Islamic democracy

Islamic democracy is a political ideology that seeks to apply Islamic principles to public policy within a democratic framework. Islamic political theory specifies three basic features of an Islamic democracy: leaders must be elected by the people, subject to sharia, and committed to practicing "shura", which is Arabic for "consultation". The expression of Islamic democracy is different in different Muslim majority countries, as sharia interpretations vary from country to country, and the use of sharia is more comprehensive in countries in which sharia forms the basis for state laws.

The concepts of liberalism and democratic participation were already present in the medieval Islamic world.[1][2] The Rashidun Caliphate is perceived by its proponents as an early example of a democratic state and it is claimed that the development of democracy in the Islamic world eventually came to a halt following to the Sunni–Shia split.[3]

Sunni viewpoint

Deliberations of the Caliphates, most notably the Rashidun Caliphate, were not democratic in the modern sense rather, decision-making power lay with a council of notable and trusted companions of Muhammad and representatives of different tribes (most of them selected or elected within their tribes). It can be viewed similar to how the prime minister is chosen in many nations.[4]

In the early Islamic Caliphate, the head of state, the Caliph, had a position based on the notion of a successor to Muhammad's political authority, who, according to Sunnis, was ideally elected by a council as was the case for the election of Abu Bakr, Umar bin Alkhattab, Uthman, and Ali as Caliph. After the Rashidun Caliphs, later Caliphates during the Islamic Golden Age had a much lesser degree of democratic participation, but since "no one was superior to anyone else except on the basis of piety and virtue" in Islam, and following the example of Muhammad, later Islamic rulers often held public consultations with the people in their affairs.[5]

The legislative power of the Caliph (or later, the Sultan) was always restricted by the scholarly class, the ulama, a group regarded as the guardians of the law. Since the law came from the legal scholars, this prevented the Caliph from dictating legal results. Laws were decided based on the ijma (consensus) of the Ummah (community), which was most often represented by the legal scholars.[6] In order to qualify as a legal scholar, it was required that they obtain a doctorate known as the ijazat attadris wa 'l-ifttd ("license to teach and issue legal opinions") from a madrasa.[7] In many ways, classical Islamic law functioned like a constitutional law.[6]

Democratic religious pluralism also existed in classical Islamic law, as the religious laws and courts of other religions, including Christianity, Judaism and Hinduism, were usually accommodated within the Islamic legal framework, as seen in the early Caliphate, Al-Andalus, Islamic India, and the Ottoman Millet system.[8][9]

Legal scholar L. Ali Khan argues that Islam is fully compatible with democracy. In his book, A Theory of Universal Democracy, Khan provides a critique of liberal democracy and secularism. He presents the concept of "fusion state" in which religion and state are fused. There are no contradictions in God's universe, says Khan. Contradictions represent the limited knowledge that human beings have. According to the Quran and the Sunnah, Muslims are fully capable of preserving spirituality and self-rule.[10]

Much debate occurs on the subject of which Islamic traditions are fixed principles, and which are subject to democratic change, or other forms of modification in view of changing circumstances. Some Muslims allude to an "Islamic" style of democracy which would recognize such distinctions.[11] Another sensitive issue involves the status of monarchs and other leaders, the degree of loyalty which Muslims owe such people, and what to do in case of a conflicting loyalties (e.g., if a monarch disagrees with an imam).

Shia viewpoint

According to the Shia understanding, Muhammad named as his successor (as leader, with Muhammad being the final prophet), his son-in-law and cousin Ali. Therefore, the first three of the four elected "Rightly Guided" Caliphs recognized by Sunnis (Ali being the fourth), are considered usurpers, notwithstanding their having been "elected" through some sort of conciliar deliberation (which the Shia do not accept as a representative of the Muslim society of that time). The largest Shia grouping—the Twelvers branch—recognizes a series of Twelve Imams, the last of which (Muhammad al-Mahdi, the Hidden Imam) is still alive and the Shia are waiting for his reappearance.

Since the revolution in Iran, the largest Shia country, Twelver Shia political thought has been dominated by that of Ayatollah Ruhollah Khomeini, the founder and leader of the revolution. Khomeini argued that in the absence of the Hidden Imam and other divinely-appointed figures (in whom ultimate political authority rests), Muslims have not only the right, but also the obligation to establish an "Islamic state".[12] To that end they must turn to scholars of Islamic law (fiqh) who are qualified to interpret the Quran and the writings of the imams. Khomeini distinguishes between Conventional Fiqh and Dynamic Fiqh, which he believes to also be necessary.

Khomeini divided the Islamic commandments or Ahkam into three branches:

  • the primary commandments (Persian: حكم اوليه‎)
  • the secondary commandments (Persian: حكم ثانويه‎) and
  • the state commandments (Persian: حكم حكومتي‎).

This list includes all commandments which relate to public affairs, such as constitutions, social security, insurance, bank, labour law, taxation, elections, congress, etc. Some of these codes may not strictly or implicitly pointed out in the Quran and generally in the Sunnah, but should not violate any of the two, unless there is a collision of rules in which the more important one is given preference (an apparent, but not inherent, violation of a rule).

Once in power and recognizing the need for more flexibility, Khomeini modified some earlier positions, insisted the ruling jurist need not be one of the most learned, that Sharia rule was subordinate to interests of Islam (Maslaha—"expedient interests" or "public welfare"[13]), and the "divine government" as interpreted by the ruling jurists, who could overrule Sharia if necessary to serve those interests. The Islamic "government, which is a branch of the absolute governance of the Prophet of God, is among the primary ordinances of Islam, and has precedence over all 'secondary' ordinances."

