Neologism

A neologism (/niːˈɒlədʒɪzəm/; from Greek νέο- néo-, "new" and λόγος lógos, "speech, utterance") is a relatively recent or isolated term, word, or phrase that may be in the process of entering common use, but that has not yet been fully accepted into mainstream language.[1] Neologisms are often directly attributable to a specific person, publication, period, or event. In the process of language formation, neologisms are more mature than protologisms.[2]

Background

Neologisms are often created by combining existing words (see compound noun and adjective) or by giving words new and unique suffixes or prefixes. Portmanteaux are combined words that are sometimes used commonly. "Brunch" is an example of a portmanteau word (breakfast + lunch). Lewis Carroll's "snark" (snake + shark) is also a portmanteau. Neologisms also can be created through abbreviation or acronym, by intentionally rhyming with existing words or simply through playing with sounds.

Neologisms can become popular through memetics, by way of mass media, the Internet, and word of mouth, including academic discourse in many fields renowned for their use of distinctive jargon, and often become accepted parts of the language. Other times, however, they disappear from common use just as readily as they appeared. Whether a neologism continues as part of the language depends on many factors, probably the most important of which is acceptance by the public. It is unusual, however, for a word to enter common use if it does not resemble another word or words in an identifiable way.

When a word or phrase is no longer "new", it is no longer a neologism. Neologisms may take decades to become "old", however. Opinions differ on exactly how old a word must be to cease being considered a neologism.

Sources

Popular examples of neologism can be found in science, fiction, branding, literature, linguistic and popular culture. Examples include laser (1960) from Light Amplification by Stimulated Emission of Radiation, robotics (1941), agitprop (1930).

History and meaning

The term neologism is first attested in English in 1772, borrowed from French néologisme (1734).[3] A proponent of a new word or doctrine may be called a neologist. Neologists might study cultural and ethnic vernacular.

The term neologism has a broader meaning that includes not only "an entirely new lexical item" but also an existing word whose meaning has been altered.[4][5][6] Sometimes, the latter process is called semantic shifting,[4] or semantic extension.[7][8] Neologisms are distinct from a person's idiolect, one's unique patterns of vocabulary, grammar, and pronunciation.

Neologisms are usually introduced when an individual or individuals find that a specific notion is lacking a term in a language, or when the existing vocabulary is insufficiently detailed.[9] The law, governmental bodies, and technology have a relatively high frequency of acquiring neologisms.[10][11] Another trigger that motivates neologists and protologists to coin a neologism is in order to disambiguate a previously existing term that may have been obscure or vague due to having multiple senses.[12]

Literature

Neologisms may come from a word used in the narrative of a book. Examples include "grok" from Stranger in a Strange Land by Robert A. Heinlein; "McJob" from Generation X: Tales for an Accelerated Culture by Douglas Coupland; "cyberspace" from Neuromancer by William Gibson[13] and "quark" from James Joyce's Finnegans Wake.

The title of a book may become a neologism, for instance, Catch-22 (from the title of Joseph Heller's novel). Alternatively, the author's name may give rise to the neologism, although the term is sometimes based on only one work of that author. This includes such words as "Orwellian" (from George Orwell, referring to his novel Nineteen Eighty-Four) and "Kafkaesque" (from Franz Kafka).

Names of famous characters are another source of literary neologisms, e.g. quixotic (referring to the title character in Don Quixote de la Mancha by Cervantes), scrooge (from the main character in Dickens's A Christmas Carol) and pollyanna (from Eleanor H. Porter's book of the same name).

Culture and technology use are major drivers in neologism development.[14][15] Examples of recent pop-culture neologisms include Canadian "Snowmageddon", Russian "Monstration".

