2020 in science

A number of significant scientific events have occured or are scheduled to occur in 2020.

Years in science: 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
Centuries: 20th century · 21st century · 22nd century
Decades: 1990s 2000s 2010s 2020s 2030s 2040s 2050s
Years: 2017 2018 2019 2020 2021 2022 2023
List of years in science (table)

Events

January
6 January: Physicians issue recommendations for testosterone treatment in adult men with age-related Low T and includes treatment only if there is a notable improvement of sexual dysfunction.[1][2]
6 January: Astronomers report the detection of TOI 700 d, the first Earth-sized exoplanet in the habitable zone discovered by the Transiting Exoplanet Survey Satellite (TESS).[10] The image shows concept art.
  • 7 January
  • 8 January
  • 10 January – Scientists report the discovery of the oldest known occurrence of an animal digestive tract, found in fossils, unearthed near Pahrump, Nevada, of Cloudinidae, an extinct wormlike organism that lived during the late Ediacaran period about 550 million years ago.[28][29]
  • 11 January – After a three-year trial that included testing, commissioning, calibrations and operations authorities declare that China's FAST telescope – the world's largest filled-aperture radio telescope – is starting formal operations after it passed its national acceptance test.[30][31]
16 January: Scientists report that the extinction of the dinosaurs about 66 million years ago was mostly a result of a meteorite impact and not volcanism.[32][33]
13 January: scientists report that the oldest material on Earth found so far are Murchison meteorite particles that have been determined to be 7 billion years old, billions of years older than the 4.54 billion years age of the Earth.[34]
21 January: Researchers present evidence that the platypus is at risk of extinction.[50]
31 January: Scientists and journalists report overviews of the coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) COVID-19 pandemic.[67][68][69]
  • 22 January – China releases a large amount of data and high-resolution images from the lander and rover of the Chang'e 4 mission which has been studying the far side of the Moon since 3 January 2019.[70]
  • 23 January
  • 24 January – For the first time, scientists discover mitochondria existing in human blood that are not part of larger cells.[75][76][77]
  • 27 January
  • 28 January – A new study finds that many of Earth's biodiverse ecosystems are in danger of collapse. The study mapped over 100 high-risk ecosystems and habitats in specific locations, and noted the highly detrimental patterns in each one that result from climate change and local human activities.[85][86][87]
  • 31 January – Scientists and journalists report overviews of the coronavirus (SARS-CoV-2) COVID-19 pandemic, including the possible infectability, mortality rate, incubation time, worldwide ability to contain the infection, and estimated time for a vaccine (along with a comparison with other similar outbreaks).[67][68][69]

February
6 February: Meteorologists report a record high temperature of 18.3 °C (64.9 °F) on the northern tip of Antarctica.[88] The image shows the warming trend 1957 to 2006.
  • 3 February – Astronomers report that, for the first time, repeating pulses from a source of fast radio bursts (FRB)s seem to have a regular periodicity, particularly FRB 180916, about 500 million light years from Earth, which have been found to have a 16.35+0.18
    −0.18    -day pulse cycle.[89][90][91]
  • 4 February – The drugs remdesivir and chloroquine are shown to effectively inhibit SARS-CoV-2 in vitro.[92][93]
  • 5 February
    • Scientists of the International Muon Ionization Cooling Experiment announce that they have found a way to squeeze the muons of a muon beam into a smaller volume. The muons are cooled into a denser cloud by being directed through specially designed energy-absorbing materials while the beam is tightly focused by powerful superconducting magnetic lenses and can then be accelerated by a normal particle accelerator in a precise direction. This technique may allow the construction of a muon collider. Cooling the muons beams is crucial to achieve a high collision rate.[94][95][96]
    • In a study researchers assess that Extant-Native Trophic (ENT), a trophic rewilding approach which restores lost species to ecosystems, can help mitigate climate change. This form of rewilding would restore large-bodied herbivore and carnivore guilds which could reduce methane emissions and according to the study could be an "important complementary strategy to natural climate solutions to ensure other nature-based benefits to biodiversity conservation and society are also delivered".[97][98]
    • Scientists develop a CRISPR-Cas12a-based gene editing system that can probe and control several genes at once and can implement logic gating to e.g. detect cancer cells and execute therapeutic immunomodulatory responses.[99][100]
    • Scientists report that 70 million years ago Earth rotated 372 times a year, with a day lasting a half an hour less than today after studying the growth rings of fossilized mollusk shells from the late Cretaceous.[101][102] The slowdown is due to the tidal effects the Moon has on Earth's rotation.
