Ella Baker

Ella Baker
Born Ella Josephine Baker
(1903-12-13)December 13, 1903
Norfolk, Virginia, United States
Died December 13, 1986(1986-12-13) (aged 83)
Occupation Activist
Organization NAACP (1938–1953)
SCLC (1957–1960)
SNCC (1960–1966)
Movement Civil Rights Movement
Spouse(s) T. J. (Bob) Roberts (div. 1958)

Ella Josephine Baker (December 13, 1903 – December 13, 1986) was an African-American civil rights and human rights activist. She was a largely behind-the-scenes organizer whose career spanned more than five decades. She worked alongside some of the most famous civil rights leaders of the 20th century, including W. E. B. Du Bois, Thurgood Marshall, A. Philip Randolph, and Martin Luther King Jr. She also mentored many emerging activists, such as Diane Nash, Stokely Carmichael, Rosa Parks, and Bob Moses.[1]

Baker criticized professionalized, charismatic leadership; she promoted grassroots organizing, radical democracy, and the ability of the oppressed to understand their worlds and advocate for themselves. She realized this vision most fully in the 1960s as the primary advisor and strategist of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC).[1][2] She has been ranked as "One of the most important African American leaders of the twentieth century and perhaps the most influential woman in the Civil Rights Movement," known for her critiques not only of racism within American culture, but also the sexism and classism within the Civil Rights Movement.[3][4]

Early life and education

Ella Josephine Baker was born in Norfolk, Virginia, and raised by her parents Georgiana and Blake Baker. When she was seven, her family moved to her mother's rural hometown of Littleton, North Carolina. As a girl, Baker listened to her grandmother tell stories about slave revolts. Baker's maternal grandmother, Josephine Elizabeth "Bet" Ross[5]:1907 had been born into slavery. She was whipped as a young woman for refusing to marry a man chosen for her by her owner.[5]:1906

Ella attended local schools. She went to the state capital to attend Shaw University, a historically black university in Raleigh, North Carolina. She graduated as class valedictorian in 1927. As a student, she challenged school policies which she thought were unfair, specifically "the school's conservative dresscode...paternalistic racism of its president...and its methods of teaching religion and the Bible."[6] After graduating, she moved to New York City during the period of the Great Migration, when many blacks were leaving the South to escape its oppressive society.[7]

New York City

During 1929-1930 Baker worked as an editorial staff member of the American West Indian News, moving to a position as editorial assistant at the Negro National News. In 1930 George Schuyler, a black journalist and anarchist (and later an arch-conservative), founded the Young Negroes' Cooperative League (YNCL). It sought to develop black economic power through collective planning. Having befriended Schuyler, Baker joined his group in 1931 and soon became its national director.[8][9]

She also worked for the Worker's Education Project of the Works Progress Administration established during President Franklin D. Roosevelt's New Deal. She taught courses in consumer education, labor history and African history. Baker immersed herself in the cultural and political milieu of Harlem in the 1930s. She protested Italy's invasion of Ethiopia and supported the campaign to free the Scottsboro defendants in Alabama, a group of young black men accused of raping two white women. She also founded the Negro History Club at the Harlem Library and regularly attended lectures and meetings at the YWCA.

During this time, she lived with and married her college sweetheart, T. J. (Bob) Roberts. Their respective work schedules often kept them apart. They divorced in 1958. Ella Baker rarely discussed her private life or marital status. According to fellow activist, Bernice Johnson Reagon, many women within the Civil Rights Movement followed Baker's example, adopting a practice of dissemblance that allowed them to be accepted within the movement as individuals.[10]

She befriended John Henrik Clarke, a future scholar and activist, and Pauli Murray, a future writer and civil rights lawyer, and many others who would become lifelong friends.[11] The Harlem Renaissance influenced Baker in her thoughts and teachings. She advocated widespread, local action as a means of social change. Her emphasis on a grassroots approach to the struggle for equal rights influenced the success of the modern Civil Rights Movement of the mid-20th century.[12]

APRIL (1938–1953)

In 1938 Baker began her long association with the National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), which was based in New York City. Baker was hired as a secretary in December 1940. She traveled widely, especially in the South, recruiting members, raising money, and organizing local chapters. She was named director of branches in 1943,[13] making her the highest-ranking woman in the organization. An outspoken woman, she had a strong belief in egalitarian ideals. She pushed the organization to decentralize its leadership structure and to aid its membership in more activist campaigns at the local level. Baker believed that the strength of an organization grew from the bottom up and not the top down. She believed that the work of the branches was the life blood of the NAACP. Baker despised elitism and placed her confidence in many. She believed that the bedrock of any social change organization is not the eloquence or credentials of its top leaders, but in the commitment and hard work of the rank and file membership and willingness and ability of those members to engage in a process of discussion, debate, and decision making.[14] She especially stressed the importance of young people and women in the organization.

