Isan language

Development of Isan

Isan speakers became politically separated from other Lao speakers after the Franco-Siamese War of 1893 would lead Siam to cede all of the territories east of the Mekong to France, which subsequently established the French Protectorate of Laos. In 1904, Sainyabuli and Champasak Provinces were ceded to France, leading to the current borders between Thailand and Laos. A 25 km demilitarised zone west of the river banks allowed for easy crossings, and Isan remained largely neglected for some time. Rebellions against Siamese and French incursions into the region included the Holy Man's Rebellion (1901-1904), led by self-proclaimed holy men. The Lao people also joined in the rebellion, but was crushed by Thai troops in Isan.^[8] At first, Isan was administered by Lao local rulers subject to the Siamese Court under the monthon system of administration, but this was abolished in 1933, bringing Isan under the direct control of Bangkok.^[9]

Thaification

Nationalistic aims to promote central Thai culture and language were directed at regional minorities, such as the Lao of Isan.

Heavy-handed nationalist policies were adopted in 1933 with the end of the absolute monarchy in Thailand. Many were instituted during the premiership of Field Marshal Plaek Phibunsongkhram (1938-1944). Although Lao languages were banned from education in 1871, a new public education and new schools were built throughout Isan, and only Thai was to be used by government and media. References to Lao people were erased and propagation of Thai nationalism was instilled in the populace. The language was renamed "Northeastern Thai".

Discrimination against the Isan language and its speakers was commonplace, especially when large numbers of Isan people began arriving in Bangkok in the latter half of the 20th century, permanently or for seasonal work. Although this blatant discrimination is rarer these days, most of these nationalistic Thaification policies remain in effect.^[10]

Post-war period to present

Resistance to Thai hegemony continued. During the course of World War II and afterwards, the Free Thai Movement bases in Isan made links with the Lao Issara movement. After the implementation of Thaification policies, many prominent Isan politicians were assassinated, and some Isan people moved to Laos. The Communist Party of Thailand led insurrections during the 1960s and 1980s, supported by the communist Pathet Lao and some factions of the Isan populace.^[11] Integration continued, as highways and other infrastructure were built to link Isan with the rest of Thailand. Due to population pressures and unreliable monsoons of the region, Isan people began migrating to Bangkok for employment. Isan speakers began to shift to the Thai language, and the language itself is absorbing larger amounts of Thai vocabulary. Universities such as Mahasarakham and Khon Kaen are now offering classes on Isan language, culture, and literature. Attitudes towards regional cultures have relaxed and the language continues to be spoken, but Thai influences in grammar and vocabulary continue to increase.^[12][13]

Endonyms

Isan people generally refer to their speech as phasa Lao (ภาษาลาว, /pʰáː săː láːu/, cf. Lao: ພາສາລາວ), the 'Lao language', but this is usually restricted to when speakers are addressing other Lao people, whether from Laos or elsewhere in Isan. It is also used when talking about the language with other minority groups in Isan. More poetically and informally, Isan speakers may use phasa ban hao (ภาษาบ้านเฮา, /pʰáː săː bȃːn háu/, cf. Lao ພາສາບ້ານເຮົາ, phasa bane hao), 'our home language' or 'our village language' This term distinguishes it from the Thai language sufficiently as the tones are different, and the Thai word for 'we/our/us' is rao (เรา, /rau/).

As a result of over a century of 'Siamification' and later 'Thaification' policies aimed at removing references to Lao people, language, and culture in the region, the Lao-speaking territories, culture, people, and language were renamed Isan, so speakers have come to refer to the language as phasa (Thai/thai) Isan (ภาษา[ไทย/ไท]อีสาน, /pʰáː săː [tʰáj] iː săːn/, cf. Lao: ພາສາ[ໄທ]ອີສານ, phasa [Thai/thai] isane), the 'Isan Thai language' or 'Isan peoples' language' however, in Isan Thai (ไทย) refers to Thailand and Thai culture whereas thai (ไท) refers to people in general, but are only distinguished in writing as both are pronounced the same. Use of ไท to refer to people has cognates in Laos but is very archaic and obsolete usage in Thai. Isan is of Sanskrit derivation, referring to the northeast direction (i.e., northeast of Bangkok), an aspect of the Hindu god Shiva as guardian of the northeast direction as well as a reference to Isanapura, an ancient kingdom of the Khmer people that once extended its influence into much of what is now the Isan region.

Exonyms

In Thailand, the Isan language is officially classified as a dialect of the Thai language. In scholarly, official, and academic usage, the language in Thai is referred to as phasa thai tawan ok chiang neua (ภาษาไทยตะวันออกเฉียงเหนือ , /pʰaː săː tʰaj tàʔ wan ɔ`ːk tɕʰǐaŋ nɯːa/), the 'northeastern Thai language', or as the phasa Thai thin Isan (ภาษาไทยถิ่นอีสาน, /pʰaː săː tʰaj tʰìn ʔiː săːn/, the 'Thai dialect of Isan' or the 'Thai language of Isan.' More commonly, the language is known by its Thaified name phasa (Thai) Isan (/pʰaː săː [tʰaj] ʔiː săːn/), 'Isan (Thai) language.'

For the Lao-speaking peoples of Laos, the Lao refer to the Isan sub-group as phasa Lao (ພາສາລາວ, /pʰáː săː láːu/); phasa Lao Isan (ພາສາລາວອີສານ), the 'Lao language of Isan', phasa Lao Thai (ພາສາລາວໄທ, /pʰáː săː láːu tʰáj/) the 'Lao language of Thailand' and phasa Thai/thai Lao (ພາສາລາວໄທ), the 'Lao Thai language' or the 'Lao people's language' but phasa (Thai/thai) Isane (ພາສາ[ໄທ]ອີສານ, /pʰáː săː tʰáj/), the 'Isan Thai language' or the 'Isan people's language', is probably the most common term to refer to the Lao language as spoken in Isan. Also, the Lao word ไท refers to both 'Thailand' and 'Thai' things as well as 'people' in general.

Written language usage and vitality

American linguist Joshua Fishman developed the Graded Intergenerational Disruption Scale (GIDS) to categorise the various stages of language death. The expanded GIDS (EGIDS) is still used to explain the status of a language on the continuum of language death.^[21] The written language for Isan—both the secular Tai Noy script and the religious Tua Tham script—are currently at Stage IX which is described as a "language [that] serves as a reminder of heritage identity for an ethnic community, but no one has more than symbolic proficiency." Today, only a handful of monks in charge of the ancient temple libraries in Isan, some local professors, and a few experts are able to read and write the language.^[12]:3-4[21]

Spoken language usage and vitality

The spoken language is currently at Stage VIA, or "vigorous", on the EGIDS scale, which is defined by Ethnologue as a language that is used for "face-to-face communication by all generations and the situation is sustainable". According to data from 1983, 88 percent of Isan households were predominantly Isan speaking, with 11 percent using both Thai and Isan at home, and only one percent using exclusively Thai.^[12] Although this sounds promising for the continued future of the Isan language, there are many signs indicating that the language could reach Stage VIB, or "threatened", which is defined as a "language used for face-to-face communication within all generations, but it is losing users". As a strong command of Thai is necessary for advancement in most government, academic, and professional realms, and in order to work in areas like Bangkok where Isan is not the local language. The negative perception of the language, even among native speakers, often causes speakers to limit use of the language unless they are in the company of other Isan speakers. Parents may view the Isan language as a detriment to the betterment of their children, who must be able to speak central Thai proficiently to advance in academia or other career paths besides agriculture. Although there are large numbers of Isan speakers, the language is at risk from Thai relexification.^[12] There is also a generational gap, with older speakers using more normative Lao features, whereas the youth are using a very "Thaified" version of Isan or switching to Thai generally. Many academics and Isan speakers are worried that the language may decline unless it can be promoted beyond its status as a de facto regional language and its written script rejuvenated. ^[22]

