Canadian values

Canadian values are the commonly shared ethical and human values of Canadians.[1] The major political parties have claimed explicitly that they uphold these values, but use generalities to specify them. Justin Trudeau after taking office as Prime Minister in 2015 tried to define what it means to be Canadian, saying that Canada lacks a core identity but does have shared values:

There is no core identity, no mainstream in Canada....There are shared values — openness, respect, compassion, willingness to work hard, to be there for each other, to search for equality and justice. Those qualities are what make us the first postnational state.[2]

Numerous scholars have tried to identify, measure and compare them with other countries. Baer et al. argue that, "Questions of national character and regional culture have long been of interest to both Canadian and American social scientists. The Canadian literature has focussed largely on historical and structural reasons for regional distinctiveness and the possible role of regionalism in undermining a truly national Canadian character or ethos."[3] However, there are also critics who say that such a task is practically impossible.[4]

International comparisons

When he began his study of Canada in the late 1940s, American sociologist Seymour Martin Lipset assumed Canadian and American values were practically identical. Further work led him to discover and to explore the differences. By 1968 he concluded:

Canadian values fall somewhere between those of Britain and the United States, rather than being almost identical with those of the United States, as I had assumed.[5]

Lipset offered some theories of where the two societies differ, and why. That stimulated a large body of scholarship, with other scholars offering their own explanations and criticizing his.[6] As a result, numerous academic studies compare Canadian values and beliefs with those of the United States, and sometimes they add in other countries as well. Lipset has explained his social science methodology:

my conclusions [are] that the variations in North American history and social and geographic environments gave rise to two peoples who differ in significant ways from each other, although as I have repeatedly stressed, they are more similar than different, particularly in comparison with other nations. My chief methodological argument for focusing on Canada in order to learn about the United States is precisely that the two nations have so much in common. Focusing on small differences between countries which are alike can be more fruitful for understanding cultural effects than on large ones among highly similar nations. The former permits holding constant many variables, which the units have in common.[7]

Lipset presented numerous political and economic values on which he scored the U.S. as high and Canada as low. These included: individualism and competitiveness, entrepreneurship and high risk-taking, utopian moralism, inclination to political crusades, populist or anti-establishment and anti-elite tendencies, a God-and-country nationalism, and intolerance for ideological nonconformity.[8]

Historical origins: Revolution and counterrevolution

Lipset argues that:

Many writers seeking to account for value differences between the United States and Canada suggest that they stem in large part from the revolutionary origins of the United States and the counterrevolutionary history of Canada…. The Loyalist emigrés from the American Revolution and Canada's subsequent repeatedly aroused fears of United States encroachment fostered the institutionalization of a counterrevolutionary or conservative ethos.[9][10]

Canadian historian Arthur R. M. Lower argues:

in its new wilderness home and its new aspect of British North Americanism, colonial Toryism made its second attempt to erect on American soil a copy of the English social edifice. From one point of view this is the most significant thing about the Loyalist movement; it withdrew a class concept of life from the south, moved it up north, and gave it a second chance.[11]

Religious factors

Religious belief and behavior are possible candidates in searching for the sources of values. Lipset looked to religion as one of the causes of differentiation compared to the United States. He stated:

America remains under the strong influence of the Protestant sects. Its northern neighbor adheres to two churches, Catholic and Anglican, and an ecumenical Protestant denomination (the United Church of Canada) that has moved far from the sectarian origins of its component units toward churchlike communitarian values. The overwhelming majority of Canadians (eighty-seven percent) belong to these three mainline denominations. Conservative evangelicals--groups of Baptists, Nazarenes, Pentecostals, Adventists, and so on--constitute only seven percent of Canadians....Clearly, the different religious traditions of the two countries help to explain much of their varying secular behavior and belief.[12]

Hoover and Reimer agree and update Lipset with a plethora of recent survey statistics, while noting that the differences narrowed since 1990, especially in the Prairie provinces. They stress that in the early 21st century 87% of Canadians belonged to cooperative churches, whereas 20% of Americans were Baptists and many more were evangelicals, fundamentalists or members of new religions who tended to behave in a more sectarian fashion; these elements, they argue, made for a higher level of religious and political conservatism and intolerance in the U.S.[13]