The last point was made in December 1987, when Khomieni issued a fatwa in support of the Islamic government's attempt to pass a labor protection bill not in accordance with sharia.[14][15] He ruled that in the Islamic state, governmental ordinances were primary ordinances,[16] and that the Islamic state has absolute right (Persian: ولايت مطلقه‎) to enact state commandments, taking precedence over "all secondary ordinances such as prayer, fasting, and pilgrimage".

Were the powers of government to lie only within the framework of secondary divine decrees, the designation of the divine government and absolute deputed guardianship (wilayat-i mutlaqa-yi mufawwada) to the Prophet of Islam (peace be upon him and his progeny) would have been in practice entirely without meaning and content. ... I must point out, the government which is a branch of the absolute governance of the Prophet of God is among the primary ordinances of Islam, and has precedence over all secondary ordinances such as prayer (salat), fasting (sawm), and pilgrimage (hajj).

Other deviations from strict sharia law have been noted in the largest Shia-majority state:

... the financial system has barely been Islamized; Christians, for example, are not subject to a poll tax and pay according to the common scheme. Insurance is maintained (even though chance, the very basis for insurance should theoretically be excluded from all contracts). The contracts signed with foreigners all accept the matter of interest.[17]

Philosophical viewpoint

The early Islamic philosopher, Al-Farabi (c. 872–950), in one of his most notable works Al-Madina al-Fadila, theorized an ideal Islamic state which he compared to Plato's The Republic.[18] Al-Farabi departed from the Platonic view in that he regarded the ideal state to be ruled by the prophet, instead of the philosopher king envisaged by Plato. Al-Farabi argued that the ideal state was the city-state of Medina when it was governed by Muhammad, as its head of state, as he was in direct communion with God whose law was revealed to him. In the absence of the prophet, Al-Farabi considered democracy as the closest to the ideal state, regarding the republican order of the Rashidun Caliphate as an example within early Muslim history. However, he also maintained that it was from democracy that imperfect states emerged, noting how the republican order of the early Islamic Caliphate of the Rashidun caliphs was later replaced by a form of government resembling a monarchy under the Umayyad and Abbasid dynasties.[19]

A thousand years later, the modern Islamic philosopher, Muhammad Iqbal, also viewed the early Islamic Caliphate as being compatible with democracy. He "welcomed the formation of popularly elected legislative assemblies" in the Muslim world as a "return to the original purity of Islam." He argued that Islam had the "gems of an economic and democratic organization of society", but that this growth was stunted by the monarchist rule of Umayyad Caliphate, which established the Caliphate as a great Islamic empire but led to political Islamic ideals being "repaganized" and the early Muslims losing sight of the "most important potentialities of their faith."[20]

Another Muslim scholar and thinker, Muhammad Asad, viewed democracy as perfectly compatible with Islam. In his book The Principles of State and Government in Islam, he notes:

Viewed from this historical perspective, 'democracy' as conceived in the modern West is infinitely nearer to the Islamic than to the ancient Greek concept of liberty; for Islam maintains that all human beings are socially equal and must, therefore, be given the same opportunities for development and self-expression. On the other hand, Islam makes it incumbent upon Muslims to subordinate their decisions to the guidance of the Divine Law revealed in the Qur'ãn and exemplified by the Prophet: an obligation which imposes definite limits on the community's right to legislate and denies to the 'will of the people' that attribute of sovereignty which forms so integral a part of the Western concept of democracy.[21]

Islamist writer and politician Abul A'la Maududi, conceived of an "Islamic state" that would be an "Islamic democracy" and would eventually "rule the earth".[22] The antithesis of secular Western democracy, it would follow an all-embracing Sharia law, but would be a "theodemocracy", not a theocracy, because its rule would be based on the entire Muslim community (pious Muslims who followed sharia), not the ulema (Islamic scholars).[23] Maududi's vision has been criticized (by Youssef M. Choueiri) as an

ideological state in which legislators do not legislate, citizens only vote to reaffirm the permanent applicability of God's laws, women rarely venture outside their homes lest social discipline be disrupted, and non-Muslims are tolerated as foreign elements required to express their loyalty by means of paying a financial levy.[24][25]

Islamic democracy in practice

Obstacles

There are several ideas on the relationship between Islam in the Middle East and democracy. Waltz writes that transformations to democracy seemed on the whole to pass by the Islamic Middle East at a time when such transformations were a central theme in other parts of the world, although she does note that, of late, the increasing number of elections being held in the region indicates some form of adoption of democratic traditions.[26]

Following the Arab Spring, professor Olivier Roy of the European University Institute in an article in Foreign Policy has described political Islam as "increasingly interdependent" with democracy, such that "neither can now survive without the other".[27]

Orientalist scholars offer another viewpoint on the relationship between Islam and democratisation in the Middle East. They argue that the compatibility is simply not there between secular democracy and Arab-Islamic culture in the Middle East which has a strong history of undemocratic beliefs and authoritarian power structures.[28] Kedourie, a well known Orientalist scholar, said for example: "to hold simultaneously ideas which are not easily reconcilable argues, then, a deep confusion in the Arab public mind, at least about the meaning of democracy. The confusion is, however, understandable since the idea of democracy is quite alien to the mind-set of Islam."[29] A view similar to this that understands Islam and democracy to be incompatible because of seemingly irreconcilable differences between Sharia and democratic ideals is also held by some Islamists.