While traveling throughout the South on behalf of the NAACP, Baker met hundreds of black people, establishing lasting relationships with them. She slept in their homes, ate at their tables, spoke in their churches, and earned their trust. She wrote thank-you notes and expressed her gratitude to the people she met. This personalized approach to political work was one important aspect of Baker's effective effort to recruit more members, men and women, into the NAACP.[15] Baker formed a network of people in the south who would be important in the continued fight for civil rights. Whereas some northern organizers tended to talk down to rural southerners, Baker's ability to treat everyone with respect helped her in recruiting. Baker fought to make the NAACP more democratic and in tune with the needs of the people. She tried to find a balance between voicing her concerns and maintaining a unified front.

When the opportunity arose in 1946 to return to New York City to care for her niece, Baker left her position with NAACP. She served as a volunteer. She soon joined the New York branch of the NAACP to work on local school desegregation and police brutality issues. She became its president in 1952.[16] Her job as president was to supervise the field secretaries and coordinate the national office's work with local groups.[17] Baker's top priority as the new director of branches was to lessen the organization's bureaucracy and Walter Francis White's dominating role within it.

She did not believe that the program should be so channeled through White, the executive secretary, and the national office and not the people out in the field. She lobbied for a reduction in the rigid hierarchy within the association and for placing more power in the hands of capable local leaders. She also advocated giving greater responsibility and autonomy to local branches.[18] Between 1944 and 1946, Baker directed revolutionary leadership conferences in several major cities, such as Chicago and Atlanta. She got top officials to deliver lectures, offer welcoming remarks, and conduct workshops.[19] She resigned in 1953 to run unsuccessfully for the New York City Council on the Liberal Party ticket.[20]

Southern Christian Leadership Conference (1957–1960)

In January 1957, Baker went to Atlanta, Georgia to attend a conference aimed at developing a new regional organization to build on the success of the Montgomery Bus Boycott. After a second conference in February, the Southern Christian Leadership Conference (SCLC) was formed. This organization was initially planned to be a loosely structured coalition linking church based leaders in civil rights struggles across the South.[21] The group wanted to emphasize nonviolence as a means of bringing about social progress and racial justice for southern blacks. The organization would rely on the southern black church for the base of its support. The strength of the organization rested on the political activities of its local church affiliates. It envisioned itself as the political arm of the black church.[22]

The SCLC first stepped on the political scene as an organization at the Prayer Pilgrimage for Freedom. Baker was instrumental in pulling off this large-scale event which became extremely successful. Her work as one of the organizers for this event demonstrated her ability to straddle organizational lines, deliberately ignoring and minimizing rivalries and battles.[23] The conference's first project was the Crusade for Citizenship, a voter registration campaign. Baker was hired as the first staff person for the new organization. Baker worked closely with southern civil rights activists in Georgia, Alabama, and Mississippi and was highly respected for her organizing abilities. She helped initiate voter registration campaigns and identify other local grievances. After John Tilley, director of the SCLC resigned, she remained in Atlanta for two and a half years as interim executive director of the SCLC until the post was taken up by Wyatt Tee Walker in April 1960.[24]

Baker's job with the SCLC was more frustrating than fruitful. She was unsettled politically, physically, and emotionally. She had no solid allies in the office.[12] Historian Thomas F. Jackson notes that Baker criticized the organization for "programmatic sluggishness and King's distance from the people. King was a better orator than democratic crusader [she] concluded."[25]

"Participatory democracy"

In the 1960s, the idea of "participatory democracy" became popular. It was a new formulation, bringing to the traditional appeal of democracy an innovative tie to broader participation.

There were three primary emphases to this new movement:

  • An appeal for grass roots involvement of people throughout society, while making their own decisions
  • The minimization of (bureaucratic) hierarchy and the associated emphasis on expertise and professionalism as a basis for leadership
  • A call for direct action as an answer to fear, isolation, and intellectual detachment[26]

Ella Baker said:

You didn't see me on television, you didn't see news stories about me. The kind of role that I tried to play was to pick up pieces or put together pieces out of which I hoped organization might come. My theory is, strong people don't need strong leaders.[27]

According to activist Mumia Abu-Jamal, Baker advocated a more collectivist model of leadership over the "prevailing messianic style of the period."[28] Baker was largely arguing against the Civil Rights Movement being structured along the organization model of the Black church. The Black church, at the time, had largely female membership and male leadership. Baker questioned not only the gendered hierarchy of the Civil Rights Movement, but also that of the Black church.[29]