Regionalism

Baer, Grabb and Johnston argue that:

The pattern of regional cultures is not significantly affected or defined by the national border separating Canada and the United States. Instead...with a few exceptions, the map of regional cultures involves three major segments: a relatively left-liberal Quebec, a more conservative Southern United States, and a comparatively moderate sector that largely encompasses the remainder of the two countries.[1]

Description

A 2013 Statistics Canada survey found that an "overwhelming majority" of Canadians shared the values of human rights (with 92% of respondents agreeing that they are a shared Canadian value), respect for the law (92%) and gender equality (91%). There was considerably less agreement among Canadians over whether ethnic and cultural diversity, linguistic duality, and respect for aboriginal culture were also shared Canadian values.[14]

According to the Canadian Index of Well Being at the University of Waterloo, Canadian values include:

  • fairness
  • inclusion
  • democracy
  • economic security
  • safety
  • sustainability
  • diversity
  • equity
  • health[15]

A survey for Citizen's Forum on Canada's Future, 1991 identified the following values: [16]

  • Equality and fairness.
  • Consultation and dialogue.
  • Accommodation and tolerance.
  • Diversity.
  • Patriotism.[17]
  • Freedom, Peace and Nonviolent change.

Monarchy

Michael Ignatieff, the Liberal leader in 2009-11, in 2004 rooted Canadian values in a historic loyalty to the Crown.[18] Likewise the Conservative Party in 2009 pointed to support for the monarchy as a core Canadian value.[19]

Shaping foreign policy

John Diefenbaker, the Conservative Prime Minister 1957-63, was reluctant to use Canadian values as a criterion for deciding on foreign policies. For example, Jason Zorbas argues that human rights abuses in Argentina and Brazil did not affect relations with those countries.[20]

However his successor, Lester Pearson, the Liberal Prime Minister (1963–68), called in 1967 for a foreign policy "based on Canadian considerations, Canadian values and Canadian interests."[21]

Under Conservative Brian Mulroney, Prime Minister 1984 to 1993, according to scholar Edward Akuffo:

Canadian foreign policy witnessed the integration of development and security issues and the foreign policy agenda when Canada participated in development projects as well as in peacekeeping operations....Mulroney's policy initiatives...[marked] the critical juncture for the revamping of 'Canada's moral identity' after the Cold War....The concept of Canada's moral identity is consistent with what others call the 'branding of Canada' in the international arena through the projection of Canadian values and culture.[22]

Jean Chrétien, the Liberal Prime Minister (1993-2003), showed little interest in foreign policy. Political scientists Patrick James, Nelson Michaud and Marc J. O'Reilly argue that, "This plain-speaking politician built his career on defending traditional Canadian values and promoting middle-class policies."[23]

Egalitarianism, social equality, and peace

While Liberal and Conservative politicians claimed to represent Canadian values, so too did socialists and forces on the left. Ian MacKay argues that, thanks to the long-term political impact of "Rebels, Reds, and Radicals", and allied leftist political elements, "egalitarianism, social equality, and peace... are now often simply referred to...as 'Canadian values.'"[24]

Education

Historic educational ideals in Canada, contrasted to the United States, have been more elitist, with an emphasis on training church and political elites along British lines.[25][26] In 1960, for example, 9.2 percent of Canadians aged 20 to 24 were enrolled in higher education, compared to 30.2 percent in the United States. Even at the secondary level, enrollments were higher in the United States.[27] According to surveys in the late 1950s of citizens and educators by Lawrence Downey:

Canadians, as a group, assigned considerably higher priority than did Americans to knowledge, scholarly attitudes, creative skills, aesthetic appreciation, and morality, as outcomes of schooling. Americans emphasized physical development, citizenship, patriotism, social skills, and family living much more than did Canadians.[28]