In these instances, words are used in small communities then spread through the use of social media. "Doggo-Lingo" specifically has spread primarily through Facebook group and Twitter account use.[16] The suspected origin of this way of referring to dogs stems from a Facebook group created in 2008 and gaining popularity in 2014 in Australia. The Facebook group called DogSpotting posts pictures of dogs that members have seen with amusing captions, often using Doggo-Lingo. In Australian English it is common to use diminutives, often ending in –o, which could be where doggo-lingo was first used.[16] The term has grown so that Merriam-Webster has acknowledged its use but notes the term needs to be found in published, edited work for a longer period of time before it can be deemed a new word making it the perfect example of a neologism.[16]

The use and over-use of brand names is another example of neologism creation. The terms "coke" or "cola" may be used in reference to any Coca-Cola like beverage regardless of brand. Kleenex is used in reference to any facial tissue. Xerox or xerox-ing is used in reference to any photocopier or action of photocopying.[17]

Neologisms can also originate entirely online from social media and other forms of Internet media.

Translations

Because neologisms originate in one language, translations between languages can be difficult.

In the scientific community, where English is the predominant language for published research and studies, like-sounding translations (referred to as 'naturalization') are sometimes used.[18] Alternatively, the English word is used along with a brief explanation of meaning.[18] The four translation methods are emphasized in order to translate neologisms: transliteration and transcription, the use of analogues, calque and loan translation.[19]

When translating from English to other languages, the naturalization method is most often used.[20] The most common way that professional translators translate neologisms is through the Think aloud protocol (TAP), wherein translators find the most appropriate and natural sounding new word through speech.[21] This way, translators are able to use potential translated neologisms in sentences and test them with different structures and syntax. Correct translations from English for specific purposes into other languages is crucial in various industries and legal systems.[22][23] Inaccurate translations can lead to 'translation asymmetry' or conceptual misunderstandings which can lead to miscommunication.[23] Many technical glossaries of English translations exist to combat this issue in the medical, judicial, and technological fields.[24]

Other uses

In psychiatry and neuroscience, the term neologism is used to describe words that have meaning only to the person who uses them, independent of their common meaning.[25] The use of neologisms may also be due to aphasia acquired after brain damage resulting from a stroke or head injury.[26]