Ella Baker and Martin Luther King, Jr., as well as other SCLC members, were reported to have differences in opinion and philosophy during the 1950s and 1960s. She once claimed that the "movement made Martin, and not Martin the movement." When she gave a speech urging activists to take control of the movement themselves, rather than rely on a leader with "heavy feet of clay," it was widely interpreted as a denunciation of King.[30]

Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (1960–1966)

That same year, on the heels of regional desegregation sit-ins led by black college students, Baker persuaded the SCLC to invite southern university students to the Southwide Youth Leadership Conference at Shaw University on Easter weekend. This was a gathering of sit-in leaders to meet, assess their struggles and explore the possibilities for future actions.[31] At this meeting the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee (SNCC, pronounced "snick") was formed.

Baker saw the potential for a special type of leadership by the young sit-in leaders, who were not yet prominent in the movement. She believed they could revitalize the Black Freedom Movement and take it in a new direction. Baker wanted to bring the sit-in participants together in a way that would sustain the momentum of their actions, teach them the skills necessary, provide the resources that were needed, and also help them to coalesce into a more militant and democratic force.[32] To this end she strove to keep the students independent of the older, church-based leadership. In her address at Shaw, she warned the activists to be wary of "leader-centered orientation." Julian Bond later described the speech as "an eye opener" and probably the best of the conference. "She didn't say, 'Don't let Martin Luther King tell you what to do,' " Bond remembers, "but you got the real feeling that that's what she meant."[33]

SNCC became the most active organization in the deeply oppressed Mississippi Delta. It was relatively open to women.[34] Following the conference, Baker resigned from the SCLC and began a long and close relationship with SNCC.[35] Along with Howard Zinn, Baker was one of SNCC's highly revered adult advisors, called the "Godmother of SNCC."

In 1961 Baker persuaded the SNCC to form two wings: one wing for direct action and the second wing for voter registration. It was with Baker's help that SNCC (along with the Congress of Racial Equality) coordinated the region-wide Freedom Rides of 1961. They also expanded their grassroots movement among black sharecroppers, tenant farmers and others throughout the South. Ella Baker insisted that "strong people don't need strong leaders," and criticized the notion of a single charismatic leader of movements for social change. In keeping the idea of "participatory democracy", Baker wanted each person to get involved.[36] She also argued that "people under the heel," the most oppressed members of any community, "had to be the ones to decide what action they were going to take to get (out) from under their oppression".

She was a teacher and mentor to the young people of SNCC, influencing such important future leaders as Julian Bond, Diane Nash, Stokely Carmichael, Curtis Muhammad, Bob Moses, and Bernice Johnson Reagon. Through SNCC, Baker's ideas of group-centered leadership and the need for radical democratic social change spread throughout the student movements of the 1960s. For instance, the Students for a Democratic Society, the major antiwar group of the day, promoted participatory democracy. These ideas also influenced a wide range of radical and progressive groups that would form in the 1960s and 1970s.[37]

In 1964 Baker helped organize the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party (MFDP) as an alternative to the all-white Mississippi Democratic Party. She worked as the coordinator of the Washington office of the MFDP and accompanied a delegation of the MFDP to the 1964 National Democratic Party convention in Atlantic City, New Jersey. The group wanted to challenge the national party to affirm the rights of African Americans to participate in party elections in the South, where they were still largely disenfranchised. When MFDP delegates challenged the pro-segregationist, all-white official delegation, a major conflict ensued. The MFDP delegation was not seated, but their influence on the Democratic Party later helped to elect many black leaders in Mississippi. They forced a rule change to allow women and minorities to sit as delegates at the Democratic National Convention.[38]

The 1964 schism with the national Democratic Party led SNCC toward the "black power" position. Baker was less involved with SNCC during this period, but her withdrawal was due more to her declining health than to ideological differences. According to her biographer Barbara Ransby, Baker believed that black power was a relief from the "stale and unmoving demands and language of the more mainstream civil rights groups at the time."[39] She also accepted the turn towards armed self-defense that SNCC made in the course of its development. Her friend and biographer Joanne Grant wrote that "Baker, who always said that she would never be able to turn the other cheek, turned a blind eye to the prevalence of weapons. While she herself would rely on her fists … she had no qualms about target practice."[40]

Southern Conference Education Fund (1962–1967)

From 1962 to 1967, Baker worked on the staff of the Southern Conference Education Fund (SCEF). Its goal was to help black and white people work together for social justice; the interracial desegregation and human rights group was based in the South.[12] SCEF raised funds for black activists, lobbied for implementation of President John F. Kennedy's civil rights proposals, and tried to educate southern whites about the evils of racism.[41] Federal civil rights legislation was passed by Congress and signed by President Lyndon B. Johnson in 1964 and 1965, but implementation would take years.