  • 6 February – A record-breaking 18.3 °C (64.9 °F) temperature is recorded at an Argentine weather base on the northern tip of Antarctica, according to the World Meteorological Organization (WMO). The previous record was 17.5 °C (63.5 °F) in March 2015.[88] On February 9 another Antarctic weather research station, located on Seymour Island registered a temperature of 20.75 Celsius, considered to be a "likely record" and requiring some open questions to be answered before being confirmed.[103]
12 February: NASA releases an improved version of the Pale Blue Dot image taken of Earth 6 billion km away by the Voyager 1 space probe on 14 Feb 1990.[104]
  • 10 February
    • NASA announces preliminary approval of a sample-return mission to the planet Mars.[105][106]
    • Scientists of NASA's Arctic Boreal Vulnerability Experiment (ABoVE) publish conclusions from mapped methane hotspots of an Arctic 30,000‐km² study domain. They used the AVIRIS—NG instrument on flights over the Arctic to map the hotspots and quantified a power law dependence of the emissions on distance to nearest standing water.[107][108]
    • Scientists report that bats' heightened immune responses to their viruses, of which SARS-CoV-2 is a likely example, can facilitate the evolution of rapidly-replicating viruses that likely cause enhanced virulence following emergence into secondary hosts with other immune systems such as humans. The researchers used a combination of in vitro experimentation and within-host modeling to explore the impact of the previously already well-known unique bat immunity on virus dynamics.[109][110]
  • 11 February
    • Quantum engineers report that they have created artificial atoms in silicon quantum dots for quantum computing and that artificial atoms with a higher number of electrons can be more stable qubits than previously thought possible. Enabling silicon-based quantum computers may make it possible to reuse of manufacturing technology of "classical" modern-day computer chips among other advantages.[111][112]
    • Researchers report that their projections show that the number of compound hot extremes that combine daytime and nighttime heat could quadruple by 2100 in the Northern Hemisphere even if emissions are brought down to meet the Paris climate deal goals.[113][114]
  • 12 February
13 February: NASA reports more support for finding complex organic compounds on 486958 Arrokoth, a Kuiper Belt object visited by the New Horizons space probe on 1 Jan 2019.[117][118][119]
  • Researchers publish their discovery of a new class of glycopeptide antibiotics with a novel mode of action — the known antibiotic complestatin and the newly discovered corbomycin. These have low levels of resistance development, can be capable of treating drug-resistant infections and were discovered using a methodology that analyses the phylogeny of genes and lack of known resistance determinants.[120][121]
  • Scientists publish a study which shows that present-day west Africans trace a substantial proportions of up to almost a fifth of their genetic ancestry to an extinct archaic human species - a ghost population. They estimate that the species split from the ancestors of Neanderthals and modern humans between 360,000 and 1 million years ago and that interbreeding occurred at some point in the past 124,000 years and approximately 43,000 years ago.[122][123][124]
  • 13 February – NASA publishes studies that investigate 486958 Arrokoth's shape and its formation and evolution as well as its age, composition, geology and geophysics. Arrokoth is a trans-Neptunian object in the Kuiper Belt that the New Horizons space probe visited during a flyby on 1 January 2019. They find that its shape was caused by a gentle, low-speed merger in the early Solar System.[117][118][119] They also provide further support for the presence of a mixture of organic compounds called tholins and find that it appears to be a classical Kuiper belt object comparable to others and that it hence can likely be used to understand the cold classical belt as a whole.[125][126]
  • 14 February
    • Astronomers report that the brightness of the star Betelgeuse had not only dropped by a factor of approximately 2.5, from magnitude 0.5 to 1.5, but now the star may no longer be round. Nonetheless, astronomers believe a supernova event may not be imminent.[127][128]
    • Quantum physicists develop a novel single-photon source which may allow to bridge semiconductor-based quantum-computers that use photons by converting the state of an electron spin to the polarisation of a photon. They show that they can generate a single photon in a controlled way without the need for randomly formed quantum dots or structural defects in a diamonds.[129][130]
    • A research team announces the discovery of a new electronic state of matter. They show that when electrons can be made to attract one another, they can form sets of two to five electrons that behave like new types of particles.[131][132]
    • The Breakthrough Listen project for the search for extraterrestrial intelligence (SETI) announces the release of nearly 2 petabytes of data after a petabyte of radio and optical telescope data was released in June 2019. It comes from a survey of the radio spectrum between 1 and 12 gigahertz (GHz) and is the largest release of SETI data in the history of the field.[133][134]
    • Scientists report the development of a relatively long-lasting and economical catalyst "Nanocatalysts on Single Crystal Edges" that recycles the greenhouse gases carbon dioxide and methane into hydrogen and carbon monoxide that can e.g. be used in fuels.[135][136]
18 February: Scientists report an unstable western flank of the Tungurahua volcano in Ecuador that may result in a large landslide.[137][138][139]
  • 17 February – Astronomers report, for the first time, the detection of radio waves related to an exoplanet: in this instance, the radio waves may have resulted from the interaction between the red dwarf star, GJ 1151 and a "short-period terrestrial-mass planet".[140][141][142]
  • 18 February – Scientists report warning signs of flank instability of the Ecuadorian Tungurahua volcano. A potential collapse of the western flank could result in a large landslide.[137][138][139]
  • 19 February
  • 20 February – Scientists use the world's most powerful supercomputer, SUMMIT, to screen molecules which bind to either SARS-CoV-2's spike protein or to its human ACE2 interface and publish their results, including a ranked list of compounds which may be repurposed to attenuate COVID-19, in a preprint.[148][149]
  • 22 February