Continued survival

The Lao folk music molam (หมอลำ, /mɔ̆ː lám/, cf. Lao: ໝໍລຳ/ຫມໍລຳ or lam lao (/lám láːo/, cf. Lao: ລຳລາວ) has gained in popularity in Thailand, with many Isan singing artists featured during off-peak hours on Thai national television. Crown Princess Sirindhorn was the patron of the 2003 "Thai Youth Mo Lam Competition" and Isan-language variants of the central Thai luk thung (ลูกทุ่ง, /lȗːk tʰúŋ/, cf. Lao: ລູກທົ່ງ, /lȗːk tʰoŋ/, louk thông) music are accepted in national youth competitions. Within Isan, many students participate in mo lam clubs where they learn the music.^[12] Universities are also now offering classes about Isan language, culture, former alphabets, and literature. The Isan people are also exposed to a steady trickle of Laotian immigrants, seasonal immigrants, students as daily visitors, merchants, traders, and fishers.^[19] Isan is also connected with Laos by three bridges, which link the cities of Nong Khai-Viantiane (also by rail), Mukdahan-Savannakhét, and Nakhon Phanom-Thakhèk along the Thai-Lao border, respectively. The language will likely continue to have Thai relexification and gradual language shift as possible threats to its existence.^[12]

Consonants

Vowels

The vowels of the Isan language are similar to those of Central Thai. They, from front to back and close to open, are given in the following table.

The long-short pairs are as follows:

The basic vowels can be combined into diphthongs. For purposes of determining tone, those marked with an asterisk are sometimes classified as long:

Additionally, there are three triphthongs, all of which are long:

Vientiane Lao dialect

The dialect of the capital of Vientiane, now shifting due to the movement of peoples from other regions of Laos, is the prestige dialect of Laos and is also the dialect, with a few minor differences, of the city of Nong Khai and other areas of Isan settled by the Tai Wieng (ไทเวียง, /tʰáj wíaŋ/, cf. Tai Noy/Lao: ໄທວຽງ), or "Vientiane people" on the Thai side of the border. Tai Wieng also refers to small groups found in a few pockets of western portions of central Thailand where people from Vientiane were forcibly settled and are reported to speak a very similar dialect.

Northern Lao (Luang Prabang) dialect

The dialect spoken in Luang Prabang was the dialect of the royal capital and the Lao Royal Family. Although the dialects of Northern Thai are classified as Chiang Saen languages more akin to central Thai, Northern Thai and Isan are very similar in intonation and vocabulary, and in some ways more closely related with each other than with either Thai or the other Lao dialects. The tones are similar to those used in northern Isan provinces such as Loei, Udon Thani, and other regions settled by the Tai peoples of Luang Prabang. Unlike other dialects, with six or seven tones, Luang Prabang only uses five.

Northeastern Lao dialect (Tai Phuan)

Northeastern Lao is better known as Tai Phuan (RTSG)/Tai Phouane (BGN/PCGN) and is mainly associated with the Phuan, who are a distinct Lao people of Xiengkhouang and portions of Thailand such as Sakon Nakhon and Udon Thani. Phuan speakers are also found in a few small pockets in central Thailand where their ancestors were forcibly settled to provide labour for increased rice production and defend the capital in case of invasion. Tai Phuan is generally considered a dialect of Lao, but it is classified as a Chiang-Saen language, in the same group as Northern and Central Thai.

Central Lao

The central Lao dialect groupings predominate in the Lao provinces of Savannakhét and Khammouane, and the Thai province of Mukdahan and other regions settled by speakers from these regions.

Southern Lao

Southern Lao is the primary dialect of Champassak, most of the southern portions of Laos, portions of Thailand once under its control, such as Ubon Rachathani, and much of southern Isan, as well as small pockets in Steung Treng Province in Cambodia.

Western Lao

Western Lao does not occur in Laos, but can be found in Kalasin, Maha Sarakham, and Roi Et Provinces.

Tai Noy alphabet

The consonants of the old Tai Noy alphabet. Letter shapes have been preserved, with few changes, in the modern Lao alphabet. The letters correspond to the following Thai/Lao letter groupings:
(Line 1) ก/ກ, ข-ฃ/ຂ, ค-ฅ-ฆ/ຄ, ง/ງ, จ/ຈ, ช-ซ-ฌ/ຊ, ญ-ย/ຍ, ด-ฎ/ດ, ต-ฏ/ຕ
(Line 2) ฐ-ถ/ຖ, ท-ฑ-ฒ-ธ/ທ, น-ณ/ນ, บ/ບ, ป/ປ, ผ/ຜ, ฝ/ຝ, พ-ภ/ພ, ฟ/ຟ
(Line 3) ม/ມ, ຢ/ย, ร/ຣ, ล-ฬ/ລ, ว/ວ, ส-ฉ-ศ-ษ/ส, ห/ຫ, อ/ອ, ฮ/ຮ.

The original written language of Isan was known as Akson Tai Noy (อักษรไทน้อย /ák sɔ̆ːn tʰáj nɔ̑ːy/, cf. Lao ອັກສອນໄທນ້ອຽ/Archaic ອັກສອນໄທນ້ຽ, Aksone Tai Noy), the 'Little Tai alphabet' or To Lao (โตลาว /láːo/, cf. Lao ໂຕລາວ, modern Isan Tua Lao ตัวลาว /tuːa láːo/, cf. modern Lao Toua Lao ຕົວລາວ), 'Lao letters.' In Laos, the older variety of the alphabet is generally known as Aksone Lao Deum (ອັກສອນລາວເດີມ /ák sɔ̆ːn láːo d̀ɤːm/, cf. Isan อักษรลาวเดิม), 'original Lao alphabet.' The original spelling conventions and letter shapes were more or less preserved in the modern Lao alphabet, its direct descendant. Both the Tai Noy—and its modern descendant—and the Thai alphabet both developed from early Tai scripts adapted from the Khmer script, with influences from Mon.