However, within Islam there are ideas held by some that believe Islam and democracy in some form are indeed compatible due to the existence of the concept of shura (meaning consultation) in the Quran. Views such as this have been expressed by various thinkers and political activists in the Middle East.[30] They continue to be the subject of controversy, e.g. at the second Dubai Debates, which debated the question "Can Arab and Islamic values be reconciled with democracy?"[31]

Brian Whitaker's 'four major obstacles'

Writing on The Guardian website,[32] Brian Whitaker, the paper's Middle East editor, argued that there were four major obstacles to democracy in the region: 'the imperial legacy', 'oil wealth', 'the Arab–Israeli conflict' and 'militant or "backward-looking" Islam'.

The imperial legacy includes the borders of the modern states themselves and the existence of significant minorities within the states. Acknowledgment of these differences is frequently suppressed usually in the cause of "national unity" and sometimes to obscure the fact that minority elite is controlling the country. Brian Whitaker argues that this leads to the formation of political parties on ethnic, religious or regional divisions, rather than over policy differences. Voting therefore becomes an assertion of one's identity rather than a real choice.

The problem with oil and the wealth it generates is that the states' rulers have the wealth to remain in power, as they can pay off or repress most potential opponents. Brian Whitaker argues that as there is no need for taxation there is less pressure for representation. Furthermore, Western governments require a stable source of oil and are therefore more prone to maintain the status quo, rather than push for reforms which may lead to periods of instability. This can be linked into political economy explanations for the occurrence of authoritarian regimes and lack of democracy in the Middle East, particularly the prevalence of rentier states in the Middle East.[33] A consequence of the lack of taxation that Whitaker talks of in such rentier economies is an inactive civil society. As civil society is seen to be an integral part of democracy it raises doubts over the feasibility of democracy developing in the Middle East in such situations.[28]

Whitaker's third point is that the Arab–Israeli conflict serves as a unifying factor for the countries of the Arab League, and also serves as an excuse for repression by Middle Eastern governments. For example, in March 2004 Sheikh Mohammad Hussein Fadlallah, Lebanon's leading Shia cleric, is reported as saying "We have emergency laws, we have control by the security agencies, we have stagnation of opposition parties, we have the appropriation of political rights – all this in the name of the Arab-Israeli conflict". The West, especially the US, is also seen as a supporter of Israel, and so it and its institutions, including democracy, are seen by many Muslims as suspect. Khaled Abou El Fadl, a lecturer in Islamic law at the University of California comments "modernity, despite its much scientific advancement, reached Muslims packaged in the ugliness of disempowerment and alienation."

This repression by secularistic Arab rulers has led to the growth of radical Islamic movement groups, as they believe that the institution of an Islamic theocracy will lead to a more just society. Unfortunately, these groups tend to be very intolerant of alternative views, including the ideas of democracy. Many Muslims who argue that Islam and democracy are compatible live in the West, and are therefore seen as "contaminated" by non-Islamic ideas.[32]

Practice

Pakistan

Early in the history of the state of Pakistan (March 12, 1949), a parliamentary resolution (the Objectives Resolution) was adopted stating the objectives on which the future constitution of the country was to be based. It contained the basic principles of both Islam and Western Democracy, in accordance with the vision of the founders of the Pakistan Movement (Muhammad Iqbal, Muhammad Ali Jinnah, Liaquat Ali Khan).[68] It proclaimed:

Sovereignty belongs to Allah alone but He has delegated it to the State of Pakistan through its people for being exercised within the limits prescribed by Him as a sacred trust.

  • The State shall exercise its powers and authority through the elected representatives of the people.
  • The principles of democracy, freedom, equality, tolerance and social justice, as enunciated by Islam, shall be fully observed.
  • Muslims shall be enabled to order their lives in the individual and collective spheres in accordance with the teachings of Islam as set out in the Quran and Sunnah.
  • Provision shall be made for the religious minorities to freely profess and practice their religions and develop their cultures.

This resolution was included in the 1956 constitution as preamble and in 1985[69] it was inserted in the constitution itself as Article 2 and Schedule item 53[70] (but with the word "freely" in Provision shall be made for the religious minorities to freely profess and practice their religions and develop their cultures, removed.[71]). The resolution was inserted again in the constitution in 2010,[72] with the word "freely" reinstated.[71]

However, Islamisation has proceeded slowly in Pakistan, and Islamists and Islamic parties and activists have expressed frustration that sharia law has not yet been fully implemented.

Iran

Theory

The idea and concept of Islamic democracy has been accepted by many Iranian clerics, scholars and intellectuals.[73][74][75][76][77] The most notable of those who have accepted the theory of Islamic democracy is probably Iran's Leader, Ayatollah Ali Khamenei, who mentions Islamic democracy as "Mardomsalarie Dini" in his speeches.

There are also other Iranian scholars who oppose or at least criticise the concept of Islamic democracy. Among the most popular of them are Ayatollah Naser Makarem Shirazi[78] who have written: "If not referring to the people votes would result in accusations of tyranny then it is allowed to accept people vote as a secondary commandment."[79] Also Mohammad-Taqi Mesbah-Yazdi has more or less the same viewpoint.

Practice

Some Iranians, including Mohammad Khatami, categorize the Islamic republic of Iran as a kind of religious democracy.[80] They maintain that Ayatollah Khomeini held the same view as well and that's why he strongly chose "Jomhoorie Eslami" (Islamic Republic) over "Hokoomate Eslami" (Islamic State).