The United States has long emphasized vocational, technical and professional education, while the Canadian schools resist their inclusion.[29] Ivor F. Goodson and Ian R. Dowbiggin have explored the battle over vocational education in London, Ontario, in the 1900-1930 era, a time when American cities were rapidly expanding their vocational offerings. The London Technical and Commercial High School came under heavy attack from the city's social and business elite, which saw the school as a threat to the budget of the city's only academic high school, London Collegiate Institute.[30]

Public universities

Most post-secondary institutions in Canada are public universities which means they are funded by the provincial government, but they are not owned by the provinces. In contrast, public universities in the United States are owned and controlled by state governments, and there are many private universities, including such schools as Harvard, Yale, Princeton, Chicago and Stanford.[31]

Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms

The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms, heavily promoted by Prime Minister Pierre Trudeau, was adopted in 1982. The Charter guarantees certain political rights to Canadian citizens and civil rights of everyone in Canada from the policies and actions of all areas and levels of the government. It is designed to unify Canadians around a set of principles that embody those rights. Even before he entered politics, Trudeau had developed his concept of the charter primarily as an expression of common Canadian values.[32] Trudeau said that thanks to the Charter, Canada itself could now be defined:

Canada is a society where all people are equal and where they share some fundamental values based upon freedom. The search for this Canadian identity, as much as my philosophical views, had led me to insist on the charter.[33]

Multiculturalism

The enormous ethnic variety of the population of Canada in recent decades has led to an emphasis on "multiculturalism." Sociologist N. M. Sussman says, "The tenets of this concept permitted and subtly encouraged the private maintenance of ethnic values while simultaneously insisting on minimal public adherence to Canadian behaviors and to Canadian values." As result, immigrants to Canada are more likely to maintain the values and attitudes of both the home and of the host culture, compared to similar immigrants to Australia, the United Kingdom, or the United States.[34]

Andrew Griffith argues that, "89 percent of Canadians believe that foreign-born Canadians are just as likely to be good citizens as those born in Canada....But Canadians clearly view multiculturalism in an integrative sense, with an expectation that new arrivals will adopt Canadian values and attitudes." Griffith adds that, "There are virtually no differences between Canadian-born and foreign-born with respect to agreement to abide by Canadian values (70 and 68 percent, respectively)."[35]

Gender equality and the role of women

In 2016, the workforce participation rate for Canadian women was 70.2% (78.4% for males).[36]

Some believe that Elsie MacGill defined Canadian values. She was a pioneer for women in engineering and business, a war hero and a role model.[37]

Section 15 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex.

In contrast, in the United States the Equal Rights Amendment was never ratified. Section 1 of that amendment would have granted "Equality of rights under the law shall not be denied or abridged by the United States or by any State on account of sex."

Citing Canadian values, Canadian courts have rejected assertions that violence against women is in some circumstances acceptable because of one's religious and cultural beliefs. In the R v. Humaid decision, Justice Rutherford of the Ontario Superior Court of Justice stated:

Wife-murder may seem especially repugnant to our Canadian value fabric when cultural considerations that are contrary to our Canadian values figure prominently. However it must be borne in mind here that the Court of Appeal found "no air of reality" to the applicant's claim that religious and cultural beliefs resulted in his being severely provoked by what his wife said to him.[38]

Publicly funded health care

Universal access to publicly funded health services "is often considered by Canadians as a fundamental value that ensures national health care insurance for everyone wherever they live in the country." [39] Survey research in the 1990s showed that:

When asked, "What makes you most proud of Canada?" one in three Canadians volunteered, "Our health-care system." When asked a reversed version of the American health-care scenario, "Would you support political union [with the U.S.] if it meant a private health-care system?" The reply was a resounding 'no'.[40]

Barbaric Cultural Practices issue

Certain cultural practices were called "Barbaric" and made illegal in 2015, when the Zero Tolerance for Barbaric Cultural Practices Act was enacted by the Canadian federal government.[41][42][43]