The Tai Noy script was the secular language used to write songs, poems, stories, records, religious literature aimed at the laity, signs and personal letters. The earliest known example in what is now Thailand is the Prathat Sribunruang inscription of 1510 AD, and the last known from 1840 AD, although large numbers of manuscripts were destroyed, many were simply lost as the palm-leaf manuscripts did not survive in the high heat and humidity. Changes in spelling also show how the Lao language changed over time.^[33]

Use of the alphabet was officially banned in 1871 by royal decree, but as the region was so isolated and rural, monks operated schools and taught the old script in some areas up until the implementation of Thaification policies prior to World War II. Only a few individuals of advanced age, some monks in charge of the ancient temple libraries and academic experts are able to read the script today.^[33]

The alphabet was in use by 1350 AD, when the kingdom of Lanxang rose to prominence, and usually considered the beginning of Lao history. In Isan, the earliest known example is the Prathat Sribunruang inscription of 1510 AD, with the last surviving inscription dating to 1840 AD. The use of the alphabet was banned by royal decree in 1871, but as Isan was rural and isolated, Buddhist temple schools taught the alphabet until Thaification policies and the implementation of the Thai public school system was carried out just before World War II.^[34] The alphabet is only known to a few academic experts and monks in charge with preserving the ancient libraries. The alphabet was the secular script of the Lao people, used to record recipes, herbal healing guides, songs, poetry, stories, religious literature aimed at the laity, records and signs.^[33]

The transition period from 1871 up until 1933, the Lao people of Isan began to lose the shared written language which continues to this day, as most Isan people are unable to read Tai Noy or modern Lao, instead having been forced to adopt the Thai written language and Thai alphabet, romanised according to an English-based scheme, whereas the Lao of Laos are able to read the old manuscripts with little difficulty and continue to use a descendant of the old alphabet, romanised according to various schemes, but still influenced by earlier French-based schemes.^[35]

Thai alphabet

Isan written in Thai script for a morlam karaoke VCD. The same Lao text would be ໜີໄປບວດໃຫ້ມັນແລ້ວສາບໍ່.

With the ban on all but the Thai language and Thai alphabet in the classroom and public spheres, the Isan language lost its written language and Isan people slowly lost the ability to read material from Laos. However, Isan people developed an ad hoc writing system that uses the Thai alphabet and most cognate words as they are spelled in Thai spelling, including the use of clusters, which do not exist in traditional spoken Isan, and Thai etymological spelling, but where words differ, Isan spells words more or less as they are would appear in Laos in the Lao alphabet. To represent the various tones, some writers will use the rare tone marks, written over "ก"—"ก๋" and "ก๊"—are employed to approximate the tones of Isan to the tone rules of Thai spelling. Common features of this type of spelling include /h/ (ฮ) for Lao words that are pronounced and written as /r/ (ร) and /s/ (ซ) for words that are pronounced and written as /tɕʰ/ (ช), respectively, in Thai cognates.^[36]

The use of the Thai alphabet and Thai spelling rules has many deficiencies for transcribing the Isan language. This system is unable to differentiate /j/ and /ɲ/, both represented by Thai "ย" but differentiated in Lao as "ຍ" and "ຢ", which is phonemic in Lao and Isan, as well as the unique tones of Isan, since reading leads to interference from Central Thai through its spelling and its role as the only language that appears in written form. This system also blurs the distinction between Isan and Central Thai, as most Central Thai speakers would find written Isan generally understandable, but would have great difficulty with its true spoken form. It also makes Isan appear as a lower form of Thai, since it deviates so much from the rules of Thai pronunciation.

As a result of the erasure of regional history and learning of local culture due to the Thaification policies, many Isan people are unaware that Isan was written in any other alphabet than the Thai one. In 2013, when the University of Khon Khaen, in the heart of Isan, introduced signage in Thai, English and Isan, in the Tai Noy script, only a handful of students were aware that Isan had its own writing system nor were they aware of a previous culture of literacy in the script. Despite its deficiencies, Isan people use this Thai system for informal communication, such as internet communication, SMS and, is ubiquitous as the lyrics displayed on popular karaoke videos and music videos from morlam artists in Isan.^[34] The following examples are lyrics of songs known to Lao people in Laos and Isan, with Thai script as used in Isan, with the pronunciation in bold where pronunciation deviates from what the Thai script would suggest not taking into account tonal differences:

Lyrics to Phleng Baisri/Phlèng Basi
(traditional song of the baisri (Lao basi) ceremony used to call forth the protective guardian spirits)
Isan (Thai alphabet): หมู่ชาวเมืองมา เบื้องขวานั่งส่ายล่าย เบื้องซ้ายนั่งเป็นแถว ยอพาขวัญไม้จันทน์เพริดแพร้ว ขวัญมาแล้ว มาสู่คีงกลม
RTGS : Mu chao mueang ma, bueang khwa nang sailai, bueuang chai nang ben thaew yo pha khwan mai chan phroed phraew khwan ma laew ma su khing klom
Thai (Central) pronunciation: /mùː tɕʰaːu mɯaŋ maː bɯ̂aŋ kʰwǎː nâŋ sàːj lâːj bɯ̂aŋ sáːj pen thɛ̌ːw jɔ pʰaː kʰwăn máj tɕan pʰrɤ̂ːt pʰrɛ́ːw kʰwăn maː lɛ́ːw maː sùː kʰiːŋ klom/
Lao/Isan (Vientiane) pronunciation: /mūː sáːu mɯ́ːaŋ máː, bɯ̏ːaŋ kʰuːă nāŋ sâːj bɯ̏ːaŋ sāːj lāːj, bɯ̏ːaŋ sȃːj nāŋ pen tʰɛ̆ːw ɲɔ́ː pʰáː kʰuːăn mȃj tɕan pʰ[∅]ɤ̂t pʰ[∅]ɛ́ːw kʰuːăn máː lɛ̑ːw maː sūː kʰíːŋ k[∅]om/
Lao (Modern): ຫມູ່ຊາວເມືອງມາ ເບຶ້ອງຂວານັ່ງສ່າຍລ່າຍ ເບຶ້ອງຊ້າຍນັ່ງເປັນແຖວ ຍໍພາຂວັນໄມ້ຈັນເພີດແພວ ຂວັນມາແລ້ວ ມາສູ່ຄີງກົມ
Lao (Archaic): ໝູ່ຊາວເມືອງມາ ເບຶ້ອງຂວານັ່ງສ່າຽລ່າຽ ເບຶ້ອງຊ້າຽນັ່ງເປັນແຖວ ຍໍພາຂວັນໄມ້ຈັນທ໌ເພີດແພວ ຂວັນມາແລ້ວ ມາສູ່ຄີງກົມ
BGN/PCGN: Mou xao muang ma, buang khoa nang sailai gno pha khoan mai chan phuetphèo khoan ma lèo ma sou khing kôm

Lyrics to O Duang Champa/Ô Douang Champa
(old song popular in Thailand and Laos, especially the Lao-speaking peoples)
Isan (Thai alphabet): เห็นสวนดอกไม้บิดาปลูกไว้ตั้งแต่ใดมา เวลาหงอยเหงา ยังช่วยบรรเทาให้หายโศกา
RTGS Romanisation: Hen suan dokmai bida pluk wai tang tae dai ma. Wela ngoi ngao, yang chuai banthao hai hai soka.
IPA (Thai [Central Thai]): /hĕn sŭan dɔ`k máj bì daː plùːk wáj tâŋ tɛ`ː daj ma wɛ laː ŋɔ̆ːj ŋăo janŋ tɕʰûaj ban tʰao hâj hăːj sŏː kaː/
IPA (Lao/Isan [Vientiane]): /hĕn sŭːan dɔ̏ːk mâj bí daː p[∅]ȕːk vȃj tȃŋ tɛ̄ː daj máː vɛ´ láː ŋɔ̆ːj ŋăo ɲáŋ sɔ̄ːj ban tʰáo hȁj hăːj sŏː kaː/
Lao (Modern): ເຫັນສວນດອກໄມ້ ບິດາປູກໄວ້ ຕັ້ງແຕ່ໃດມາ ເວລາຫງອຍເຫງົາ ຍັງຊ່ອຍບັນເທົາໃຫ້ຫາຍໂສກາ
Lao (Archaic): ເຫັນສວນດອກໄມ້ບິດາປຼູກໄວ້ຕັ້ງແຕ່ໃດມາ ເວລາຫງຽເຫງົາ ຍັງຊ່ວຽບັຣເທົາໃຫ້ຫາຽໂສກາ
BGN/PCGN Romanisation: Hén souan dokmai bida pouk vai tang tè dai ma. Véla ngoi ngao, gnang souay banthao hai hai sôka.