Others maintain that not only is the Islamic Republic of Iran undemocratic (see Politics of Iran) but that Khomeini himself opposed the principle of democracy in his book Hokumat-e Islami: Wilayat al-Faqih, where he denied the need for any legislative body saying, "no one has the right to legislate ... except ... the Divine Legislator", and during the Islamic Revolution, when he told Iranians, "Do not use this term, 'democratic.' That is the Western style."[81] Although it is in contrast with his commandment to Mehdi Bazargan. It is a subject of lively debate among pro-Islamic Iranian intelligentsia. Also they maintain that Iran's sharia courts, the Islamic Revolutionary Court, blasphemy laws of the Islamic Republic of Iran, and the Mutaween (religious police) violate the principles of democratic governance.[82] However, it should be understood that when a democracy is accepted to be Islamic by people, the law of Islam becomes the democratically ratified law of that country. Iranians have ratified the constitution in which the principle rules are explicitly mentioned as the rules of Islam to which other rules should conform.Ayatollah khomeini fervently believed that principles of democracy can't provide the targeted justice of Islam in the Sharia and Islamic thoughts.(Mohaghegh.Behnam 2014) This contrast of view between the two Iranian head leaders of this Islamic country, as above mentioned about Khatami's and Khomeini's views have provisionally been being a case of disaffiliation of nearly half a country in most probable political coincidence, so the people cognizant of this heterogeneous political belief shall not be affiliated by newly formed views of democratic principles.(Mohaghegh, Behnam 2014)

Indices of democracy in Muslim countries

There are several non-governmental organizations that publish and maintain indices of freedom in the world, according to their own various definitions of the term, and rank countries as being free, partly free, or unfree using various measures of freedom, including political rights, economic rights, freedom of the press and civil liberties.

The following lists Muslim-majority countries and shows the scores given by two frequently used indices: Freedom in the World (2018)[83] by the US-based Freedom House and the 2018 Democracy Index[84] by the Economist Intelligence Unit. These indices are frequently used in Western media, but have attracted some criticism and may not reflect recent changes.

Key: * – Electoral democracies ‡ – Disputed territory (according to Freedom House)
Location Democracy Index Score Democracy Index Rank Democracy Index Category Freedom in the World Status Type of government Religion and State
Afghanistan2.55149Authoritarian regimeNot freeUnitary presidential Islamic republicState religion
Albania5.9877Hybrid regimePartly freeParliamentary systemSecular state
Algeria3.56128Authoritarian regimeNot freeUnitary parliamentary constitutional republicState religion
Azerbaijan2.65148Authoritarian regimeNot freePresidential systemSecular state
Bahrain2.71146Authoritarian regimeNot freeConstitutional monarchyState religion
*Bangladesh5.4392Hybrid regimePartly freeParliamentary republicState religion
Brunei––Authoritarian regimeNot freeAbsolute monarchyState religion
Burkina Faso4.75103Hybrid regimePartly freeSemi-presidential systemSecular state
Chad1.50165Authoritarian regimeNot freePresidential systemSecular state
*Comoros3.71123Authoritarian regimePartly freePresidential system, Federal republicState religion
Djibouti2.76145Authoritarian regimeNot freeSemi-presidential systemSecular state
Egypt3.36130Authoritarian regimeNot freeUnitary semi-presidential constitutional republicState religion
Guinea3.14137Authoritarian regimePartly freePresidential systemSecular state
*Indonesia6.3968Flawed democracyPartly freePresidential systemSecular state
Iran2.45150Authoritarian regimeNot freeUnitary presidential constitutional republic subject to a Supreme LeaderState religion
Iraq4.09112Hybrid regimeNot freeParliamentary republicState religion
Jordan3.87117Authoritarian regimePartly freeConstitutional monarchyState religion
Kazakhstan3.06141Authoritarian regimeNot freePresidential systemSecular state
Kosovo-––Partly freeSecular state
Kuwait3.85119Authoritarian regimePartly freeConstitutional monarchyState religion
Kyrgyzstan5.1195Hybrid regimePartly freeParliamentary republicSecular state
Lebanon4.72104Hybrid regimePartly freeConfessionalist Parliamentary republicSecular state
*Libya2.32154Authoritarian regimeNot freeProvisional governmentState religion
*Malaysia6.5459Flawed democracyPartly freeConstitutional monarchy, parliamentary democracyState religion
*Maldives–––Partly freeState religion
Mali5.6486Hybrid regimePartly freeSemi-presidential systemSecular state
Mauritania3.82121Authoritarian regimeNot freeIslamic republic, Semi-presidential systemIslamic state
Morocco4.87101Hybrid regimePartly freeConstitutional monarchyState religion
*Niger3.76122Authoritarian regimePartly freeSemi-presidential systemSecular state
Nigeria4.44109Hybrid regimePartly freeFederalism, presidential systemSecular state, Islamic state (only in the northern Nigerian states)
‡Northern Cyprus (Cyprus)–––FreeSecular state
Oman3.04143Authoritarian regimeNot freeAbsolute monarchyState religion
*Pakistan4.26110Hybrid regimePartly freeFederalism, parliamentary republicIslamic state
‡Palestine (occupied by Israel)4.46108Hybrid regimeNot freeSemi-presidential systemSecular state (in West Bank), de facto Islamic state (in Gaza Strip)
Qatar3.19133Authoritarian regimeNot freeAbsolute monarchyState religion
Saudi Arabia1.93159Authoritarian regimeNot freeIslamic absolute monarchyIslamic state
*Senegal6.1574Flawed democracyFreeSemi-presidential systemSecular state
*Sierra Leone4.66105Hybrid regimePartly freePresidential systemSecular state
SomaliaNot freeFederalism, Semi-presidential systemState religion
‡Somaliland (Somalia)Partly free
Sudan2.15155Authoritarian regimeNot freeFederalism, presidential systemSecular state (de jure), Islamic state (de facto)
Syria1.43166Authoritarian regimeNot freeSemi-presidential systemSecular state
Tajikistan1.93159Authoritarian regimeNot freePresidential systemSecular state
The Gambia4.06113Hybrid regimePartly freePresidential systemSecular state
*Tunisia6.3269Flawed democracyFreeSemi-presidential systemState religion
Turkey4.88100Hybrid regimeNot freeParliamentary republicSecular state[85][86]
Turkmenistan1.72162Authoritarian regimeNot freePresidential system, one-party stateSecular state
United Arab Emirates2.69147Authoritarian regimeNot freeFederalism, Constitutional monarchyState religion
Uzbekistan1.95158Authoritarian regimeNot freePresidential systemSecular state
‡Western Sahara (controlled by Morocco)–––Not free–
Yemen2.07156Authoritarian regimeNot freeProvisional governmentIslamic state