In SCEF, Baker worked closely with her friend Anne Braden, a white, longtime anti-racist activist. Braden had been accused in the 1950s of being a communist by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). Baker believed that socialism was a humane alternative to capitalism, but she had mixed feelings about communism. She became a staunch defender of Anne Braden and her husband Carl; she encouraged SNCC to reject red-baiting because she viewed it as divisive and unfair. During the 1960s, Baker participated in a speaking tour and co-hosted several meetings on the importance of linking civil rights and civil liberties.[42]

Final years

In 1967 Ella Baker returned to New York City, where she continued her activism. She later collaborated with Arthur Kinoy and others to form the Mass Party Organizing Committee, a socialist organization. In 1972 she traveled the country in support of the "Free Angela" campaign, demanding the release of activist and writer Angela Davis, who had been arrested in California as a communist. Davis was acquitted after representing herself in court.

Baker also supported the Puerto Rican independence movement, and spoke out against apartheid in South Africa. Baker allied with a number of women's groups, including the Third World Women's Alliance and the Women's International League for Peace and Freedom. She remained an activist until her death in 1986 on her 83rd birthday.[43]

Ella Baker was a very private person. Many people close to her did not know that she was married for twenty years to T. J. "Bob" Roberts. Baker kept her own surname.[44] She left no diaries.

Representation in other media

  • The 1981 documentary Fundi: The Story of Ella Baker, directed by Joanne Grant, explored Baker's important role in the civil rights movement.[45]
  • Bernice Johnson Reagon wrote "Ella's Song," in Baker's honor, for the film Fundi.[46]
  • Several biographies have been written about Baker, including Barbara Ransby's Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (2003), published by the University of North Carolina Press.[47] Ransby is a historian and longtime activist.[48][49]

Legacy and honors

  • Baker received a Candace Award from the National Coalition of 100 Black Women in 1984.[50]
  • Her papers are held by the New York Public Library[51]
  • The Ella Baker Center for Human Rights, a non-profit strategy and action center based in Oakland, California, was founded in 1996 and named for her.
  • In 2009 Ella Baker was honored on a U.S. postage stamp.
  • In 2014 the University of California at Santa Barbara established a visiting professorship to honor Ella Baker.[52] Shana Redmond was chosen as the first Ella Baker Visiting Professor.[52]

Quotes

  • "Remember, we are not fighting for the freedom of the Negro alone, but for the freedom of the human spirit, a larger freedom that encompasses all mankind."[53]
  • "Until the killing of black men, black mothers' sons, becomes as important to the rest of the country as the killing of a white mother's son, we who believe in freedom cannot rest until this happens." (1964)[54]
  • "The development of the individual to his highest potential for the benefit of the group."[55]
  • "Strong people do not need strong leaders."[56]