Tai Tham

An example of the Tai Tham alphabet formerly used in Laos and Isan for religious literature.

The Tai Tham was historically known in the Lao-speaking world as tua tham (ตัวธรรม /tùa tʰám/, cf. Lao ຕົວທຳ/Archaic ຕົວທັມ, Toua Tham), 'dharma letters', due to their use primarily as the written language of Buddhist monks. The script was introduced into what is now Laos and Isan from Lan Na during the reign of King Setthathirath, who was crowned king of Lan Na and later became king of Lan Xang—although a prince of the latter—bringing both mandalas in personal union from 1546 until 1551. During this brief period, the large volumes of literature from the libraries in Chiengmai were either taken or copied and brought to the Lao people.^[37]

Evidence of its use in what is now Isan include two stone inscriptions, such as the one housed at Wat Tham Suwannakuha in Nong Bua Lamphu, dated to 1564, and another from Wat Mahaphon in Maha Sarakham from the same period. The script was only used by the very religious or taught to the monks, as many sacred Pali sutras were preserved on palm-leaf manuscripts.^[38] The script was generally not known to the laity, who would have instead used the Tai Noy script for most day-to-day things, although some, such as those who had joined the monastery for various lengths of time, as is the custom among males in various Therevada Buddhist Tai cultures. Despite its use as the religious language, often used to transcribe Pali texts, it was also used to write literature aimed at other monks and religious scholars, as well as notes and marginalia, in the Lao language.

Although Tua Tham is an abugida, spelling words according to the same general rules as Thai and Lao, the alphabet is unique in having a very different design, featuring round shapes, several ligatures, special vowels only used at the start of words, several consonants that have variant forms when at the end of a syllable and the habit of stacking letters, with the second letter in a sequence, where permissible, is written under the first. The Thai and Tai Noy/Lao scripts were derived from that of the Khmer, and are thus more sharply angled. Both the Mon and Khmer scripts share common descent from Brahmi via contacts with southern Indian traders, soldiers and religious leaders that used a Pallava script.^[38]

As a result of its general suppression, Isan speakers use Thai-language and Thai-alphabet materials, although many monks in Isan offer advice or explanations in the Isan language, many of which are available for recordings, but transcriptions of these are now taken using the Thai alphabet and not Tai Noy or Tua Tham. Like Tai Noy, only a handful of experts and some older monks in charge of maintaining temple libraries are able to read the old texts. Although no longer in use in Isan, the alphabet is enjoying a resurgence in Northern Thailand, and is still used as the primary written script for the Tai Lü and Tai Khün languages spoken in the border areas where Thailand, Laos, Burma and southern China meet.^[37]

Khom scripts

Inscription in the Khom script (Ancient Khmer script). This Khmer script, distinct from the devised script for secret messages of Ong Kommandam during the Holy Man's Rebellion, was used to write Buddhist, Brahmanic and ritual texts.

The Khom script (อักษรขอม /kʰɔ̆ːm/, cf. Lao ອັກສອນຂອມ, Aksone Khom) was not generally used to write the ancient Lao language of Isan, but was often used to write Pali texts, or Brahmanic rituals often introduced via the Khmer culture. Khom is the ancient Tai word for the Khmer people, who once populated and ruled much of the area before Tai migration and the assimilation of the local people to Tai languages. The modern Khmer alphabet is its descendant. It was generally not used to write the Lao language per se, but was often found in temple inscriptions, used in texts that preserve Brahmanic mantras and ceremonies, local mantras adopted for use in Tai animistic religion and other things usually concerned with Buddhism, Brahmanism or black magic, such as yantras and sakyan tattoos.

Also known by the same name is an obscure script that was invented for conveying secret messages that could not be deciphered by the French or Siamese forces that had divided Laos by Ong Kommandam, who had taken over as leader after the death of Ong Kèo during the Holy Man's Rebellion. As Ong Kommandam and many of his closest followers were speakers of Bahnaric languages spoken in southern Laos, most of the known texts in the language were written in Alak—Ong Kommandam's native language—and the Bahnaric Loven languages of Juk, Su' and Jru', and some in Lao.^[39]

Although the shapes of the letters have a superficial resemblance to several writing systems in the area, it was not related to any of them. It enjoys some usage as a language of black magic and secrecy today, but only a handful of people are familiar with it. Although the word Khom originally referred to the Khmer, it was later applied to related Austroasiatic peoples such as the Lao Theung, many of which had supported Ong Kammandam.^[39]

Mutual intelligibility with Thai

Thai and Lao (including Isan varieties) are all mutually intelligible, neighboring, closely related Tai languages. They share the same grammar, similar phonological patterns and a large inventory of shared vocabulary. Thai and Lao share not only core Tai vocabulary but also a large inventory of Indic and Austroasiatic, mainly Khmer, loan words that are identical between them. Even though Thai and Lao have their own respective scripts, with Isan speakers using the Thai script, the two orthographies are related, with similar letter forms as spelling conventions. A Thai person would probably be able to understand most of written Isan (written in Thai with Thai etymologically Thai spelling), and may be able to understand the spoken language with a little exposure.

Although there are no barriers of mutual comprehension between a Lao speaker from Laos and an Isan speaker from Thailand, there are several linguistic and sociological factors that make the mutual intelligibility of Thai and Lao somewhat asymmetrical. First and foremost, most Lao speakers have knowledge of Thai. Most Lao speakers in Laos are able to receive Thai television and radio broadcasts and engage and participate in Thai websites and social media in Thai, but may not speak the language as well since Lao serves as the national and official state and public language of Laos. Isan speakers are almost universally bilingual, as Thai is the language of education, state, media and used in formal conversation. Isan speakers are able to read, write and understand spoken Thai, but their ability to speak Thai varies, with some from more remote regions unable to speak Thai very well, such as many children before schooling age and older speakers, but competence in Thai is based on factors such as age, distance from urban districts and education access.^[40]

Thai speakers often have difficulty with some of the unique Lao features of Isan, such as very different tonal patterns, distinct vowel qualities and numerous common words with no Thai equivalent, as well as local names for many plants that are based on local coinages or older Mon-Khmer borrowings. A large number of Isan words and usages in Lao of Laos are cognates with old Thai usages no longer found in the modern language, or through drift, evolved to mean somewhat different things. Some Isan words are thus familiar to Thai students or enthusiasts of ancient literature or lakhon boran, soap opera-like serials that feature based on ancient Thai mythology or exploits of characters in previous periods, similar to the preservation of 'thou' and 'thee' in West Country English or modern students trying to parse the dialogue of Shakespeare's plays. The use of Thai etymological spelling of Isan words belies the phonological differences. Tones, which are phonemic in all Thai languages, are enough to make some words out of context to be perceived as something else. Same can be said for certain vowel transformations that took place in Lao after spelling came to be, that radically alter the pronunciation. Differences are enough that the film Yam Yasothon (แหยม ยโสธร Yaem Yasothon, Isan pronunciation /ɲɛ̑ːm ɲā sŏː tʰɔ́ːn/), 'Hello Yasothon'—better translated as 'Smile and Laugh Yasothon'—is shown in cinemas outside of Northeastern Thailand with Standard Thai subtitles. The movie, which features Isan actors and actresses, takes place in the Isan region, and surprisingly for a Thai movie with nationwide release, a predominately Isan dialogue.^[41]

False cognates

Many Isan (and Lao) terms are very similar to words that are profane, vulgar or insulting in the Thai language, features which are much deprecated. Isan uses อี่ (/ʔīː/, cf. Lao: ອີ່) and อ้าย (/ʔâːj/, cf. Lao: ອ້າຍ/archaic ອ້າຽ), to refer to young girls and slightly older boys, respectively. In Thai, the similarly sounding อี, i (/ʔiː/) and ไอ้, ai (/ʔâj) are often prefixed before a woman's or man's name, respectively, or alone or in phrases which are considered extremely vulgar and insulting. This taboo expressions such as อีตัว "i tua", "whore" (/ʔiː nɔːŋ/) and ไอ้บ้า, "ai ba", "son of a bitch" (/ʔâj baː/).