Islamic democratic parties and organizations

This is a list of parties and organizations which aim for the implementation of Sharia or an Islamic State, or subscribe to Muslim identity politics, or in some other way fulfil the definitions of political Islam, activist Islam, or Islamism laid out in this article; or have been widely described as such by others.

Country or scopeMovement/s
International
 Bahrain
 BangladeshBangladesh Jamaat-e-Islami[88][89]
 Egypt
 FinlandFinnish Islamic Party
 India
 Indonesia
 Iran
 Iraq
 JordanIslamic Action Front[93]
 KuwaitHadas
 Lebanon
 Libya
 MalaysiaUnited Malays National Organisation[103][104]

Malaysian United Indigenous Party

 Maldives
 MoroccoJustice and Development Party[105][106]
 Pakistan
 Palestine
 Philippines
 RwandaIslamic Democratic Party
 SudanNational Umma Party Sudan
 SomaliaPeace and Development Party
 SyriaMuslim Brotherhood of Syria[111][112][113]
 TajikistanIslamic Renaissance Party of Tajikistan[114]
 Turkey
 Yemen

See also

References

  1. ↑ Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997). Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. pp. 134–5. ISBN 90-411-0241-8.
  2. ↑ Sullivan, Antony T. (January–February 1997). "Istanbul Conference Traces Islamic Roots of Western Law, Society". Washington Report on Middle East Affairs: 36. Retrieved 2008-02-29.
  3. ↑ al-Hibri, Azizah Y. (1998–1999). "Islamic and American Constitutional Law: Borrowing Possibilities or a History of Borrowing". University of Pennsylvania Journal of Constitutional Law. 1 (3): 492–527 [507–25].
  4. ↑ Sultan, Sohaib N. (September 27, 2004). "Forming an Islamic Democracy". IslamOnline.net. Archived from the original on 2004-10-01.
  5. ↑ Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997). Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. p. 135. ISBN 90-411-0241-8.
  6. 1 2 Feldman, Noah (March 16, 2008). "Why Shariah?". The New York Times. Retrieved 2008-10-05.
  7. ↑ Makdisi, George (April–June 1989). "Scholasticism and Humanism in Classical Islam and the Christian West". Journal of the American Oriental Society. 109 (2): 175–182 [175–77]. doi:10.2307/604423.
  8. ↑ Weeramantry, Christopher G. (1997). Justice Without Frontiers: Furthering Human Rights. The Hague: Kluwer Law International. p. 138. ISBN 90-411-0241-8.
  9. ↑ Sachedina, Abdulaziz (2001). The Islamic Roots of Democratic Pluralism. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-513991-7.
  10. ↑ "Abstracts: A Theory of Universal Democracy". University of Wisconsin Law School. Archived from the original on 2011-10-06. Retrieved 2014-11-03.
  11. ↑ "Muslim world needs democracy, says Qaradawi". The Muslim News. July 8, 2006. Archived from the original on 2006-08-23.
  12. ↑
  13. ↑ Abrahamian, Ervand, A History of Modern Iran, Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 165
  14. ↑ Schirazi, Asghar. The Constitution of Iran, p. 212
  15. ↑ "Khomeini's REVERSALS of Promises". Retrieved 2015-05-04.
  16. ↑ Arjomand, Said Amir (1993). "Shi'ite Jurisprudence and Constitution Making in the Islamic Republic of Iran". In Marty, Martin E.; Appleby, R. Scott. Fundamentalisms and the State: Remaking Polities, Economies, and Militance. University of Chicago Press. p. 104. ISBN 978-0-226-50884-9.
  17. ↑ The Failure of Political Islam, by Olivier Roy, translated by Carol Volk, Harvard University Press, 1994, pp. 139–140.
  18. ↑ "Arabic and Islamic Natural Philosophy and Natural Science". Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy.
  19. ↑ Bontekoe, Ronald; Stepaniants, Mariėtta Tigranovna (1997). Justice and Democracy: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. University of Hawaii Press. p. 251. ISBN 0-8248-1926-8.
  20. ↑ Bontekoe, Ronald; Stepaniants, Mariėtta Tigranovna (1997). Justice and Democracy: Cross-Cultural Perspectives. University of Hawaii Press. p. 253. ISBN 0-8248-1926-8.
  21. ↑ "Muhammad Quote from his book".
  22. ↑ Maududi, Sayyid Abdul al'al (1960). Political Theory of Islam (1993 ed.). Lahore, Pakistan: Islamic Publications. p. 35. the power to rule over the earth has been promised to the whole community of believers. [italics original]
  23. ↑ Ullah, Haroon K. (2013). Vying for Allah's Vote: Understanding Islamic Parties, Political Violence, and Extremism in Pakistan. Georgetown University Press. p. 79. ISBN 978-1-62616-015-6. Maududi proposed forming a Muslim theodemocracy in which Islamic law would guide public policy in all areas of life. (Maududi specifically rejected the term 'theocracy' to describe his ideal state, arguing that the truly Islamic state would be ruled not by the ulema but by the entire Muslim community.)
  24. ↑ Choueiri, p.111, quoted in Ruthven, Malise (2000). Islam in the World (2nd ed.). Penguin. p. 70.