In the 2015 general election Conservatives pitched their policy "as an issue of Canadian values....The Conservatives expanded the issue, announcing a proposed RCMP hotline that would allow Canadians to report the existence of 'barbaric cultural practices' in the country." These targeted practices included polygamy, forced marriage and early marriage (i.e. child marriage).[44]

The 2015 act criminalizes certain conduct related to early and forced marriage ceremonies, including the act of removing a child from Canada for the purpose of such marriages.[45]

Memorial to the Victims of Communism – Canada, a Land of Refuge

The Memorial to the Victims of Communism – Canada, a Land of Refuge is located in Ottawa. It is being constructed to bring the suffering of "the millions of victims Communism" into the public's consciousness. Many of the victims fled to Canada "seeking peace, order, democracy, and liberty." [46] The memorial is expected to be completed in 2018.

According to Ms. Mélanie Joly, the Minister of Canadian Heritage, "Commemorative monuments play a key role in reflecting the character, identity, history and values of Canadians".[47] She complained that the previous Harper government had made the project too controversial. Her new Liberal government has moved the site and cut its budget.[48]

Screening immigrants for anti-Canadian values

Canadian politicians have proposed rejecting immigrants who have anti-Canadian values such as:

  • intolerance toward other religions, cultures, genders, and sexual orientations
  • reluctance to embrace Canadian freedoms[49]

Kellie Leitch, a candidate for leadership candidate for the Conservative Party of Canada, is among the proponents of this type of screening. [49]

In 2016, an Environics public opinion poll found that 54 per cent of Canadians agree that "there are too many immigrants coming into this country who are not adopting Canadian values." [50][51]

Province of Quebec

Bill 101 - Charter of the French Language

The Charter of the French Language is Quebec legislation that makes French the official language of Quebec.[52] Among other things, the Charter requires:

  • all administrative government documents to be drafted and published in French
  • the language of instruction from kindergarten to secondary school to be French

Quebec Charter of Values

The Quebec Charter of Values is legislation that was proposed in the Quebec legislature in 2013 but which was not enacted into law.[53] It would ban public sector employees from wearing conspicuous religious symbols. Article 5 in Chapter II states:

In the exercise of their functions, personnel members of public bodies must not wear objects such as headgear, clothing, jewelry or other adornments which, by their conspicuous nature, overtly indicate a religious affiliation.[54]

Justin Trudeau has been a champion of the "Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms"; he opposed the "Quebec Charter of Values." He stated: "Prohibiting someone from wearing a hijab or a kippah is not compatible with Quebec and Canadian values."[55]

Distinct society

Proposed changes to the Canadian Constitution included adding the phrase "distinct society" to the Constitution Act, 1867 to recognizes the uniqueness of Quebec as compared with the rest of Canada.[56][57]

Controversy

Defining Canadian values is problematic if the goal is to identify values that are universally held.

According to Canadian Broadcasting Corporation reporter Neil Macdonald, there are "precious few notions that can accurately be described as universally held Canadian values."[58]

According to journalist Lysiane Gagnon, Canadians "don't share common values." She notes that while many ideas - such as medicare, bilingualism, and multiculturalism - are sometimes characterized as Canadian values, "many Canadians are against all or some of these."[59]

Canadian sociologist Vic Satzewich has argued that "coming up with a universal set of our nation's values would be impossible."[60]

The Institute for Canadian Values sponsored advertisements against the teaching of certain sexual education topics in the Ontario school curriculum and discriminated against transsexual, transgender, and intersex persons. The advertisements were controversial and quickly discontinued.[61]

Nationalism and its potential adverse impact on foreign policy

Scholars have asked whether shared values underpin national identity.[62] Denis Stairs links the concept of Canadian values with nationalism. Stairs, the McCulloch Professor in Political Science at Dalhousie University, has argued that there is indeed an intense widespread belief in the existence of Canadian values, but says that belief can itself be harmful. He contends that:

