemporary China proper. As pūl coins were nearly made of pure copper the new cash coins created from them would become red in colour earning them the nickname of "Red Cash".[85] As it was beyond the skills of the primitive Chinese metallurgists to remove the non-copper from the coinage 98% of the content of "Red Cash" was copper with the rest often being either zinc or lead as the Qing didn't have the expertise yet to remove this, the rest metal often came from scrap metal collected to cast cash coins.[86]

When "Red Cash" coins were introduced in the southern circuit in 1760 they were valued at 10 wén (or 10 cash coins from China proper), but a few years later this halved. Meanwhile, "Red Cash" from the other circuits were exchanged at par with standard cash coins.[87]

Establishing mints in Xinjiang

A Qianlong era coin minted at the Yarkant Mint.

As the state mint of the Dzungar Khanate was located in Yarkant, and many Dzungar pūl coins still circulated there as well as in Kashgar, and Hotän a new mint was opened in Yarkant in 1760 employing 99 people (among them 8 Han Chinese from Shaanxi who were previously employed by a provincial mint there).[88] Melting and casting equipment was transported from the Shaanxi province to Yarkant for the new mint to start producing coinage, not only Dzungar pūl coins were used but also leftover equipment from the military. The coins produced at this mint show the mint mark both in the Manchu and Uyghur languages. The Qing dynasty was able to claim 2.6 million pūl coins from the population at an exchange rate of 2 pūls for 1 cash, but in 1762 the exchange rate was placed at par causing the Qing to eventually discontinue the exchange in 1768 as the pūl would continue circulate, and the Yarkant mint was forced to import copper from the Turfan mint. In 1769 the Yarkant mint was closed having produced between two and three thousand strings of "Red Cash".[89][90]

A mint opened in Aksu in 1761, as Aksu had a high amount of natural copper resources near it, as well as gaining a lot of scrap copper through taxes. The mint itself was large housing 6 furnaces and employing 360 people including technical staff from China proper to oversee the production of "Red Cash" in Aksu. Most cash coins produced in Aksu almost exclusively circulated in the 4 largest cities of the former Dzungar Khanate.[91]

As the General of Ili made Turfan the administrative capital of Xinjiang's southern circuit the Aksu mint was relocated there in 1766, and after the Yarkant mint had closed down in 1769 the Turfan mint became the sole mint of the southern circuit. At first the standard weight of 2 qián (the same as Dzungar pūl coins circulating at the time) was maintained but a copper shortage in 1771 caused the "Red Cash" from Turfan to become a half qián lighter, and 3 years later had its weight brought at par with cash coins from China proper. In 1799 the Turfan mint was brought back to Aksu because of that city's increasing economic dominance over the region of Southern Xinjiang.[92]

Cash coins in the Northern and Eastern circuits

The various mints and cash coin systems of Xinjiang under the Qing dynasty.

Unlike the southern circuit Xinjiang's other regions did not cash coins that deviated from those produced in China proper, various factors played into this decision. Mostly in the north the people that lived there were nomads and didn't have an established monetary system in place, and there were no prior government regulations on trade. Also many Han Chinese people started migrating from other parts of China to the northern and eastern regions of Xinjiang bringing with them their cash coins. Because of these reasons the Qing dynasty didn't create a new monetary system as they had done in the former Dzungar Khanate but implemented the system used by the rest of the Qing.[93]

A mint was established at Yining City in 1775,[94] the mint itself was a large complex with 21 buildings. In 1776 copper was found near Yining causing the production of cash coins at the mint to rise.