    • Astronomers report that the star Betelgeuse, that has been undergoing a substantial decrease in brightness since October 2019, may have stopped dimming, and may now be beginning to again brighten, all but ending the current dimming episode.[150] Further studies of the star, reported on 24 February 2020, found no significant change in the infrared over the last 50 years, and seems unrelated to the recent visual fading, suggesting, despite speculations, that an impending core collapse, resulting in a supernova explosion, may be unlikely.[151] Even further related studies, also reported on 24 February 2020, suggest that occluding "large-grain circumstellar dust" may be the most likely explanation for the dimming of the star.[152][153]
    • Scientists from Harvard University, along with physics and biotech companies PLEX Corporation and Bruker Scientific, publish details of hemolithin they claim to have found in meteorite Acfer 086 - the first protein found in a meteorite if peer-review confirms their findings.[154][155][156] Their findings may be relevant to theories of panspermia and pseudo-panspermia according to which life exists throughout the Universe and is distributed directly or indirectly via objects such as meteoroids. However, some scientists have expressed skepticism about the results of the study.[157]
25 February: Discovery reported of the first animal, a parasite of salmon named Henneguya salminicola, that lost its mitochondria and does not use oxygen to produce energy.[158]
  • 24 February
    • A study of the 2019–20 Australian bushfire season, published in Nature, finds that 21% of Australia's forests (excluding Tasmania) have burnt down, an amount described in the journal as "unprecedented" and "greatly exceed[ing] previous fires both within Australia and globally" in terms of scale within the last 20 years.[159][160] Other characteristics that distinguish the fires from similar ones include that they happened in populated areas instead of remote areas in e.g. Siberia[161] – due to which a large number of people were affected by smoke of the fires – and their intensity and geographical spread across the country.[162]
    • Paleontologists report the discovery of 1 billion-year-old micro-fossils of 2 mm sized green seaweeds called Proterocladus antiquus. The algae could produce oxygen via photosynthesis and is a close relative of the ancestor of all contemporary green plants including land plants which evolved ca. 450 million years ago. Previously the oldest green seaweeds were dated to roughly 800 million years ago.[163][164]
    • Scientists report that thiophene organic molecules detected by the Curiosity rover on the planet Mars between 2012 and 2017 are consistent with earlier life on Mars and summarize conceivable pathways for its generation and degradation on the planet. It's not currently known if the detected thiophenes — usually associated on Earth with kerogen, coal and crude oil — are the result of biological or non-biological processes. They show that they could have either a biological or abiotic origin.[165][166]
    • Initial phase 1 testing of a Coronavirus vaccine from biotechnology company Moderna is reported to start soon.[167][168]
27 February: Astronomers report the discovery of the largest known explosion in the Universe – a cavity in the Ophiuchus Supercluster (pictured).[169]

March
4 March: Scientists of the international World Weather Attribution project publicize a study which found that human-caused climate change had an influence on the 2019-20 Australian wildfires.[186]
  • 4 March
    • A global scientific collaboration of ca. 100 institutions publishes their analysis of three decades of tree growth and death in 565 undisturbed tropical forests across Africa and the Amazon. The researchers found that the overall uptake of carbon into Earth's intact tropical forests peaked in the 1990s, dropped by one-third on average by the 2010s and may have started a downward trend. While extra carbon dioxide boosts tree growth, the effect is countered by negative impacts of higher temperatures and droughts which slow growth and can kill trees. Their models project a long-term decline in the African carbon sink and the Amazonas likely becoming a carbon source, rather than sink, in the mid-2030s.[187][188][189]
    • Scientists report the discovery of a second mechanism that repairs interstrand crosslink (ICL) DNA damage caused by the alcohol metabolite acetaldehyde next to the Fanconi anemia pathway, which cuts DNA to remove the ICL: enzymes cutting the crosslink itself.[190][191]
    • Researchers report that their review indicates that the unguarded X hypothesis may be valid: according to this hypothesis one reason for why the average lifespan of males isn't as long as that of females – by 18% on average according to the study – is that they have a Y chromosome which can't protect an individual from harmful genes expressed on the X chromosome, while a duplicate X chromosome, as present in female organisms, can ensure harmful genes aren't expressed.[192][193]
    • Scientists report that they have developed a way to 3D bioprint graphene oxide with a protein. They demonstrate that this novel bioink can be used to recreate vascular-like structures. This may be used in the development of safer and more efficient drugs.[194][195]
    • Scientists of the international World Weather Attribution project publicize a study which found that human-caused climate change had an influence on the 2019-20 Australian wildfires by causing high-risk conditions that made widespread burning at least 30 percent more likely. They comment on the results, stating that climate change probably had more effects on the fires which couldn't be attributed using their climate simulations and that not all drivers of the fires showed imprints of anthropogenic climate change.[186][196]
    • Scientists report to have used CRISPR-Cas9 gene editing inside a human's body for the first time. They aim to restore vision for a patient with inherited Leber congenital amaurosis and state that it may take up to a month to see whether the procedure was successful. In an hour-long surgery study approved by government regulators doctors inject three drops of fluid containing viruses under the patient's retina. In earlier tests in human tissue, mice and monkeys scientists were able to correct half of the cells with the disease-causing mutation, which was more than what is needed to restore vision. Unlike germline editing these DNA modifications aren't inheritable.[197][198][199][200]
5 March: NASA names the Mars 2020 rover Perseverance.[201][202]
  • 5 March
    • NASA officially names the originally titled Mars 2020 rover to the newly titled Perseverance rover, after conducting a student naming contest in the Fall of 2019.[202][201]
    • Computer security experts report another Intel chip security flaw, besides the Meltdown and Spectre flaws, with the systematic name CVE-2019-0090 (or, "Intel CSME Bug").[203] This newly found flaw is not fixable with a firmware update, and affects nearly "all Intel chips released in the past five years".[204][205][206][207]