[Canadians typically] think of themselves not as others are, but as morally superior. They believe, in particular, that they subscribe to a distinctive set of values - Canadian values - and that those values are special in the sense of being unusually virtuous. A prominent effect of that belief is that it has put them in serious danger of misunderstanding the true origins of their behaviour, on the one hand, and of doing significant damage to the effectiveness of their diplomacy, both next door and overseas, on the other.[63]

Stairs also argues that, "first billing is usually given in received lists of Canadian values to 'multiculturalism'...as a means of challenging the premises of nationalism in Quebec."[64]

See also

References

  1. 1 2 Douglas Baer, Edward Grabb, and William Johnston, "National character, regional culture, and the values of Canadians and Americans." Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie 30.1 (1993): 13-36.
  2. ↑ Quoted in Guy Lawson, "Trudeau's Canada, Again: With support from President Obama and the legacy of his father on his side, Justin Trudeau sets out to redefine what it means to be Canadian," New York Times Dec. 8, 2015
  3. ↑ Baer, Grabb, and Johnston, "National character, regional culture, and the values of Canadians and Americans." (1993) p 13.
  4. ↑ Neil Macdonald (September 13, 2016). "A very short list of Canadian values: Neil Macdonald". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  5. ↑ S. M. Lipset, Agrarian Socialism: The Cooperative Commonwealth Federation in Saskatchewan, a Study in Political Sociology (1950; revised edition 1968) p xv
  6. ↑ Doug Baer, et al. "The values of Canadians and Americans: A critical analysis and reassessment." Social Forces 68.3 (1990): 693-713.
  7. ↑ Lipset, "Defining Moments and Recurring Myths: A Reply" Canadian Review of Sociology & Anthropology (2001) 38#1 pp 97-100.
  8. ↑ Seymour M. Lipset, "The Canadian Identity," International Journal of Canadian Studies (2006), Issue 33, pp 83-98.
  9. ↑ S.M. Lipset, Revolution and Counterrevolution: Change and persistence in social structures (2nd ed, 1970) p. 55.
  10. ↑ J.M.S. Careless, Canada: A story of challenge (Cambridge UP, 1963), pp 111-13.
  11. ↑ A.R.M. Lower, From Colony to Nation (1946), p 114.
  12. ↑ Lipset, Continental Divide (1990) PP 88-89.
  13. ↑ Dennis R. Hoover and Samuel H. Reimer. "Things That Make for a Peaceable Kingdom: An Overview of Christianity and 'Cooperativeness' across the Continental Divide." Journal of Ecumenical Studies 41.2 (2004): 205.
  14. ↑ Canada, Government of Canada, Statistics. "Canadian Identity, 2013".
  15. ↑ "Reflecting Canadian values". Canadian Index of Well Being. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  16. ↑ Diane Symbaluk; Tami Bereska. Sociology in Action, Canadian Edition, 2nd ed. Nelson Education. pp. 87–88. ISBN 978-0-17-672841-0.
  17. ↑ Nicholas Kohler, “Canadians Feel like They’re on Top of the World,” Macleans.ca, retrieved October 13, 2017.
  18. ↑ D. Michael Jackson (2013). The Crown and Canadian Federalism. Dundurn. pp. 18–19.
  19. ↑ Shibao Guo; Lloyd Wong (2015). Revisiting Multiculturalism in Canada: Theories, Policies and Debates. SensePublishers. p. 63.
  20. ↑ Jason Gregory Zorbas (2011). Diefenbaker and Latin America: The Pursuit of Canadian Autonomy. Cambridge Scholars Publishing. p. 115.
  21. ↑ Robert A. Spencer (1958). Canadian Foreign Policy, Conservative Style. Canadian Institute of International Affairs. p. 14.
  22. ↑ Edward Ansah Akuffo (2016). Canadian Foreign Policy in Africa: Regional Approaches to Peace, Security, and Development. Taylor & Francis. p. 41.
  23. ↑ Patrick James et al. eds. (2006). Handbook of Canadian Foreign Policy. Books. p. 514.
  24. ↑ Ian McKay (2005). Rebels, Reds, Radicals: Rethinking Canada's Left History. Between The Lines. p. 181.
  25. ↑ Seymour Martin Lipset, Revolution and Counterrevolution (2nd ed, 1970) pp 40-44
  26. ↑ Craig Crawford and James Curtis. "English Canadian-American differences in value orientations: Survey comparisons bearing on Lipset's thesis." Studies in Comparative International Development 14.3-4 (1979): 23-44.
  27. ↑ Richard A. Wanner, "Educational inequality: Trends in twentieth-century Canada and the United States." Comparative Social Research 9.1 (1986): 986+
  28. ↑ Lawrence William Downey, The task of public education: The perceptions of people (Midwest Administration Center, University of Chicago, 1960), Quoted in Lipset, Revolution and Counterrevolution, p 42.
  29. ↑ Lipset, Revolution and Counterrevolution p 41
  30. ↑ Ivor F. Goodson and Ian R. Dowbiggin, "Vocational education and school reform: the case of the London (Canada) Technical School, 1900-1930" History of Education Review (1991) 20#1: 39–60.