  25. ↑ Choueiri, Youssef M. (2010). Islamic Fundamentalism: The Story of Islamist Movements (3rd ed.). London: Bloomsbury Continuum. p. 144. ISBN 978-0-8264-9801-4.
  26. ↑ Waltz, S.E., 1995, Human Rights & Reform: Changing the Face of North African Politics, London, University of California Press Ltd
  27. ↑ Roy, Olivier (April 16, 2012). "The New Islamists". Foreign Policy.
  28. 1 2 Weiffen, Britta (2004). "The Cultural-Economic Syndrome: Impediments to Democracy in the Middle East" (PDF). Comparative Sociology. 3 (3). doi:10.1163/1569133043019780. Archived from the original (PDF) on 2009-03-06 – via European Public Choice Society (EPCS).
  29. ↑ Kedourie, E., 1994, Democracy and Arab Political Culture, London, Frank Cass & Co Ltd, page 1
  30. ↑ Esposito, J. & Voll, J.,2001, Islam and Democracy, Humanities, Volume 22, Issue 6
  31. ↑ "Can Arab and Islamic values be reconciled with democracy?". YouTube. Retrieved 2014-11-03.
  32. 1 2 Whitaker, Brian (March 15, 2004). "Beware instant democracy". The Guardian. Retrieved 2014-11-03.
  33. ↑ Beblawi, H., 1990, The Rentier State in the Arab World, in Luciani, G., The Arab State, London, Routledge
  34. ↑ Slimani, Salah (May 10, 2012). "Islamists Predict Victory as Algerians Head to the Polls". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on 2012-05-18.
  35. ↑ "Algeria's Islamists confident of election victory". RNW. May 7, 2012. Archived from the original on 2014-10-25.
  36. ↑ Schemm, Paul (May 11, 2012). "Algerian Islamists fall to govt party in election". Associated Press – via HighBeam Research. (Subscription required (help)).
  37. ↑ Faucon, Benoît (May 11, 2012). "Algerian Ruling Party Beats Islamists in Vote". The Wall Street Journal.
  38. ↑ "Guide to Bahrain's politics". The Guardian. February 15, 2011.
  39. ↑ Riaz, Ali (2003). ""God Willing": The Politics and Ideology of Islamism in Bangladesh". Comparative Studies of South Asia, Africa and the Middle East. 23 (1–2). doi:10.1215/1089201X-23-1-2-301.
  40. ↑ "Obituary: Alija Izetbegovic". BBC. October 19, 2003. Retrieved 2010-01-01.
  41. ↑ Binder, David (October 20, 2003). "Alija Izetbegović, Muslim Who Led Bosnia, Dies at 78". The New York Times.
  42. ↑ Kirkpatrick, David D. (January 21, 2012). "Islamists Win 70% of Seats in the Egyptian Parliament". The New York Times.
  43. 1 2 Evans, Kevin R (2003). The history of political parties & general elections in Indonesia. Jakarta:Arise Consultancies.
  44. ↑ Schwarz,, Adam (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Allen & Unwin. p. 172. ISBN 0-521-77326-1.
  45. ↑ Dhume, Sadanand (December 1, 2005). "Indonesian Democracy's Enemy Within". YaleGlobal Online. Archived from the original on December 21, 2015.
  46. ↑ "Jordan's Islamic Front rallies Muslims". Retrieved 2014-11-03.
  47. ↑ Hamzeh, A. Nizar (1997). "Islamism in Lebanon: A Guide to the Groups". Middle East Quarterly. 4: 47–53.
  48. ↑ "Muslim Brotherhood formally launches party". Libya Herald. March 3, 2012. Archived from the original on October 16, 2013. Retrieved 2012-03-08. (Subscription required (help)).
  49. ↑ Soguel, Dominique (March 4, 2012). "Muslim Brother picked to lead new Libya party". Times of Malta. Agence France-Presse. Retrieved 2012-03-08.
  50. ↑ Haimzadeh, Patrick (July 3, 2012). "Libya's Unquiet Election". Middle East Online.
  51. ↑ Grant, George (July 1, 2012). "Party Profile: The National Forces Alliance". Libya Herald. (Subscription required (help)).
  52. ↑ "Perlembagaan". UMNO Online (in Malay). Archived from the original on 2012-02-29. : Goal 3.3 and 3.5
  53. ↑ "ISLAM HADHARI: Antara Pemalsuan dan Bid'ah" (PDF). Parti Islam Se Malaysia (PAS). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2012-03-11.
  54. ↑ Chen, Cherice (November 25, 2011). "Morocco votes in first election since protests; Islamist party eyes victory". Taiwan News. Retrieved 2011-11-25.
  55. ↑ Alami, Aida (November 25, 2011). "Moroccans Vote in Election Marking Shift of Power From King". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on 2013-06-04. Retrieved 2011-11-25.
  56. ↑ Sly, Liz (May 12, 2012). "Syria's Muslim Brotherhood is gaining influence over anti-Assad revolt". Washington Post.
  57. ↑ Oweis, Khaled Yacoub (May 6, 2012). "Syria's Muslim Brotherhood rise from the ashes". Reuters.
  58. ↑ "Mountain Rigger". The Economist. November 11, 2006.
  59. ↑ "Tunisia legalises Islamist group Ennahda". BBC News Online. March 1, 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-24.
  60. ↑ Khalaf, Roula (April 27, 2011). "Tunisian Islamists seek poll majority". Financial Times. Retrieved 2011-06-24. (Subscription required (help)).
  61. ↑ "Tunisian leader returns from exile". Al Jazeera English. January 20, 2011. Retrieved 2011-06-24.
  62. ↑ Kaminski, Matthew (October 26, 2011). "On the Campaign Trail With Islamist Democrats". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved 2011-10-26.