    • Scientists report that they have identified a second enzyme in the cell membrane of lung cells essential for entry of SARS-CoV-2 into the cells after the enzyme ACE2 has been identified earlier by other researchers. They found that the protease TMPRSS2 is split by the virus' spike protein to enter the cell and that the TMPRSS2-inhibitors Camostat and, in a second report by other researchers on March 18, Nafamostat may be potential treatments as they reduced the probability of the virus entering cells in vitro.[208][209][210]
    • Researchers suggest that more active rest postures may help protect people from the harmful effects of inactivity after reviewing related work, studying a hunter-gatherer population and measuring muscle activity of different resting postures such as sitting. According to their "inactivity mismatch hypothesis" human physiology likely adapted to more consistently active muscles. This may be relevant to new interventions that could reduce widespread negative health impacts of inactivity in industrialized populations.[211][212]
    • Neuroscientists report that rats show harm aversion with the brain region anterior cingulate cortex (ACC), which is also associated with harm aversion in humans, being activated. Rats stopped choosing candy they preferred over other candy when it meant hurting an unfamiliar, neighbour rat. Reducing brain activity in the ACC by injecting a local anesthetic reversed this behaviour. Moreover, they showed that their harm aversion can be limited as most rats, which previously switched to the less-preferred candy to avoid harm to their neighbours, stopped doing so when offered a choice between one and three candies. Their experiments may show that the moral motivation that keeps humans from harming other humans has old evolutionary origins and is shared to some degree with other animals. They also suggest some level of personality in rats as they showed a wide range of variable responses in the experiment – including indifference and not choosing any of the two levers after the first electric shock was registered. Furthermore, prior experience with footshocks was shown to increase the rats' harm aversion.[213][214][215] Rats were shown to be capable of showing empathy as early as 2011.[216][217][218]
  • 6 March – Scientists show that adding a layer of perovskite crystals on top of textured silicon to create a tandem solar cell enhances its performance up to a power conversion efficiency of 26%. This could be a low cost way to increase efficiency of solar cells.[219][220]
  • 9 March – Scientists show that CRISPR-Cas12b is a third promising CRISPR editing tool, next to Cas9 and Cas12a, for plant genome engineering.[221][222]
10 March: Researchers show that mangrove forests reduce the risks of flooding at coastlines worldwide.[223][224]
  • 10 March
    • Physicist Lucas Lombriser of the University of Geneva presents a possible way of reconciling the two significantly different determinations of the Hubble constant by proposing the notion of a surrounding vast "bubble", 250 million light years in diameter, that is half the density of the rest of the universe.[223][225]
    • Scientists publish evidence that even large ecosystems can collapse on relatively short timescales. Their paper suggests that once a 'point of no return' is reached, the Amazon rainforest could shift to a savannah-type mixture of trees and grass within 50 years.[226][227][228][229]
    • Researchers show when, where, and how mangrove forests reduce risks of flooding at coastlines worldwide, evaluate the economic value thereof and illustrate ways to fund mangrove protection with economic incentives, insurance, and climate risk financing.[230][224]
  • 11 March
    • Researchers using ESO's Very Large Telescope (VLT) report the discovery of titanium and vanadium oxides in the atmosphere of WASP-76b, an exoplanet with temperatures of 2,400°C (4,352°F) that rains molten iron.[231][232]
    • Quantum engineers report to have managed to control the nucleus of a single atom using only electric fields. This was first suggested to be possible in 1961 and may be used for silicon quantum computers that use single-atom spins without needing oscillating magnetic fields which may be especially useful for nanodevices, for precise sensors of electric and magnetic fields as well as for fundamental inquiries into quantum nature.[233][234]
    • Scientists report the discovery of dinosaur Oculudentavis khaungraae whose 1.4 centimeter head is well-preserved in amber. The bird-like dinosaur lived 99 million years ago, was about the size of a bee hummingbird, may provide new implications relevant to bird evolution and, according to paleontologists, is considered to have very strange features. The specimen could represent the smallest dinosaur of the fossil record.[235][236][237]
  • 12 March – Astronomers report observational evidence of "ongoing nucleus fragmentation" from the interstellar comet 2I/Borisov.[238][239][240]
  • 13 March – The US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) grants emergency authorisation for a coronavirus test by Swiss diagnostics maker Roche. The automated cobas 8800 system provides a ten-fold improvement in the speed of patient testing, with capacity for up to 4,128 results in 24 hours.[241][242][243]
  • 14 March
    • Chinese news announces that the first confirmed case of the COVID-19 disease, caused by the SARS-CoV-2 virus, was traced back to a 55-year-old patient in Hubei province, and was reported in a Chinese newspaper on 17 November 2019.[244] To date (14 March 2020), 67,790 cases and 3,075 deaths due to the virus have been reported in Hubei province; a case fatality rate (CFR) of 4.54%.[244]
    • Scientists report in a preprint to have developed a CRISPR-based strategy, called PAC-MAN (Prophylactic Antiviral Crispr in huMAN cells), that can find and destroy viruses in vitro. However, they weren't able to test PAC-MAN on the actual SARS-CoV-2, use a targeting-mechanism that uses only a very limited RNA-region, haven't developed a system to deliver it into human cells and would need a lot of time until another version of it or a potential successor system might pass clinical trials. In the study published as a preprint they write that the CRISPR-Cas13d-based system could be used prophylactically as well as therapeutically and that it could be implemented rapidly to manage new pandemic coronavirus strains – and potentially any virus – as it could be tailored to other RNA-targets quickly, only requiring a small change.[245][246][247][248] The paper was published on 29 April 2020.[249][250]
  • 15 March – Reports confirm continued existence of Osmia calaminthae, the blue calamintha bee, in Florida, previously uncertain.[251][252]