In theology, a neologism refers to a relatively new doctrine (for example, Transcendentalism).[27]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Anderson, James M. (2006). Malmkjær, Kirsten, ed. The Linguistics encyclopedia (Ebook ed.). London: Routledge. p. 601. ISBN 0-203-43286-X.
  2. ↑ Gryniuk, D (2015). On Institutionalization and De-Institutionalization of Late 1990s Neologisms. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 150. This process [of lexicalization] does not seem to be coincidental because neologisms themselves are prone to go through certain stages of transformation. They begin as unstable creations (otherwise called protologisms), that is, they are extremely new, being proposed, or being used only by a small subculture
  3. ↑ "Neologism" (draft revision). Oxford English Dictionary. December 2009.
  4. 1 2 Zuckermann, Ghilʻad (2003). Language contact and lexical enrichment in Israeli Hebrew (2nd ed.). New York, NY: Palgrave Macmillan. p. 3. ISBN 978-1403917232.
  5. ↑ Sally Barr Ebest Writing from A to Z: the easy-to-use reference handbook 1999– p. 449 "A neologism is a newly coined word or phrase or a new usage of an existing word or phrase."
  6. ↑ Lynne Bowker, Jennifer Pearson Working With Specialized Language 2002 p. 214 "Neologisms can also be formed in another way, however, by assigning a new meaning to an existing word."
  7. ↑ Ole Nedergaard Thomsen Competing models of linguistic change: evolution and beyond 2006 – p. 68 "Extensions, by contrast, are applications of extant means in new usage. Note that since individual speakers differ in their command of their shared tradition of speaking, one person's Extension may be experienced by another as a Neologism"
  8. ↑ Michael D. Picone Anglicisms, Neologisms and Dynamic French 1996 – p. 3 "Proceeding now to the task of defining terms, I will begin with the more general term 'neologism'. ...A neologism is any new word, morpheme or locution and any new meaning for a pre-existent word, morpheme or locution that appears in a language. ... Likewise, any semantic extension of a pre-existent word, morpheme or locution.. but is also, by accepted definition, a neologism."
  9. ↑ Mesthrie, Rajend (1995). Language and Social History: Studies in South African Sociolinguistics. p. 225.
  10. ↑ Solan, Lawrence (2012). The Oxford Handbook of Language and Law. p. 36.
  11. ↑ Greiffenstern, Sandra (2010). The Influence of Computers, the Internet and Computer-Mediated Communication on Everyday English. p. 125.
  12. ↑ Cowan, Robert. "Shadow of a Doubt: A Phantom Caesura in Horace Odes 4.14." Classical Journal, The 109.4 (2014): 407-417.
  13. ↑ Dunn, Robin. 2003: "The Generative Edge." Foundation 87 (2003): 73–93.
  14. ↑ McDonald, L. J. (2005). The meaning of e- : neologisms as markers of culture and technology /.
  15. ↑ Forgue, Guy (1979). "American Neologisms as a Reflection of Cultural Change since 1945". Proceedings of a Symposium on American Literature: 199–211.
  16. 1 2 3 Boddy, Jessica (April 23, 2017). "Dogs Are Doggos: An Internet Language Built Around Love For The Puppers". National Public Radio.
  17. ↑ Sayadi, Forough (April 2011). "The Translation of Neologisms". Translation Journal.
  18. 1 2 Linder, Daniel (2016). "Non-native scientists, research dissemination and English neologisms: What happens in the early stages of reception and re-production?". Iberica. 32: 35–58.
  19. ↑ "The Translation of English Neologisms". Terminology Coordination Unit [DGTRAD]. European Parliament. 22 June 2015.
  20. ↑ Lindblad, Jonathan. 2017. "Translation strategies of H.P. Lovecraft’s neologisms into Japanese." Networked Digital Library of Theses & Dissertations
  21. ↑ Moghadas, Seyed (2014). "A Model for Cognitive Process of Neologisms Translation". International Journal of English Language and Translation Studies. 2 (1): 4–19.
  22. ↑ Liu, Hui (2014). "A Probe Into Translation Strategies of Tech English Neologism in Petroleum Engineering Field". Studies in Literature and Language. 9 (1): 33–37.
  23. 1 2 Kerremans, Koen (2014). "Studying the Dynamics of Understanding and Legal Neologisms within a Linguistically Diverse Judicial Space: The Case of Motherhood in Belgium". International Conference; Meaning in Translation: Illusion of Precision''. 231: 46–52.
  24. ↑ Navarro, F (2008). "Controversies in dermatology: One-Hundred Fifty English Words and Expressions in Dermatology That Present Difficulties or Pitfalls for Translation Into Spanish". Actas dermosifiliográficas (English Edition). 99 (5): 349–362. doi:10.1016/s1578-2190(08)70268-3.
  25. ↑ Berrios, G. E. (2009). "Neologisms". History of Psychiatry. 20 (4): 480–496. doi:10.1177/0957154x08348532.
  26. ↑ B Butterworth, Hesitation and the production of verbal paraphasias and neologisms in jargon aphasia. Brain Lang, 1979
  27. ↑ Schreiter, Robert J. (15 September 2015). "1". Constructing Local Theologies (30th Anniversary ed.). Orbis Books. ISBN 9781608336111. Retrieved 20 November 2016.
  • Neologisms in Journalistic Text
  • Interpretation of the Formation of Internet Neologisms
  • Fowler, H.W., "The King's English", Chapter I. Vocabulary, Neologism
  • Algeo, John. Fifty Years among the New Words: A Dictionary of Neologisms, 1941–1991 ISBN 0-521-41377-X
  • Wordspy
  • Rice University Neologisms Database
  • Neologisms from the Internet – with Esther Dyson, Jimmy Wales and more...
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