  63. ↑ Feldman, Noah (October 30, 2011). "Islamists' Victory in Tunisia a Win for Democracy: Noah Feldman". Bloomberg View. Retrieved 2011-10-31.
  64. ↑ ISIE, High and Independent Instance for the Elections. (2011). "Decree of 23 Nov. 2011 about the Final Results of the National Constituent Assembly Elections" (in Arabic). Archived from the original on November 18, 2011.
  65. ↑ Lynch, Marc (June 29, 2011). "Tunisia's New al-Nahda". Foreign Policy.
  66. ↑ Bay, Austin (2011-11-30). "Tunisia and its Islamists: The Revolution, Phase Two". RealClearPolitics. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
  67. ↑ Totten, Michael (March 21, 2012). "No to America and No to Radical Islam". Archived from the original on 2012-03-24. Retrieved 2012-03-22.
  68. ↑ "Objectives Resolution, Republic of Rumi Archived November 7, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
  69. ↑ (Revival of Constitution of 1973 Order, 1985 (President's Order No. 14 of 1985))
  70. ↑ (with effect from March 2, 1985)
  71. 1 2 "Annex 731 The Objectives Resolution [Article 2(A)]". pakistan.org. Retrieved 2015-01-16.
  72. ↑ (Eighteenth Amendment) Act, 2010, Section 99 (with effect from April 19, 2010)
  73. ↑ "President Says Democracy Conforms With Religion in Iran". Tehran Times. August 10, 2002. Archived from the original on 2007-03-08 – via WorldWide Religious News.
  74. ↑ "" Official Website of Sayyid Mohammad Khatami " www.khatami.ir". Retrieved 2015-05-04.
  75. ↑ "AbdolKarim Soroush:: عبدالکريم سروش". Retrieved 2014-11-03.
  76. ↑ "News". The Office of the Supreme Leader, Sayyid Ali Khamenei. Archived from the original on 2012-03-10.
  77. ↑ "Participation in Majlis Elections, Religious and Logical Duty: Leader". Institute for Preserving and Publishing Works by Ayatollah Seyyed Ali Khamenie. December 20, 2003. Archived from the original on 2007-09-27.
  78. ↑ "پایگاه اطلاع رسانی دفتر مرجع عالیقدر حضرت آیت الله العظمی مکارم شیرازی". Retrieved 2015-05-04.
  79. ↑ انوار الفقاهه- كتاب البيع – ج 1 ص 516
  80. ↑ "Envoy: Religious democracy materialized by Islamic Revolution". Irna. Archived from the original on 2007-09-29.
  81. ↑ Bakhash, Shaul, The Reign of the Ayatollahs, p.73
  82. ↑ "Iranian President Khatami Clashes with Reformist Students at Tehran University". MEMRI TV. June 12, 2004. Archived from the original on 2005-02-09.
  83. ↑ https://freedomhouse.org/report/freedom-world/freedom-world-2018
  84. ↑ https://infographics.economist.com/2018/DemocracyIndex/
  85. ↑ "Constitution of the Republic of Turkey".
  86. ↑ https://global.tbmm.gov.tr/docs/constitution_en.pdf
  87. ↑ Guide to Bahrain's politics – 4 Sep 2008. Ambassador Ereli, US Embassy, Bahrain/Wikileaks/The Guardian
  88. ↑ "The Tenacity of Hope". The Economist. 30 December 2008. Retrieved 25 October 2014. [The BNP] seems also to have been hurt by its alliance with Islamist parties, the largest of which, Jamaat-e-Islami, was reduced from 17 seats to just two.
  89. ↑ "Bangladesh and war crimes: Blighted at birth". The Economist. 1 July 2010. West [Pakistan]'s army had the support of many of East Pakistan's Islamist parties. They included Jamaat-e-Islami, still Bangladesh's largest Islamist party ... reinstating and enforcing that original constitution might amount to an outright ban on Jamaat, the standardbearer in Bangladesh for a conservative strain of Islam.
  90. ↑ Islamists Win 75% of Seats in the Egyptian Parliament The New York Times.
  91. ↑ Schwarz, Adam (1994). A Nation in Waiting: Indonesia in the 1990s. Allen & Unwin. p. 172. ISBN 0-521-77326-1.
  92. ↑ Dhume, Sadanand. (December 1, 2005). Indonesian Democracy’s Enemy Within. Yale Global.
  93. ↑
  94. ↑
  95. ↑ "Muslim Brotherhood formally launches party". Libya Herald. 3 March 2012. Retrieved 8 March 2012.
  96. ↑ Soguel, Dominique (March 3, 2012). "Muslim Brother picked to lead new Libya party". Times of India. Tripoli. Agence France-Presse. Archived from the original on July 1, 2012. Retrieved March 8, 2012.
  97. ↑ Beaumont, Peter (3 December 2011), "Political Islam poised to dominate the new world bequeathed by Arab spring", The Guardian, retrieved 31 January 2012
  98. ↑ "Islamists' Growing Sway Raises Questions for Libya". 15 September 2011. Retrieved 2012-06-10.
  99. ↑ Spencer, Richard (19 November 2011), "Libyan cleric announces new party on lines of 'moderate' Islamic democracy", The Telegraph, retrieved 31 January 2012
  100. ↑
  101. ↑ Grant, George (1 July 2012), "Party Profile: The National Forces Alliance", Libya Herald
  102. ↑ Archived March 11, 2012, at the Wayback Machine.
  103. ↑ UMNO Online. UMNO's Constitution: Goal 3.5. From:"Archived copy". Archived from the original on 2012-02-29. Retrieved 2013-01-05.
  104. ↑
  105. ↑ Chen, Cherice (25 November 2011). "Morocco votes in first election since protests; Islamist party eyes victory". Taiwan News. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