16 March: First human clinical trial of COVID-19 vaccine.[253] The image shows SARS-CoV-2.
  • 16 March
    • The first phase 1 clinical trial evaluating a potential vaccine to protect against COVID-19 begins at Kaiser Permanente Washington Health Research Institute (KPWHRI) in Seattle.[253][254]
    • Astronomers report studies which suggest that parts of the planet Mercury may have been habitable, and perhaps that life forms, albeit likely primitive microorganisms, may have existed on the planet.[255][256]
    • Researchers report that they have developed a new kind of CRISPR-Cas13d screening platform for effective guide RNA design to target RNA. They used their model to predict optimized Cas13 guide RNAs for all protein-coding RNA-transcripts of the human genome's DNA. Their technology could be used in molecular biology and in medical applications such as for better targeting of virus RNA or human RNA. Targeting human RNA after it's been transcribed from DNA, rather than DNA, would allow for more temporary effects than permanent changes to human genomes. The technology is made available to researchers through an interactive website and free and open source software and is accompanied by a guide on how to create guide RNAs to target the SARS-CoV-2 RNA genome.[257][258]
    • Researchers evaluate that a limited, regional nuclear conflict between India and Pakistan, using <1% of the worldwide nuclear arsenal, would have adverse consequences for global food security unmatched in modern history. Their comprehensive climate and crop model ensemble simulations suggest that, besides climate perturbations with declines in global mean temperature by 1.8 °C for at least 5 years as evaluated by other researchers and other effects, would have devastating global implications for food production with 20 to 50% losses on average for 11% of the world population for 5 years and could exceed the largest famine in documented history.[259][260]
    • Researchers publish a paper in which they evaluate the potential for carbon sequestration in soils and found that properly managed soils would be a natural climate solution which could contribute a quarter of absorption on land – 5.5 billion tonnes annually. Roughly 40 percent of this absorption could be achieved by preserving existing soil instead of using it for agriculture and plantation growth. The researchers recommend strategies for slowing or halting ongoing expansion of such land-use and shifting incentive structures in agriculture towards payments for ecosystem-related services.[261][262]
    • Scientists predict what the earliest proteins looked like 3.5 billion to 2.5 billion years ago. They found two recurring protein folds to be central to the origin of metabolism: ferredoxin and Rossmann-like folds. In turn, these two folds likely shared a common ancestor which may have been the first metabolic enzyme of life and evolved to facilitate electron transfer and catalysis.[263][264]
    • Scientists present new multiplexed CRISPR technology, called CHyMErA (Cas Hybrid for Multiplexed Editing and Screening Applications), that can be used to analyse which or how genes act together by simultaneously removing multiple genes or gene-fragments using both Cas9 and Cas12a.[265][266]
17 March: Scientists report that the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes the Coronavirus disease 2019, and is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, originated naturally, possibly from a bat.[267][268]
  • 17 March – Scientists report that the novel SARS-CoV-2 virus, which causes the COVID-19 disease, and is responsible for the COVID-19 pandemic, originated naturally, and not otherwise,[267][268] although Chinese medical researchers, including Shi Zhengli, in Wuhan, China, were studying bat coronaviruses in ways that included modifying virus genomes to enter human cells, as early as 2014,[269][270] in testing laboratories that were determined to have significant safety issues by U.S. scientists in 2018.[271][272][273][274]
  • 18 March
  • 19 March
    • An US Army laboratory announces that its scientists analysed a Rydberg sensor's sensitivity to oscillating electric fields over an enormous range of frequencies—from 0 to 10^12 Hertz (the spectrum to 0.3mm wavelength). The Rydberg sensor may potentially be used detect communications signals as it could reliably detect signals over the entire spectrum and compare favourably with other established electric field sensor technologies, such as electro-optic crystals and dipole antenna-coupled passive electronics.[281][282]
    • Satellite data show that air pollution was reduced significantly in countries worldwide after lockdowns and other interventions due to the COVID-19 pandemic. The sudden shift has been called the "largest scale experiment ever" in terms of the reduction of industrial emissions.[283][284]
23 March: Discovery reported of Ikaria wariootia (dated to as early as 571 Ma) that could be the earliest animal having two symmetric sides and two openings linked by a digestive tract.[285][286]
  • 20 March
    • Scientists report that they made a C. elegans worm synthesize, fabricate, and assemble bioelectronic materials in its brain cells. They leveraged the cellular systems of the living organism to build insulating and conducting polymers at the plasma membrane of neurons by genetically editing its neurons to produce the enzyme APEX2 which was then triggered by a chemical substance they immersed the worms in and supplied the molecules of two biocompatible building-materials. This enabled modulation of membrane properties in specific neuron populations and manipulation of behavior in the living animals and might be useful in the study and treatments for diseases such as multiple sclerosis.[287][288][289]
    • The World Health Organization announces a large trial of what they consider to be the most promising potential coronavirus treatments at the time. The drugs chosen for testing in the Solidarity Trial are Remdesivir, Chloroquine-Hydroxychloroquine combination and Ritonavir-Lopinavir combination with and without interferon-beta.[290][291] According to the WHO Director General, the aim of the trial is to "dramatically cut down the time needed to generate robust evidence about what drugs work".[292][293]
  • 23 March
    • Scientists report that they have discovered that Longfin inshore squid can recode RNA using the ADAR2 enzyme in a region-specific manner and outside of the nucleus within neurons: in their axons, which are the longest known to science to date. In 2015 one of the study's co-leading scientists and others discovered that squids manipulate their messenger RNA to change the proteins that will be produced far more than humans do.[294][295]
    • Scientists report that they have discovered one of the oldest bilateria: Ikaria wariootia from the Ediacaran biota (571 to 539 Ma) could be the last ancestor of all animals which have two symmetric sides and two openings linked by a digestive tract.[285][286]
    • Researchers report that they have found a way to correct for signal loss in a prototype quantum node that can catch, store and entangle bits of quantum information. Their concepts could be used for key components of quantum repeaters in quantum networks and extend their longest possible range.[296][297]
  • 25 March
    • NASA astronomers report the detection of a large atmospheric magnetic bubble, also known as a plasmoid, released into outer space from the planet Uranus, after reevaluating old data recorded by the Voyager 2 space probe during a flyby of the planet in 1986.[298][299]
    • Researchers report to have created a nanotechnology-device which can generate high-power terahertz waves, enables picosecond switching of electric signals and get implemented in flexible electronics. It could have applications in imaging, sensing, communications, biomedical applications and smartphone-related electronics.[300][301]
26 March: Third mass coral bleaching event in five years is recorded at the Great Barrier Reef.[302]
31 March: SETI@home shuts down.[319]

April
1 April: Researchers report to have discovered evidence that rainforests existed near the South Pole ca. 90 million years ago during the Cretaceous period, suggesting that the climate was exceptionally warm at the time.[329] The Image shows Earth ca. 120 Ma.