Daoguang era

In 1826 Jahangir Khoja with soldiers from the Khanate of Kokand occupied the southern circuit of Xinjiang temporarily losing Kashgar, Yarkant, and Hotän to this rebellion. The Daoguang Emperor sent 36 thousand Manchu soldiers to defeat this rebellion. As more soldiers had entered Xinjiang the price of silver went down, while that of copper went up. In 1826 1 tael of silver was worth 250 or 260 "Red Cash" while in 1827 good had decreased to 100 or sometimes even as low as 80. Despite the soldiers returning to Manchuria the original exchange rates did not restore causing the mint of Aksu to close, as the Aksu mint closed down less money was circulating on the market. In 1828 monetary reforms were implemented to keep the current weight of "Red Cash" but increase their denominations to 5, and 10 wén (while weighing the same) with 70% of Aksu's annual production being 5 wén coins, and 30% being 10 wén but the production of "Red Cash" itself was reduced by two and a half thousand strings. Later the Daoguang Emperor ordered the weight of "Red Cash" to further decrease in order to maximise profits.[95]

Xianfeng and Tongzhi eras

Under the reign of the Xianfeng Emperor "Red Cash" coins were excessively manufactured negating the reforms implemented by Daoguang causing inflation in the region. As the Taiping rebellion and the Second Opium War had prompted the Qing government to start issuing high denomination cash coins in other parts of the Qing dynasty, this soon spread to Xinjiang mainly due to the decreased subsidies for military expenditures in Xinjiang lowering the soldiers' salaries. In 1855 new denominations of 4 wén and 8 wén were introduced at the Yining mint, further the Ürümqi mint started issuing cash coins with high denominations in response. New mints were established at Kucha, and Kashgar while the Yarkant mint was re-opened. Coins also started being cast in bronze, brass, lead, and iron; this system received a chaotic response from Xinjiang's market. From 1860 denominations higher than 10 wén were discontinued.[96] Only coins of 4, 5, and 10 wén were cast at Xinjiang's provincial mints under the Tongzhi Emperor. Cash coins that had a higher denomination than 10 was being collected from the population to be smelted into lower denominations, while the higher denominations that stayed on the market were accepted only lower than their face value.[97][98]

Arabic cash coins of Rashidin Khan Khoja

During the Dungan revolt from 1862 to 1877, Sultan Rashidin Khan Khoja proclaimed a Jihad against the Qing dynasty in 1862, and captured large cities in the Tarim Basin. He issued Chinese-style cash coins minted at the Aksu, and Kucha mints with exclusive Arabic inscriptions, these coins were only briefly minted as Rashidin Khan Khoja would be betrayed and murdered by Yakub beg in 1867.[99]

Guangxu and Xuantong eras

As the chaotic circulation of various denominations of cash coins had continued, this invited foreign silver money from Central Asia to start circulating in the Xinjiang region. After the Russian Empire had occupied the northern region of Xinjiang in 1871 Russian rubles started circulating. Eventually 3 parallel currency systems were in place while pūl coins from the Dzungar Khanate kept circulating in Kashgaria a century after the region was annexed by the Qing dynasty. The Dungan revolt lead by the Tajik Muhammad Yaqub Beg was defeated in 1878 during the Qing reconquest of Xinjiang,[100][101] and the Russians returned the territory they had occupied after signing a treaty in 1880 at Yining.[102][103] In 1884 Xinjiang was upgraded to the status of "province" ending military and Lifan Yuan rule over the region, while the "Red Cash" system was reintroduced in Kashgaria now at a value of 4 wén. However, at the end of the reign of the Guangxu Emperor "Red Cash" was discontinued at the Aksu mint in 1892 because of the rising costs of charcoal needed to produce the coins. The Aksu mint was transferred to Kucha mint. Though the Kashgar mint re-opened in 1888 it outsourced some of the production of "Red Cash" to Kucha and Aksu resulting in cash coins being cast with the Chinese mint mark of Kashgar but the Manchu and Arabic mint marks of the actual mint of casting. The kashgar mint closed down in 1908. The Kucha mint introduced new obverse inscriptions for cash coins minted there with the Guang Xu Ding Wei (光緒丁未) in 1907, and Guang Xu Wu Shen (光緒戊申) in 1908, however production didn't last very long as the Kucha mint finally closed down in 1909.[104]