In Isan and Lao, these prefixes are used in innocent ways as it does not carry the same connotation, even though they share these insults with Thai. In Isan, it is quite common to refer to a young girl named 'Nok' as I Nok (อี่นก, cf. Lao ອີ່ນົກ I Nôk or to address one's mother and father as i mae (อี่แม่, cf. Lao ອີ່ແມ່ I Mae, /ʔīː mɛ̄ː/) and I Pho (อี่พ่อ, cf. Lao ອີ່ພໍ່ i pho, /ʔīː pʰɔ̄ː/), respectively. Of course, as Thai only uses there cognate prefixes in fairly negative words and expressions, the sound of Isan i mae would cause some embarrassment in certain situations. The low status of the language is contributing to the language shift currently taking place among younger Isan people, and some Isan children are unable to speak the language fluently, but the need for Thai will not diminish as it is mandatory for education and career advancement.^[22]

Phonological differences

Isan speakers share the phonology of the Lao language of Laos, so the differences between Thai and Isan are the same as the differences between Thai and Lao. Even in shared vocabulary, differences in vowel distributions, tone and consonant inventory can hinder comprehension even with cognate vocabulary. In typical words, Lao and Isan lack the /r/ and /tɕʰ/, instead substituting /l/ and /h/ for instances of Thai /r/ and /s/ for Thai /tɕʰ/. Lao and Isan, however, include the sounds /ʋ/ and /ɲ/ which are replaced with Thai /w/ and /j/, respectively, in cognate vocabulary.

Tones

Even Thai words with clear cognates in Lao and Isan can differ remarkably by tone. Determining the tone of a word by spelling is complicated. Every consonant falls into a category of high, middle or low class. Then, one must determine whether the syllable has a long or a short syllable and whether it ends in a sonorant or plosive consonant and, if there are any, whatever tone marks may move the tone.^[42] Thai กา ka, crow, has a middle tone in Thai, as it contains a mid-class consonant with a long vowel that does not end in a plosive. In Standard Lao, the same environments produce a low-rising tone /kàː/ but is typically /kâː/ or rising-mid-falling in Western Lao.

Despite the differences in pattern, the orthography used to write words is nearly the same in Thai and Lao, even using the same tone marks in most places, so it is knowing the spoken language and how it maps out to the rules of the written language that determine the tone. However, as the Tai languages are tonal languages, with tone being an important phonemic feature, spoken Lao or Isan words out of context, even if they are cognate, may sound closer to Thai words of different meaning. Thai คา kha /kʰaː/, 'to stick' is cognate to Isan คา and Lao ຄາ, which in Vientiane Lao is pronounced /kʰáː/, which may sound like Thai ค้า kha /kʰáː/, 'to trade' due to similarity in tone. The same word in some parts of Isan near Roi Et Province would confusingly sound to Thai ears like ขา kha /khǎː/ with a rising tone, where the local tone patterns would have many pronounce the word with a rising-high-falling heavier on the rising. Although a native Thai speaker would be able to pick up the meaning of the similar words of Isan through context, and after a period of time, would get used to the different tones (with most Lao and Isan speech varieties having an additional one or two tones to the five of Thai), it can cause many initial misunderstandings.

Different speaking styles

Despite the similarities, the Thai and Lao languages have very different speaking styles. Thai speakers tend to use many euphemisms, cute expressions, word play or abbreviations and situations that require 'nuanced' usage or implied meanings. For instance, in relaxed and casual speech, pronouns are normally dropped unless needed for emphasis or disambiguation. With Bangkok serving as Thailand's primary city and home to the majority of media corporations, government, academic, entertainment and infrastructure as well as roughly a quarter of the population in its metropolitan area, the influence of Bangkok's urban slang permeates spoken language of most native Thai speakers.^[43]

Lao conversations are often more direct. Although spoken Isan has its own set of flowery language, word play and strategic vocabulary, they are not as commonly invoked in speech but rather feature heavily in the lyrics of local musical forms such as molam and poetry. Lao speakers also tend to use most pronouns, especially the ones for 'I' and 'you' even in relaxed speech. In Thai and Lao, the increased usage of pronouns occurs in formal and polite usage whereas both reduce their usage in relaxed, casual speech. Thus, compared to Thai, Isan conversations can seem more abrupt, serious, formal to the point of distant to Thai speakers. This perception is nevertheless offset by the large number of Isan words that sound like or are cognate to Thai words that are considered vulgar, and the greater use of native Tai vocabulary which may seem simple compared to the generally larger proportion of Indic vocabulary in Thai.^[43]

Lexical differences from Thai

Although the majority of Isan words are cognate with Thai, and Thai influences are even creeping into the vocabulary, many basic words used in everyday conversation are either lacking cognates in Thai, but share them with Lao. Some usages vary only by frequency or register. For instance, the Thai question word 'เท่าไหร่' is cognate with Isan 'เท่าใด' /tʰāo daj/ and Lao 'ເທົ່າໃດ' /tʰāo daj/, but Isan and Lao tend to use a related variant form 'ท่อใด' /tʰɔ̄ː dàj/ and 'ທໍ່ໃດ' /tʰɔ̄ː dàj/, respectively, more frequently, although the usage is interchangeable and preference probably more related to region and person.

In other areas, Isan preserves the older Tai vocabulary. For example, the old Thai word for a 'glass', such as a 'glass of beer' or 'glass of water' was 'จอก' chok /tɕ̀ɔːk/, but this usage is now obsolete as the word has been replaced by Thai 'แก้ว' kaew /kɛ̑ːw/. Conversely, Isan and Lao continue to use 'จอก' and 'ຈອກ' chok to mean 'glass' (of water) as /tɕ̀ɔ̏ːk/, but Isan 'แก้ว' /kɛ̑ːw/ and Lao 'ແກ້ວ' kéo /kɛ̑ːw/ retain the earlier meaning of Thai 'แก้ว' as 'gem', 'crystal' or 'glass' (material) still seen in the names of old temples, such as 'Wat Phra Kaew' or 'Temple of the Holy Gem'. Nonetheless, a lot of cognate vocabulary is pronounced differently in vowel quality and tone and sometimes consonant sounds to be unrecognisable or do not share a cognate at all. For example, Isan บ่ bo /bɔː/ and Lao ບໍ່ /bɔː/ bo are not related to Thai ไม่ /mâj/, mai

• 1 Thai เท่าไหร่ is cognate to Isan เท่าใด, thaodai and Lao ເທົ່າໃດ, thaodai, /tʰāo daj/.
• 2 Thai แก้ว also exists as Isan แก้ว, kaew, and Lao ແກ້ວ,kèo /kɛ̑ːw/, but has the meaning of "gem".
• 3 Thai ทำ also exists as Isan ทำ, tham and Lao ທຳ, tham, /tʰám/.
• 4 Lao ເຮືອນ and Isan เฮือน also exist as formal Thai เรือน, reuan /rɯːan/.
• 5 Thai บ้าน also exists as Isan บ้าน, ban, and Lao ບ້ານ, bane, /bȃːn/.
• 6 Thai จริง also exists as Isan จริง, ching, and Lao ຈິງ, ching, /tɕiŋ/.