  31. ↑ Theresa Shanahan; et al. (2016). The Handbook of Canadian Higher Education. MQUP. pp. 49–52.
  32. ↑ Gerald Kernerman; Philip Resnick (2005). Insiders and Outsiders: Alan Cairns and the Reshaping of Canadian Citizenship. UBC Press. p. 171.
  33. ↑ Pierre Elliott Trudeau (1993). Memoirs. McClelland & Stewart. p. 323.
  34. ↑ Chan Kwok-bun (2012). International Handbook of Chinese Families. Springer. p. 59.
  35. ↑ Andrew Griffith (2015). Multiculturalism In Canada: Evidence and Anecdote. p. 50.
  36. ↑ "27th Actuarial Report on the Canada Pension Plan" (PDF). Government of Canada. p. 18. Retrieved 2 January 2017.
  37. ↑ Cristina Amon; Mary Wells; Kim Woodhouse (December 6, 2016). "MacGill defined Canadian values". The Whig. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  38. ↑ "Queen v Adi Abdel Humaid". paragraphs 23 and 24: Ontario Superior Court of Justice. August 25, 2015. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
  39. ↑ "The Health of Canadians – The Federal Role". 17.1 Universality: Parliament of Canada. Retrieved 5 January 2017.
  40. ↑ Ronald F. Inglehart; et al. (1996). The North American Trajectory: Cultural, Economic, and Political Ties Between the United States, Canada, and Mexico. Transaction Publishers. p. 146.
  41. ↑ "Barbaric Cultural Practices Act". Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  42. ↑ Ashley Csanady (June 17, 2015). "'Barbaric Cultural Practices' bill to criminalize forced marriage, tackle 'honour killings' passes final vote". National Post. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  43. ↑ "Zero Tolerance for Barbaric Cultural Practices Act". Government of Canada. Retrieved 1 January 2017.
  44. ↑ Jon H. Pammett; Christopher Dornan (2016). The Canadian Federal Election of 2015. Dundurn. p. 220.
  45. ↑ "Archived - Zero Tolerance for Barbaric Cultural Practices Act receives Royal Assent - Canada News Centre". News.gc.ca. Retrieved 2017-01-01.
  46. ↑ "Memorial to the Victims of Communism". Retrieved 15 January 2017.
  47. ↑ "Minister Joly Launches Public Consultations on the Memorial to the Victims of Communism – Canada A Land of Refuge". Government of Canada. Archived from the original on 2016-02-03. Retrieved 15 January 2017.
  48. ↑ Don Butler, "Victims of communism memorial to be moved, Joly announces," 00 Ottawa Citizen December 17, 2015
  49. 1 2 Bruce Campion-Smith (September 10, 2016). "Canadians favour screening would-be immigrants for 'anti-Canadian' values, poll shows". Toronto Star. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  50. ↑ "Jedwab: Politicians should show some honesty on 'Canadian values' pitch". Ottawa Citizen. December 11, 2016. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  51. ↑ Angus Reid (October 4, 2016). "Canadians aren't as accepting as we think — and we can't ignore it, writes Angus Reid". Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. p. English. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  52. ↑ Richard Y. Bourhis, ed., Conflict and Language Planning in Quebec (1984).
  53. ↑ Charles Tessier and Éric Montigny. "Untangling myths and facts: Who supported the Québec Charter of Values?" French Politics 14.2 (2016): 272-285.
  54. ↑ Trygve Ugland, "The Quebec Charter of Values: A Solution in Search of Problems." Journal of Eastern Townships Studies 42 (2014): 11+ online
  55. ↑ Huguette Young (2016). Justin Trudeau: The Natural Heir. Dundurn. p. 129.
  56. ↑ Michael Burgess, "Ethnicity, nationalism and identity in Canada‐Quebec relations: The case of Quebec's 'distinct society'." Journal of Commonwealth & Comparative Politics 34.2 (1996): 46-64.
  57. ↑ Richard Johnston and Andre Blais. "Meech Lake and Mass Politics: The'Distinct Society'Clause." Canadian Public Policy/Analyse de Politiques (1988): S25-S42. online
  58. ↑ "A very short list of Canadian values: Neil Macdonald".
  59. ↑ Gagnon, Lysiane. "Citizenship Rules for Homebodies." The Globe and Mail, Dec 19, 1998.
  60. ↑ "Kellie Leitch misses the point about immigration".
  61. ↑ Heather Shipley, "Queering Institutions?: Sexual Identity in Public Education in a Canadian Context." Feminist Teacher 23.3 (2013): 196-210.
  62. ↑ Alisa Henderson and Nicola McEwen. "Do shared values underpin national identity? Examining the role of values in national identity in Canada and the United Kingdom." National Identities 7.2 (2005): 173-191.
  63. ↑ Denis Stairs, "Myths, Morals, and Reality in Canadian Foreign Policy" International Journal 58#2 (2003) pp. 239-256 in JSTOR
  64. ↑ Stairs, "Myths, morals, and reality in Canadian foreign policy," p 247