  • 1 April
    • A scientific review finds that substantial recovery for most components of marine ecosystems within two to three decades can be achieved if climate change is addressed adequately and efficient interventions are deployed at large scale. It documents the recovery of marine populations, habitats and ecosystems following past conservation interventions, identifies nine components integral to conservation and recovery and recommend actions along with opportunities, benefits, possible roadblocks and remedial actions. The researchers caution about a narrow window of opportunity in which decisions can choose between "a legacy of a resilient and vibrant ocean or an irreversibly disrupted ocean". They assess the goal 14 of the Sustainable Development Goals of the United Nations to be a "doable Grand Challenge for humanity, an ethical obligation and a smart economic objective to achieve a sustainable future".[330][331][332][333][334][335][336]
    • Researchers report to have discovered and analysed fossil roots embedded in a mudstone matrix containing diverse pollen and spores which indicate that rainforests existed near the South Pole ca. 90 million years ago during the Cretaceous period. Their findings suggest that the climate was exceptionally warm at the time and that the carbon dioxide levels in the atmosphere were substantially higher than expected during the mid-Cretaceous period, 115-80 million years ago.[337][329][338][339]
    • Researchers report that stretching cells alone can activate genes without intermediates, enzymes or signaling molecules in the cell being necessary. They applied cyclic forces of frequencies which cells experience due to common activities such as breathing, exercising or vocalizing and found that the induced transcription up-regulation does not follow the weak power law with force frequency. They also describe why some genes can be activated by mechanical force and some cannot.[340][341]
    • Scientists report that for the first time they have retrieved genetic information from the fossils of H. antecessor as old as 772,000–949,000 years and Homo erectus as old as 1.77 million years via dental enamel proteomes . They show that H. antecessor is a closely related sister-lineage to subsequent Middle and Late Pleistocene hominins, including modern humans, Neanderthals and Denisovans.[342][343]
2 April: Discovery of oldest known fossils (dated to as old as 2.04 million years old) of Homo erectus reported.[344][345]
13 April: Astronomers suggest the first comprehensive possible natural way that ʻOumuamua, the first known interstellar object detected passing through the Solar System, may have been formed.[412]
  • 13 April
    • Astronomers suggest the first comprehensive possible natural way that ʻOumuamua, the first known interstellar object detected passing through the Solar System, may have been formed. It may have been produced through extensive tidal fragmentation and ejected during close encounters of their parent bodies with their host star or stars.[412][413]
    • Astronomers report to have recorded the most energetic supernova so far: SN 2016aps. The supernova also caused an unusually large amount of the energy to be released in the form of radiation, probably due to the interaction of the supernova ejecta and a previously lost gas shell.[414] The scientists believe that the supernova could be an example of a pair-instability supernova or a pulsational pair-instability supernova, possibly formed from two massive stars that merged before the explosion.[415][414] The event was discovered on 22 February 2016 by the Panoramic Survey Telescope and Rapid Response System (Pan-STARRS) in Hawaii,[416] with follow-up observations by the Hubble Space Telescope.
    • A study which included aircraft measurements of methane emissions from offshore oil and gas platforms collected over the U.S. Gulf of Mexico in January 2018 indicates that the United States via the Environmental Protection Agency Greenhouse Gas Inventory (GHGI) underestimated methane emissions at the time from these sites by a factor of 2. They attribute the discrepancy between regional airborne estimates and their data as well as their estimations for total methane emissions from these sites and the GHGI estimations adjusted for 2018 to incomplete platform counts and emission factors that underestimate emissions for shallow water platforms and don't account for disproportionately high emissions from large shallow water facilities.[417][418][419][420][421]
  • 14 April
15 April: Kepler-1649c, the most Earth-like planet yet found in data from the Kepler space telescope.[436]
  • 15 April
    • NASA reports the discovery of Kepler-1649c, an exoplanet that, according to Jeff Coughlin, the director of SETI's K2 Science Office, is closer to Earth in size and likely temperature than any other world yet found in data from the Kepler Space Telescope. The planet was originally deemed a false positive by Kepler's robovetter algorithm, highlighting the value of human inspection of planet candidates even as automated techniques improve.[436][437][438]
    • Researchers demonstrate a proof-of-concept silicon quantum processor unit cell which works at 1.5 Kelvin – many times warmer than common quantum processors that are being developed. It may enable integrating classical control electronics with the qubit array and reduce costs substantially. The cooling requirements necessary for quantum computing have been called one of the toughest roadblocks in the field.[439][440][441][442][443][444]
    • Scientists report that the Greenland ice sheet lost around 600 billion tonnes of water in 2019, which would raise sea levels by about 1.5 millimetres and make up ca. 40% of the year's total sea level rise. The runoff ranked second only after the exceptional year 2012. The study affirms the exceptional nature of the 2019 season and shows that high-pressure atmospheric conditions over Greenland due to changing atmospheric circulation patterns – which have become more frequent due to climate change – were a cause of the melting next to the warmer temperatures. This suggests that scientists may be underestimating the melting of Greenland's ice – likely by a factor of two according to co-author Xavier Fettweis.[445][446][447]
    • Scientists describe and visualize the atomical structure and mechanical action of the bacteria-killing bacteriocin R2 pyocin and construct engineered versions with different behaviours than the naturally occurring version. Their findings may aid the engineering of nanomachines such as for targeted antibiotics.[448][449]
    • Scientists claim to have developed a biodegradable material for face masks which is effective at removing particles smaller than 100 nanometres including viruses and has a high breathability.[450][451] A number of novel face masks and face mask technologies are being researched and developed as of May 2020.