Spelling and orthography

These now-obsolete Lao letters were once used to spell words of Pali and Sanskrit derivation, but were removed, reducing the consonant inventory and the similarity of spelling between Thai and Lao.

Isan and Lao have drifted away from each other mostly in terms of the written language. The Isan people were forced to abandon their traditional Tai Noy script and have come to use the Thai written language, or Isan written in Thai, for communication. In Laos, Tai Noy was modified into the modern Lao script, but several spelling changes in the language during the transition from the Lao monarchy to the communist rule moved Thai spelling and Lao spelling of cognate words further apart. Isan, writes all words with Thai cognates as they exist in Thai, with clusters, special letters only found in obscure Sanskrit words and etymological principles that preserve silent letters and numerous exceptions to Thai pronunciation rules although a small handful of Isan words, with no known or very obscure Thai cognates, are spelled more or less the same as they are in Lao.

Lao spelling in Laos was standardised in the opposite direction. Whilst previously written in a mixture of etymological and phonetical spellings, depending on audience or author, the language underwent several reforms that moved the language towards a purely phonetical spelling. During the restoration of the king of Louang Phabang as King of Laos under the last years of French rule in Laos, the government standardised the spelling of the Lao language, with movement towards a phonetical spelling with preservation of a semi-etymological spelling for Pali, Sanskrit and French loan words and the addition of archaic letters for words of Pali and Sanskrit origin concerning Indic culture and Buddhism.

Spelling reforms under the communist rule of Laos in 1975 were more radical, with the complete abolition of semi-etymological spelling in favour of phonetical spelling, with the removal of silent letters, removal of special letters for Indic loan words, all vowels being written out implicitly and even the elimination or replacement of the letter 'ຣ' /r/ (but usually pronounced /l/) in official publications, although older people and many in the Lao diaspora continue to use some of the older spelling conventions. The examples demonstrate the differences between Lao and Isan, using Thai orthography, but also that between archaic and modern Lao, as well as the general pronunciation and spelling practices between Standard Thai and Standard Lao in general.^[45]

Typographical differences

Traditionally, no punctuation exists in either Thai or Lao, with spaces used to separate lists, sentences and clauses, but otherwise words are written with no spaces between them. A few symbols include the cancellation mark 'x໌' used to mark letters in loan words that are not pronounced, the repetition symbol 'ໆ' used to indicate words or phrases are to be repeated, an ellipsis-like symbol 'ຯ' used to shorten lengthy phrases, such as royal titles or to indicate that following portions have been removed and the equivalent to the et cetera symbol 'ຯລຯ'. These all have equivalents in the Thai script as 'x์', 'ๆ', 'ฯ' and 'ฯลฯ'.

Other Thai symbols, such as '๏', used for marking the beginning of texts, lines or stanzas, '๛' to mark the end of chapters, 'ฯะ' to mark the end of stanzas and '๚' to mark the end of sections. These symbols could be combined to provide meaning. A similar system was in use in Laos but was later abolished. The system is mostly archaic in Thai texts, but is still taught as many old texts feature these symbols.

Lao only uses two of the tone marks 'x່' and 'x້', although 'x໊' and 'x໋' may occasionally be used to record idiosyncratic or emotional speech, as aids to capture tones of different dialects or onomatopoeia. In Thai, the equivalent tone marks are 'x่', 'x้', x๊ and x๋, respectively. Although in Thai, the third and fourth tone markers are rare, they are frequently used to approximate the tones of hundreds of Chinese (mainly Teochew, Hokkien and Hainanese) loan words, dialectal expressions and onomatopoeia.

'soy sauce'

• Thai ซีอิ๊ว si io /siː íu/ and Isan ซีอิ๊ว /síː íu/
• Lao ສະອິວ sa io /sá íu/ S-A-O-^I-W
• Derives from Chinese (Teochew) si iu (豉油 /si˩ iu˥/)

'Chinese noodle soup'

• Thai ก๋วยเตี๋ยว kuay tiao /kŭaj-dtĭeow/ and Isan ก๋วยเตี๋ยว /kȗːaj tiaːw/
• Archaic Lao ກ໋ວຽຕຽວ kouay thio /kȗːaj tiaːw/, mostly replaced in modern Lao by ເຝີ feu /fɤ̏ː/
• Derives from Chinese (Teochew) guė diou (粿條 /kue˥˨ tio˥/

In modern writing, Thai and Lao have both adopted the question mark "?", exclamation point "!", comma ",", parentheses "()", hyphen "-", ellipsis "...", and period "." from their respective English and French sources. Since Isan adopted the Thai punctuation via English, the quotation marks """" are used instead of guillemets, "«»", and spaces are not inserted before terminal punctuation marks. Although Lao speakers in Laos will often use French-style punctuation, English-style punctuation is increasingly becoming more commonplace in Laos.

• English: She says, "I am not leaving for the market!"
• Isan: เขาบอกว่า, "ข้อยบ่กับไปตลาดดอกเด!"
• Lao : ເຂົາບອກວ່າ «ຂ້ອຍບໍ່ກັບໄປຕະຫລາດດອກເດ» !
• Thai: เขาบอกว่า, "ดิฉันไม่กลับไปตลาดค่ะ!"

Grammatical differences

Lexical comparison with Lao

Lao and Isan share most of their vocabulary, tone, and grammatical features, and the barriers of comprehension that would exist between a Thai speaker and a Lao speaker are absent between speakers of Isan and Lao. Technical, academic, and scientific language, and different sources for loan words have diverged the speech to an extent. Isan has borrowed most of its vocabulary from Thai, including numerous English and Chinese (Min Nan) loan words that are commonly used in Thai. Lao, on the other hand, has influences from French and Vietnamese that come from the establishment of the Protectorate of Laos and its inclusion in French Indochina. In ordinary and casual speech, only a few lexical items separate Isan and Lao, and many dialects do not end at the border.^[46]

Lack of French influences

The French gunboat Lutin helped bring Laos under French control.

The incorporation of Isan into Siam prevented the Lao language spoken there from the adoption of French loan words. From 1893 till 1954, the French language was the administrative language of the Protectorate of Laos. The language continues to remain a second language of international diplomacy, higher education, government, and the old elite. Laos has been affiliated with La Francophonie since 1972, with full-member status in 1992. As of 2010, 173,800 people, approximately 3% of the population, were counted as French speakers.^[47] French-language content is occasionally found on Lao national radio and television, as well as in the weekly La Renovateur and alongside English in publications of Khaosane Pathét Lao News.^[48] In Isan, most words of European origin have entered the language via Thai, especially from English, which helps to differentiate the speech on either side of the Mekong River.