Further reading

  • Alston, Jon P., Theresa M. Morris, and Arnold Vedlitz. "Comparing Canadian and American values: New evidence from national surveys." American Review of Canadian Studies 26.3 (1996): 301-314.
  • Baer, Doug, et al. "The values of Canadians and Americans: A critical analysis and reassessment." Social Forces 68.3 (1990): 693-713.
  • Baer, Douglas, Edward Grabb, and William Johnston. "National character, regional culture, and the values of Canadians and Americans." Canadian Review of Sociology/Revue canadienne de sociologie 30.1 (1993): 13-36.
  • Baer, Douglas, et al. "Respect for authority in Canada, the United States, Great Britain and Australia." Sociological Focus 28.2 (1995): 177-195.
  • Basil, Debra Z. "Charitable donations as a reflection of national values: An exploratory comparison of Canada and the United States." Journal of Nonprofit & Public Sector Marketing 18.1 (2007): 1-19.
  • Hoover, Dennis R., and Samuel H. Reimer. "Things That Make for a Peaceable Kingdom: An Overview of Christianity and 'Cooperativeness' across the Continental Divide." Journal of Ecumenical Studies 41.2 (2004): 205+ online
  • Hoover, Dennis R. et al. "Evangelical Protestantism Meets the Continental Divide: Moral and Economic Conservatism in the United States and Canada," Political Research Quarterly 55#3 (June, 2002): 351-374.
  • Lipset, S.M. Continental divide: The values and institutions of the United States and Canada (1991).
  • Katchanovski, Ivan, Neil Nevitte, and Stanley Rothman. "Race, Gender, and Affirmative Action Attitudes in American and Canadian Universities." The Canadian Journal of Higher Education 45.4 (2015): 18.
  • Moon, C. David, Nicholas P. Lovrich Jr, and John C. Pierce. "Political culture in Canada and the United States: comparing social trust, self-esteem, and political liberalism in major Canadian and American Cities." Social science quarterly (2000): 826-836. in jSTOR
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.