Under the Xuantong Emperor "Red Cash" continued to be produced but at lower number than before at the Turpan mint, but as the Turpan mint closed down in 1911 a year before the fall of the Qing dynasty the production of "Red Cash" officially ended.[105]

Commemorative coins

  • In 1713 a special Kāng Xī Tōng Bǎo (康熙通寶) cash coin was issued to commemorate the sixtieth birthday of the Kangxi Emperor, these bronze coins were produced with a special yellowish colour, and these cash coins believed to have "the powers of a charm" immediately when it entered circulation, this commemorative coin contains a slightly different version of the Hanzi symbol "熙", at the bottom of the cash, as this character would most commonly have a vertical line at the left part of it but did not have it, and the part of this symbol which was usually inscribed as "臣" has the middle part written as a "口" instead. Notably, the upper left area of the symbol "通" only contains a single dot as opposed of the usual two dots used during this era. Several myths were attributed to this coin over the following three-hundred years since it has been cast such as the myth that the coin was cast from molten down golden statues of the 18 disciples of the Buddha which earned this coin the nicknames "the Lohan coin" and "Arhat money". These commemorative kāng xī tōng bǎo cash coins were given to children as yā suì qián (壓歲錢) during Chinese new year, some women wore them akin to how an engagement ring is worn today, and in rural Shanxi young men wore this special kāng xī tōng bǎo cash coin between their teeth like men from cities had golden teeth. Despite the myths surrounding this coin it was made from a copper-alloy and did not contain any gold but it was not uncommon for people to enhance the coin with gold leaf.[106]
  • In 1905 the Qing dynasty issued special silver 1 tael Guāng Xù Yuán Bǎo (光緒元寶) coins celebrating the 70th birthday of Empress Dowager Cixi.[107][108] These coins feature the Chinese character for longevity (壽) surrounded by 2 Imperial dragons reaching out to the wish-granting pearl.

See also

Notes

  1. ↑ In Xinjiang coins bearing the inscription Qián Lóng Tōng Bǎo (乾隆通寶) continued to be produced until the fall of the Qing dynasty to commemorate the regions annexation under the Qianlong Emperor, 1 in every 5 coins cast in Xinjiang bear this inscription regardless of era.

References

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  2. ↑ Roy, Denny (2003). Taiwan: A Political History. Ithaca, New York: Cornell University Press. pp. 55, 56. ISBN 0-8014-8805-2.
  3. ↑ Cribb, Joe: A Catalogue of Sycee in the British Museum. Chinese Silver Currency Ingots c. 1750 – 1933. British Museum Press, London, 1992.
  4. ↑ Chang, H.: "The Silver Dollars and Taels of China". Hong Kong, 1981 (158 pp. illus.). Including Subsidiary Notes on "The Silver Dollars and Taels of China" Hong Kong, 1982 (40 pp. illus.).
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  17. ↑ China Ancient Coins Collection Blog (中國古錢集藏網誌). To share my collection and what I have know related to the Chinese Ancient Coins to global coins collectors. Shun Zhi Tong Bao (順治通寶). By Learner (檢視我的完整簡介) 於 下午5:11. Published: 2009年5月10日 星期日。 Retrieved: 2 July 2017.
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  28. ↑ Cai, Longgen: Lun Yeerqimu juming ji Qianlong tongbao de banbie. ("The Name of Yarkend Mint and Varieties of Qianlong Tongbao".) In: Xinjiang qianbi. (Xinjiang Numismatics), 1999/1. pp. 16–18. Cowell, M. R., Cribb J.,
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Preceded by:
Ming dynasty coinage
Reason: Manchu conquest of China.
Ratio: 1 Qing wén for 2 Ming wén.		 Currency of China
1644 – 1912
Note: Used in Manchuria from 1616 onwards.		 Succeeded by:
Chinese yuan
Reason: Wuchang uprising, and Xinhai revolution.
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