Lack of French Influences in Isan

English	Isan	*Non-Existent Isan	Lao	Thai	French
"necktie", /ˈnek taɪ/	เนคไท, /néːk tʰáj/, nek thai	*การะวัด, */kàː lāʔ ʋāt/, *karawat	ກາລະວັດ/Archaic ກາຣະວັດ, /kàː lāʔ ʋāt/, karavat	เนคไท, /nêːk tʰaj/, nek thai	cravate, /kʀa vat/
"cinema", "movie theater" (US)	โรงภาพยนตร์, /lóːŋ pʰȃːp pʰāʔ ɲón/, rong phapayon	*โฮงซิเนมา, */hóːŋ sīʔ nɛ´ː máː/, *hong sinema	ໂຮງຊີເນມາ, /hóːŋ sīʔ nɛ´ː máː/, hông xinéma	โรงภาพยนตร์, /roːŋ pʰȃːp pʰaʔ jon/, rong phapayon	cinéma, /si ne ma/
"dictionary"	พจนานุกรม, /pʰōt tɕáʔ náː nū kom/, photchanukrom	*ดิซอนแนร์*, */diː sɔ́ːn nɛ́ː/, *disonnae	ດີຊອນແນ/Archaic ດີຊອນແນຣ໌*, /diː sɔ́ːn nɛ́ː/, dixonnè	พจนานุกรม, /pʰót tɕàʔ naː nú krom/, photchanukrom	dictionnaire, /dik sjɔ˜ nɛʀ/
"whale", /ʰweɪl/	ปลาวาฬ, /paː ʋáːn/, pla wan	*ปลาบาแลน, */paː baː lɛ́ːn/, *pla balaen	ປາບາແລນ, /paː baː lɛ́ːn/, pa balèn	ปลาวาฬ, /plaː waːn/, pla wan	baleine, /ba lɛn/
"postman", "mailman" (US)	คนส่งไปรษณีย์, /kʰón sōŋ pàj sáʔ níː/, khon song praisani	*ฟักเตอร์, */fāk tɤː/, *faktoe	ຟັກເຕີ/Archaic ຟັກເຕີຣ໌*, /fāk tɤː/, fakteu	คนส่งไปรษณีย์, /kʰon sòŋ praj sàʔ niː/, khon song praisani	facteur, /fak tœʀ/
"Africa", /ˈæ frɪ kə/	ทวีปแอฟริกา , /tʰāʔ ʋîːp ʔɛ̏ːp fīʔ kaː/, thawip aefrika	*ทวีปอาฟรีก, */tʰāʔ ʋîːp aː f(r)īk/, *thawip afrik	ທະວີບອາຟິກ/Archaic ທວີບອາຟຣິກ, /tʰāʔ ʋîːp aː f(r)īk/, thavip afrik	ทวีปแอฟริกา, /tʰáʔ wîːp ʔɛ`ː fríʔ kaː/, thawip aefrika	Afrique, /a fʀik/
"apple", /ˈæp pl/	หมากแอปเปิล , /mȁːk ʔɛ̏ːp pɤˆːn/, mak aeppoen	*หมากป่ม, */mȁːk pōm/, *mak pom	ໝາກປົ່ມ/ຫມາກປົ່ມ, /mȁːk pōm/, mak pom	ผลแอปเปิล, /pʰŏn ʔɛ`ːp pɤːn/, phon aeppoen	pomme, /pɔm/
"wine", /waɪn/	ไวน์, /ʋáj/, wai	*แวง, */ʋɛ́ːŋ/, *waeng	ແວງ, /ʋɛ́ːŋ/, vèng	ไวน์, /waj/, wai	vin, /vɛ̃/
"butter"	เนย, /nɤ`ːj/, noei	*เบอร์, */bɤ`ː/, *boe	ເບີ/Archaic ເບີຣ໌, /bɤ`ː/, beu	เนย, /nɤːj/, noei	beurre, /bœʀ/
"centimetre", "centimeter" (US), /ˈsɛn tɪ miː tə/	เซนติเมตร, /sén tìː mēːt/, sentimet	*ซังตีแมตร, */sáŋ tìː mɛ́ːt/, *sangtimaet	ຊັງຕີແມດ/Archaic ຊັງຕີແມຕຣ໌, /sáŋ tìː mɛ́ːt/, xangtimèt	เซนติเมตร, /seːn tì méːt/, sentimet	centimètre, /sɑ̃ ti mɛtʀ/
"billiards", /bɪl jədz/	บิลเลียด, /bin lîat/, binliat	*บียา, */bìː yàː/, *biya	ບີຢາ, /bìː yàː/, biya	บิลเลียด, /bin lîat/, binliat	billard, /bi jaʀ/

• 1 Lao ພົດຈະນານຸກົມ/Archaic ພົຈນານຸກົມ, phôtchananoukôm (/pʰōt tɕáʔ náː nū kom/), exists as an alternate of Thai cognate พจนานุกรม.
• 2 Also exists as Lao ຄົນສົ່ງໜັງສື, khône sông nangsue (/kʰón sōŋ năŋ sɯˇː/.

Nouns

Nouns are not marked for plurals, gender nor are they declined for cases, and do not require an indefinite nor definite article. Plurals are often indicated with the use of classifiers, words to mark the special classes that nouns belong to. For instance, หมา (mǎː, ma) "dog" has the classifier โต (to, toː) which, as its meaning "body" implies, includes all things with legs, such as people, animals, tables, and chairs. "Three dogs" would be rendered as หมา ๓ โต (ma sam to, mǎː sǎːm toː), literally "dog three classifier".

Verbs are easily made into nouns by adding the prefixes ความ (khwam/kʰwaːm) and การ (kan/kːan) before verbs that express abstract actions and verbs that express physical actions, respectively. Adjectives and adverbs, which can function as complete predicates, only use ความ.

• แข่งม้า (khaengma/kʰɛ̀ːŋ.máː) "to horserace" (v.) nominalises into การแข่งม้า (kan khaengma/kːan kʰɛ̀ːŋ.máː) "horseracing" (n.)
• เจ็บ (chep/tɕèp) "to hurt (others)" (v.) nominalises into ความเจ็บ (khwam chep/kʰwaːm tɕèp) "hurt (caused by others)" (n.)
• ดี (di, diː) "good" nominalises into ความดี (khwam di, kʰwaːm diː) "goodness" (n.)

Pronouns Pronouns are often dropped in informal contexts, and are often replaced with nicknames or kinship terms, depending on the relation of the speaker to the person to whom is being spoken. Pronouns can also change depending on the register of speech, with many of the more formal pronouns borrowed from formal Thai speech registers. The more formal the language, the more likely that pronouns will not be dropped and that formal pronouns would be used. Pronouns can be pluralised by adding พวก (phuak, pʰuak) in front of the pronoun, e.g., พวกข้อย (phuak khoy/pʰuak kʰɔːj) is the same as เฮา (hao) or พวกเฮา (phuak hao/pʰuak haw). Age and status is important in determining usage. Younger boys and girls names are often prefixed with บัก (bak, bak) and อี่ (i, iː) respectively. Older males and females use อ้าย (ai, aːj) and เอี้อย (euay, ɯːaj) respectively instead. People who are much older may be politely addressed as aunt, uncle, mother, father, or even grandmother or grandfather depending on their age. Isan age-based name prefixes are often identical to or similar to vulgar, disparaging age-based name prefixes in Central Thai and should be avoided outside of Lao speaking regions in Thailand.