See also

Notes

  1. 1 2 Pascal Robert, "Ella Baker and the Limits of Charismatic Masculinity", Huffington Post, 21 February 2013
  2. ↑ Ransby, Barbara (2003). Ella Baker & the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision. Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press. p. 6. ISBN 978-0807856161.
  3. ↑ "Books: Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement by Barbara Ransby", University of North Carolina Press website
  4. ↑ Ransby, p. 189
  5. 1 2 Moye, J. Todd (2013). Ella Baker : Community Organizer of the Civil Rights Movement. Lanham: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 978-1442215658.
  6. ↑ Ransby, p.59
  7. ↑ Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: a Radical Democratic Vision (University of North Carolina Press, 2003), pp. 13–63.
  8. ↑ Johnson, Cedric Kwesi. A Woman of Influence Archived 2008-01-29 at the Wayback Machine., In These Times. Retrieved February 18, 2008.
  9. ↑ Ransby, Barbara (1994). "Ella Josephine Baker". In Buhle, Mary Jo et al. The American Radical. Psychology Press. p. 290. ISBN 9780415908047.
  10. ↑ Rasnby, p. 9
  11. ↑ Ransby, Ella Baker, pp. 64–104.
  12. 1 2 3 Ransby, Ella Baker
  13. ↑ Ransby, Ella Baker, p. 137.
  14. ↑ Ransby, p. 139.
  15. ↑ Ransby, p. 136.
  16. ↑ Ransby, p. 148.
  17. ↑ Ransby, p. 137.
  18. ↑ Ransby, p. 138.
  19. ↑ Ransby, p. 150.
  20. ↑ Ransby, pp. 105–158.
  21. ↑ Ransby, p. 174.
  22. ↑ Ransby, "Ella Baker", p. 175.
  23. ↑ Ransby, "Ella Baker", p. 176.
  24. ↑ Ransby, pp. 170–175.
  25. ↑ Thomas F. Jackson, From Civil Rights to Human Rights: Martin Luther King, Jr., and the Struggle for Economic Justice (University of Pennsylvania Press, 2007), p. 104
  26. ↑ Women in the Civil Rights Movement, pp. 51-52.
  27. ↑ Women in the Civil Rights Movement, p. 51.
  28. ↑ Abu-Jamal, Mumia. We Want Freedom: A Life in the Black Panther Party. South End Press: Cambridge, 2004. p. 159
  29. ↑ Abu-Jamal, Mumia. We Want Freedom: A Life in the Black Panther Party. South End Press: Cambridge, 2004.
  30. ↑ Barbra Harris, "Ella Baker: Backbone of the Civil Rights Movement", Jackson Advocate News Service
  31. ↑ Ransby, p. 240.
  32. ↑ Ransby, "Ella Baker", p.239.
  33. ↑ Susan Gushee O'Malley, "Baker, Ella Josephine," American National Biography Online
  34. ↑ Women in the Civil Rights Movement, p. 2.
  35. ↑ Creating Black Americans, pp. 291.
  36. ↑ Creating Black Americans, p. 292.
  37. ↑ Ransby, pp. 239–272.
  38. ↑ Ransby, Ella Baker, pp. 330–344.
  39. ↑ Ransby, p. 347-351.
  40. ↑ Joanne Grant, Ella Baker: Freedom Bound (Wiley, 1999), 194-199
  41. ↑ Ransby, p. 231.
  42. ↑ Ransby, pp. 209–238, 273–328.
  43. ↑ Ransby, pp. 344–374.
  44. ↑ Ransby, pp. 101–103.
  45. ↑
  46. ↑ , WBAI.org
  47. ↑ Hill, Copyright 2016 The University of North Carolina at Chapel. "UNC Press - Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement". uncpress.unc.edu. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
  48. ↑ Ransby, Barbara (June 12, 2015). "Ella Taught Me: Shattering the Myth of the Leaderless Movement". Colorlines.
  49. ↑ Ransby, Barbara (2011-04-04). "Quilting a Movement". In These Times. ISSN 0160-5992. Retrieved 2016-02-22.
  50. ↑ "Candace Award Recipients 1982-1990, Page 1". National Coalition of 100 Black Women. Archived from the original on March 14, 2003.
  51. ↑ Ella Baker papers, 1926-1986, New York Public Library
  52. 1 2 Shana Redmonds Named to Professorship Honoring Civil Rights Activist Ella Baker : The Journal of Blacks in Higher Education
  53. ↑ Collins, Gail (September 22, 2007), "The Women Behind the Men", The New York Times
  54. ↑ Grant, Joanne, film, Fundi: The Story of Ella Baker (Icarus Films, 1981)
  55. ↑ The Eyes on the Prize Civil Rights Reader: documents, speeches and firsthand accounts from the Black Freedom Struggle, 1954–1990, ed. Clayborne Carson et al. (Penguin Books, 1991), p. 121.
  56. ↑ "Ella Baker's Life". Ella Baker School. Retrieved 24 February 2015.

References

  • S. G. O'Malley, "Baker, Ella Josephine," American National Biography Online (2000).
  • G. J. Barker Benfield and Catherine Clinton, eds., Portraits of American Women (1991).
  • Ellen Cantarow and Susan O'Malley, Moving the Mountain: Women Working for Social Change (1980).
  • Joanne Grant, Ella Baker: Freedom Bound (John Wiley & Sons, 1998).
  • Barbara Ransby, Ella Baker and the Black Freedom Movement: A Radical Democratic Vision (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 2003) ISBN 0-8078-2778-9
  • Henry Louis Gates and Evelyn Brooks Higginbotham, African American Lives(2004) ISBN 0-19-516024-X

Further reading

  • Moye, J. Todd (2013). Ella Baker : community organizer of the civil rights movement. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. ISBN 9781442215665.
  • Swallow, Pamela Curtis (2014). The remarkable life and career of Ellen Swallow Richards : pioneer in science and technology. Hoboken, New Jersey : Wiley : TMS, The Minerals, Metals & Materials Society. ISBN 9781118923856.
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