  106. ↑ Alami, Aida (25 November 2011). "Moroccans Vote in Election Marking Shift of Power From King". Bloomberg Businessweek. Archived from the original on 27 November 2011. Retrieved 25 November 2011.
  107. ↑ Sidrah Moiz Khan "Pakistan's creation pointless if it fails to become Islamic welfare state" "Imran Khan said on Wednesday that Pakistan’s creation had been pointless if the country fails to become an Islamic welfare state" 27 June 2012.
  108. ↑ Marcus Michaelsen "Pakistan's dream catcher" "Iqbal's work has influenced Imran Khan in his deliberations on an "Islamic social state" 27 March 2012.
  109. ↑
    • "This is particularly the case in view of the scholarly debate on the compatibility of Islam and democracy but even more so in view of Hamas's self-definition as an Islamic national liberation movement." The Palestinian Hamas: vision, violence, and coexistence, by Shaul Mishal & Avraham Sela, 2006, p. xxviii;
    • In this way the PA has been able to control the economic activities of its political adversaries, including the Hamas and other Islamic opposition groups. Investment in peace: politics of economic cooperation between Israel, Jordan, and the Palestinian Authority, by Shaul Mishal, Ranan D. Kuperman, David Boas, 2001, p. 85;
    • "Hamas is a radical Islamic fundamentalist organization that has stated that its highest priority is a Jihad (holy war) for the liberation of Palestine ..." Peace and war: the Arab-Israeli military balance enters the 21st century, by Anthony H. Cordesman, 2002, p. 243;
    • "One of the secrets behind the success of Hamas is that it is an Islamic and national movement at one and the same time ..." 'Hamas: Palestinian Identity, Islam, and National Sovereignty', by Meir Litvak, in Challenges to the cohesion of the Arabic State, by Asher Susser, 2008, p. 153.;
    • "Hamas is an Islamic fundamentalist movement founded in 1987..." Understanding Terrorism: Challenges, Perspectives, and Issues, by Gus Martin, 2009, p. 153;
    • "Hamas is an Islamic jihadist organization..." Why Israel Can't Wait: The Coming War Between Israel and Iran, by Jerome R. Corsi, 2009, p. 39.;
    • "The Islamic Resistance Movement (Harakat al-Muqawama al-Islam- iyya), known by its acronym Hamas, is an Islamic fundamentalist organization which defines itself as the military wing of the Muslim Brethren." Anti-semitic motifs in the ideology of Hizballah and Hamas, by Esther Webman, 1994, p. 17.;
    • "Understanding Islamism" Archived March 7, 2013, at the Wayback Machine., Crisis Group Middle East/North Africa Report N°37, 2 March 2005;
    • "Hamas leader condemns Islamist charity blacklist". Reuters. 2007-08-23. Retrieved 2009-01-28. ;
    • Hider, James (2007-10-12). "Islamist leader hints at Hamas pull-out from Gaza". London: The Times Online. Retrieved 2009-01-28. ;
    • The New Hamas: Between Resistance and Participation. Middle East Report. Graham Usher, August 21, 2005 * "Council on Foreign Relations". Council on Foreign Relations. Retrieved May 27, 2010.
  110. ↑ "Frequently Asked Questions About Hamas". Abcnews.go.com. 2006-01-06. Retrieved 2011-08-02.
  111. ↑ Syria’s Muslim Brotherhood is gaining influence over anti-Assad revolt By Liz Sly, Washington Post 12 May 2012
  112. ↑ Khaled Yacoub Oweis "Syria's Muslim Brotherhood rise from the ashes," Reuters (6 May 2012).
  113. ↑ "Syria Muslim Brotherhood Issues Post-Assad State-for-All Commitment Charter," Archived January 17, 2013, at the Wayback Machine. ikhwanweb.com (The Muslim Brotherhood’s Official English web site) (7 April 2012).
  114. ↑
  115. ↑ "AKP explains charter changes, slams foreign descriptions". Hürriyet Daily News. Istanbul. 2010-03-28. Retrieved 21 July 2014. In the Western press, when the AK Party administration, the ruling party of the Turkish Republic, is being named, unfortunately most of the time 'Islamic,' 'Islamist,' 'mildly Islamist,' 'Islamic-oriented,' 'Islamic-leaning,' 'Islamic-based' or 'with an Islamic agenda,' and similar language is being used. These characterizations do not reflect the truth, and they sadden us," Çelik said. "Yes, the AK Party is a conservative democratic party. The AK Party's conservatism is limited to moral and social issues.

Bibliography

  • Mahmoud Sadri and Ahmad Sadri (eds.) 2002 Reason, Freedom, and Democracy in Islam: Essential Writings of Abdolkarim Soroush, Oxford University Press
  • Omid Safi (ed.) 2003 Progressive Muslims: On Justice, Gender and Pluralism, Oneworld
  • Azzam S. Tamimi 2001 Rachid Ghannouchi: A Democrat within Islamism, Oxford University Press
  • Khan L. Ali 2003 A Theory of Universal Democracy, Martinus Nijhoff Publishers
  • Khatab, Sayed & G.Bouma, Democracy in Islam, Routledge 2007
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.