16 April: Scientists report that during their breeding season male ring-tailed lemurs exude three pheromones during breeding season in a testosterone-dependent manner.[452]
  • 16 April
    • Australia's Morrison Government announces the launch of the research and development phase of its Reef Restoration and Adaptation Program after a two-year feasibility study. The selected 43 strategies of the program include climate engineering concepts such as brightening clouds with salt crystals, technologies to increase survival rate of coral larvae, coral seeding strategies and methods to facilitate faster recovery of coral reefs.[453][454] The Australian Marine Conservation Society welcomed the work but remarked that policies which address global warming – the main cause of increasingly severe and frequent mass coral bleaching events – should be prioritised, that the projects could take years or decades to develop and that solutions to climate change – such as renewable energies – are already available.[455]
    • Scientists prove the existence of the Rashba effect in bulk perovskites. Previously researchers have hypothesized that the materials' extraordinary electronic, magnetic and optical properties – which make it a commonly used material for solar cells and quantum electronics – are related to this effect which to date hasn't been proven to be present in the material.[456][457]
    • Scientists report that during their breeding season male ring-tailed lemurs exude three compounds at higher levels in their wrist glandular odor. The study suggests that these may be pheromones which are involved in the attractiveness of the males to females as the females seem to be attracted to the smell during their breeding season. The amounts of dodecanal, 12-methyltridecanal, and tetradecanal increase in a testosterone-dependent manner.[458][452][459]
17 April: A study indicates that local food crop production alone cannot meet the demand for most food crops "current production and consumption patterns" and the locations of food production for 72–89% of the global population and 100–km radiuses as of early 2020.[460] The image shows a map of global wheat production.
27 April: Scientists report to have genetically engineered plants to glow much brighter than previously possible by inserting genes of the bioluminescent mushroom Neonothopanus nambi.[524] The image shows the mushroom Panellus Stipticus displaying bioluminescence
28 April: astronomers publish images by the Hubble Space Telescope of comet C/2019 Y4 (ATLAS) disintegrating into more than 30 fragments, causing it to dim.[534]
29 April: a new study of Spinosaurus aegyptiacus claims to have found the first unambiguous evidence for an aquatic propulsive structure in a non-avian dinosaur.[545] The image shows S. aegyptiacus skeletal reconstruction in swimming posture prior to the discovery of the tail fin
  • 29 April – A new study of Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, published in the journal Nature, claims to have found the first unambiguous evidence for an aquatic propulsive structure in a non-avian dinosaur and that the dinosaur had very tall, slender neural spines on its tail and hence a deep, laterally compressed tail like that of a gigantic newt.[545][546]
  • 30 April
    • The first results from ice-monitoring satellite ICESat-2 are published, showing that melting in Antarctica and Greenland has contributed 14 mm (0.55 in) of global sea level rise since 2003.[547]
    • NASA selects three U.S. companies – Blue Origin, Dynetics, and SpaceX – to design and develop human landing systems (HLS) for the agency's Artemis program, one of which is planned to deliver the first woman and next man on the Moon by 2024.[548]
    • Scientists report that one of the climate models – the CMIP6 model CESM2 – is not supported by paleoclimate records. Comparing simulations of this model with geological evidence suggests that its climate sensitivity is too high. This indicates that this model may not perform realistically at high CO2 concentrations, overestimating global warming at high levels of CO2 where its equilibrium climate sensitivity is 5.3 °C and modelled tropical land temperature exceeds 55°C. They recommend using paleoclimate constraints of past warm and cold climates to benchmark the performance of CMIP6 climate models.[549][550]
    • Astronomers publish 15 images[data unknown/missing] of proto-planetary disks believed to undergo planet formation.[551][552]

May
5 May: Researchers report that the North Magnetic Pole (pictured) is moving towards Siberia due to flux lobe elongation on the core–mantle boundary.[558]
8 May: Researchers report the development of artificial chloroplasts.[568] The image shows natural chloroplasts in plant cells.
10 May: Computer scientists disclose the existence of Thunderspy, a security vulnerability that may impact millions of Apple, Linux, Windows and pre-2019 computers.[579][580][581][582]
  • 10 May
    • Computer scientists disclose the existence of Thunderspy, a security vulnerability based on the Intel Thunderbolt port, that can result in an evil maid attack of an unattended device gaining full access to a computer's information in about five minutes and may affect millions of macOS, Linux and Windows computers including any computer with an enabled Thunderbolt port manufactured before 2019, and some after that.[579][580][581][582]
    • Scientists report to have discovered the closest relative of SARS-CoV-2 in most of the virus genome reported to date in a bat. RmYN02 has a 93.3% nucleotide identity with SARS-CoV-2 and also contains a four amino-acid insertion at the S1/S2 cleavage site, which adds to the evidence that supports the theory of a natural origin of SARS-CoV-2.[583][584][585]
11 May: Researchers report to have developed synthetic red blood cells that for the first time have all of the natural cells' (pictured) broad natural properties and abilities as well as some additional ones.[586]
  • 11 May – Researchers report the development of synthetic red blood cells that for the first time have all of the natural cells' known broad natural properties and abilities. Furthermore, methods to load functional cargos such as hemoglobin, drugs, magnetic nanoparticles, and ATP biosensors may enable additional non-native functionalities.[586][587]
12 May: Astronomers suggest that a Seyfert flare 3.5 Mya from Sagittarius A* created the large X-ray/gamma-ray Fermi Bubbles (pictured) around the galactic center and illuminated the Magellanic Stream.[588]
21 May: Researchers report to have developed a way to use smartphone images of a person's inner eyelids to assess blood hemoglobin levels.[612]
  • 19 May