Adjectives and adverbs

There is no general distinction between adjectives and adverbs, and words of this category serve both functions and can even modify each other. Duplication is used to indicate greater intensity. Only one word can be duplicated per phrase. Adjectives always come after the noun they modify; adverbs may come before or after the verb depending on the word. There is usually no copula to link a noun to an adjective.

• เด็กหนุ่ม (dek num, dek num) A young child.
• เด็กหนุ่ม ๆ (dek num num, dek num num) A very young child.
• เด็กหนุ่มที่ไว้ (dek num thi vai, dek num tʰiː vaj) A child who becomes young quickly.
• เด็กหนุ่มที่ไว้ ๆ (dek num thi vai vai, dek num tʰiː vaj vaj) A child who becomes young quickly.

Comparatives take the form "A X กว่า B" (kwa, kwaː), A is more X than B. The superlative is expressed as "A X ที่สุด (thisut, tʰiːsut), A is most X.

• เด็กหนุ่มกว่าผู้แก่ (dek num kwa phukae, dek num kwaː pʰuːkɛː) The child is younger than an old person.
• เด็กหนุ่มที่สุด (dek num thisut, dek num tʰiːsut) The child is youngest.

Because adjectives or adverbs can be used as predicates, the particles that modify verbs are also used.

• เด็กซิหนุ่ม (dek si num, dek siː num) The child will be young.
• เด็กหนุ่มแล้ว (dek num laew, dek num lɛːw) The child was young.

Verbs

Verbs are not declined for voice, number, or tense. To indicate tenses, particles can be used, but it is also very common just to use words that indicate the time frame, such as พรุ่งนี้ (phung ni, pʰuŋ niː) tomorrow or มื้อวานนี้ (meu wan ni, mɯː vaːn niː) yesterday.

Negation: Negation is indicated by placing บ่ (bo, bɔː) before the word being negated.

• อีน้องกินหมากเลน (i nong kin mak len, iːnɔːŋ kin maːk len) Younger sister eats tomatoes.
• อีน้องบ่กินหมากเลน (i nong bao bo kin mak len, iːnɔːŋ bɔː kin maːk len) Younger sister does not eat tomatoes.

Future tense: Future tense is indicated by placing the particles จะ (cha, tɕaʔ) or ซิ (si, siː) before the verb.

• อีน้องจะกินหมากเลน (i nong cha kin mak len, iːnɔːŋ tɕaʔ kin maːk len) Younger sister will eat tomatoes.
• อีน้องซิกินหมากเลน (i nong see kin mak len, iːnɔːŋ siː kin maːk len) Younger sister will eat tomatoes.

Past tense: Past tense is indicated by either placing ได้ (dai, daj) before the verb or แล้ว (laew, lɛːw) after the verb or even using both in tandem for emphasis. แล้ว is the more common one, and can be used to indicate completed actions or current actions of the immediate past. ได้ is often used with negative statements and never for present action.

• อีน้องได้กินหมากเลน (i nong dai kin mak len, iːnɔːŋ daj kin maːk len) Younger sister ate tomatoes.
• อีน้องกินหมากเลนแล้ว (i nong kin mak len laew, iːnɔːŋ kin maːk len lɛːw) Younger sister (just) ate tomatoes.
• อีน้องได้กินหมากเลนแล้ว (i nong dai kin mak len laew, iːnɔːŋ daj kin maːk len lɛːw) Younger sister (definitely) ate tomatoes.

Present progressive: To indicate an ongoing action, กำลัง (kamlang, kam.laŋ) can be used before the verb or อยู่ (yu, juː) after the verb. These can also be combined for emphasis. In Isan and Lao, พวม (phuam, pʰuam) is often used instead of กำลัง.

• อีน้องกำลังกินหมากเลน (i nong kamlang kin mak len, iːnɔːŋ kam.laŋ kin maːk len) Younger sister is eating tomatoes.
• อีน้องกินอยู่หมากเลน (i nong kin yu mak len, iːnɔːŋ kin juː maːk len) Younger sister is eating tomatoes.
• อีน้องพวมกินหมากเลน (i nong phuam kin mak len, iːnɔːŋ pʰuam kin maːk len) Younger sister is eating tomatoes.

The verb 'to be' can be expressed in many ways. In use as a copula, it is often dropped between nouns and adjectives. Compare English She is pretty and Isan สาวงาม (literally lady pretty). There are two copulas used in Isan, as in Lao, one for things relating to people, เป็น (pen, pen), and one for objects and animals, แม่น (maen, mɛːn).

• นกเป็นหมอ (Nok pen mo, Nok pe mɔː) Nok is a doctor.
• อันนี้แม่นสามล้อ (an née maen sam lo, an niː mɛːn saːm lɔː) This is a pedicab.

Questions and answers

Unlike English, which indicates questions by a rising tone, or Spanish, which changes the order of the sentences to achieve the same result, Isan uses question tag words. The use of question words makes use of the question mark (?) redundant in Isan.

General yes/no questions end in บ่ (same as บ่, "no, not").

• สบายดีบ่ (sabai di bo, saʔbaj diː bɔː) Are you well?

Other question words

• จั่งใด (changdai, tɕaŋdaj) or หยัง (nyang, ɲaŋ) เฮ็ดจั่งใด (het changdai, het tɕaŋ.daj) What are you doing?
• ใผ (phai, pʰaj) ใผขายไขไก่ (phai khai khai kai, pʰaj kʰaːj kʰaj kaj) Who sells chicken eggs?
• ใส (sai, saj) Where? ห้องน้ำอยู่ใส (hong nam yu sai, hɔːŋnam juː saj) Where is the toilet?
• อันใด (andai, andaj) Which? เจ้าได้กินอันใด (chao kin andai, tɕaw gin an.daj) Which one did you eat?
• จัก (chak, tɕak) How many? อายุจักปี (ayu chak pi, aːju tɕak piː) How old are you?
• ท่อใด (thodai, tʰɔːdaj) How much? ควายตัวบทท่อใด (khwai ɗua bot thodai, kʰwaj bot tʰɔːdaj) How much is that buffalo over there?
• แม่นบ่ (maen bo, mɛːn bɔː) Right?, Is it? เต่าไวแม่นบ่ (Tao vai maen bo, ɗaw vai mɛːn bɔː) Turtles are fast, right?
• แล้วบ่ (laew bo, lɛːw bɔː) Yet?, Already? เขากลับบ้านแล้วบ่ (khao kap laew bo, kʰaw gap baːn lɛːw bɔː) Did he go home already?
• หรือบ่ (loe bo, lɤː bɔː) Or not? เจ้าหิวข้าวหรือบ่ (chao hio khao loe bo, tɕaw hiw kʰaw lɤː bɔː) Are you hungry or not?

Answers to questions usually just involve repetition of the verb and any nouns for clarification.

• Question: สบายดีบ่ (sabai di bo, saʔbaj diː bɔː) Are you well?
• Response: สบายดี (sabai di, saʔbaj diː) I am well or บ่สบาย (bo sabai, bɔː saʔbaj) I am not well.

Words asked with a negative can be confusing and should be avoided. The response, even though without the negation, will still be negated due to the nature of the question.

• Question: บ่สบายบ่ (bo sabai bo, bɔː saʔbaːj bɔː) Are you not well?
• Response: สบาย (sabai, saʔbaj) I am not well or บ่สบาย (bo sabai, bɔː saʔbaːj ) I am well.