    • Researchers report to have developed the first integrated silicon on-chip low-noise single-photon source compatible with large-scale quantum photonics.[613][614][615][616]
    • Researchers report a temporary 17% drop in daily global CO2 emissions by early April 2020 compared with the mean 2019 levels during the COVID-19 forced confinements. At the peak of the interventions, where 89% of global emissions were in areas under some confinement, emissions in individual countries decreased by –26% on average. Estimations on the impact on 2020 annual emissions are between -2% and -13%. The largest reductions were due to reductions of surface transport.[617][618][619] Despite of this on May 4th UN Climate Change reports that the CO2 concentration in the atmosphere reached an all-time daily high of the ca. 60-year record on May 3rd.[620]
  • 20 May
    • Researchers report estimations of green snow algae community biomass and distribution along the Antarctic Peninsula and project a net increase in their extent and biomass and coastal Antarctica turning more green due to climate change.[621][622][623]
    • Scientists report that genome-wide data of 19 Siberians of the Upper Paleolithic to Bronze Age of up to ca. 14,000 years ago show the most deeply divergent connection between Upper Paleolithic Siberians and the indigenous peoples of the Americas and that long-range human mobility across Eurasia during the Early Bronze Age as well as prolonged local admixture that lead to an ancestry that gave rise to all non-Arctic Native Americans.[624][625][626][627]
    • ESA reports that its Swarm satellite constellation is being used to better understand the mysterious South Atlantic Anomaly whereby the magnetic field has lost around 9% of its strength on a global average over the last 200 years in large area. They are investigating the processes in Earth's core driving these changes, which have caused technical disturbances in satellites and may be relevant to a potential geomagnetic reversal, and found that the anomaly could split up into two separate low points.[628][629][630][631]
    • Astronomers report to have discovered a large rotating disk galaxy, dating back to when the universe was only 1.5 billion years old – the Wolfe Disk. Previously it was believed that such galaxies could not grow as big and well-ordered so early, which indicates there possibly being a need to revise theories of galaxy formation and evolution.[632][633][634][635]
23 May: Comet ATLAS reaches its nearest point to Earth. A few days later the Solar Orbiter flies through its ion gas tail and its dust tail.[636] The image shows a comet's tails.
26 May: According to scientists all of ʻOumuamua's (pictured) observed properties could be explained if it was an "iceberg" of molecular hydrogen ice.[646]

June
3 June: Geologists identify the largest known eruption in the Yellowstone hotspot track, which occurred around 8.72 Ma.
17 June: Possible first detection of solar axion by particle physicists (image of a xenon atom, used in the experiments).
  • 1 June
  • 3 June
    • The oldest and largest structure in the Maya region, a 3,000-year-old pyramid-topped platform, is discovered with LiDAR technology.[685]
    • Geologists report two newly identified supervolcano eruptions associated with the Yellowstone hotspot track, including the region's largest and most cataclysmic event – the Grey's Landing super-eruption – which had a volume of ≥2800 km3 and occurred around 8.72 Ma. They conclude that the Yellowstone hotspot may be waning, with another major eruption not likely until around 900,000 AD.[686][687]
  • 4 June – Astronomers report that Kepler-160, a Sun-like star already known to host two planets, likely has a rocky third planet with orbit and light levels very similar to Earth.[688][689]
  • 7 June
    • News reports that NASA astronaut Kathy Sullivan, the first woman to walk in space in 1984, and now 68 years old, is the first woman to reach the deepest part of the ocean, nearly seven miles below the surface.[690]
    • Astronomers from Jodrell Bank Observatory report that the fast radio burst FRB 121102 exhibits the same radio burst behavior ("radio bursts observed in a window lasting approximately 90 days followed by a silent period of 67 days") every 157 days, suggesting that the bursts may be associated with "the orbital motion of a massive star, a neutron star or a black hole".[691]
  • 8 June – Computer experts warn Windows 10 users to update their computers with the latest security patches from Microsoft in order to avoid being infected with the wormlike SMBGhost security vulnerability, which, in unpatched computers, may have serious consequences.[692][693][694]
  • 15 June – Astronomers from the University of Nottingham report the possible existence of over 30 "active communicating intelligent civilizations", or Communicating Extra-Terrestrial Intelligent (CETI) civilizations (none within our current ability to detect due to various reasons including distance or size) in our own Milky Way galaxy, based on the latest astrophysical information.[695][696][697]
  • 16 June
    • The University of Oxford reports that a major trial of dexamethasone – a cheap, widely available corticosteroid medication – shows it can significantly reduce mortality in COVID-19 patients.[698][699]
    • Astronomers map the atmosphere of the red supergiant star Antares in unprecedented detail, using both the Atacama Large Millimeter/submillimeter Array (ALMA) and the National Science Foundation’s Karl G. Jansky Very Large Array (VLA). The map is the most detailed yet obtained of any star, other than the Sun.[700][701]
  • 17 June – Physicists at the XENON dark matter research facility report an excess of 53 events, which may hint at the existence of hypothetical solar axions. Other possibilities for the anomalous detection include a surprisingly large magnetic moment for neutrinos, and tritium contamination in the detector.[702][703]
  • 18 June – NASA scientists report that exoplanets with oceans may be common in the Milky Way galaxy, based on mathematical modeling studies.[704][705]
  • 22 June – Astronomers report evidence that the dwarf planet Pluto may have had a subsurface ocean, and consequently may have been habitable, when it was first formed.[706][707]
  • 23 June – Astronomers report details of the merging, in the "mass gap" of cosmic collisions, of a first-ever "mystery object": either a possibly too-heavy neutron star or a too-light black hole, with a black hole, that was detected as a gravitational wave, GW190814. According to one of the researchers, “We don’t know if this object is the heaviest known neutron star or the lightest known black hole, but either way it breaks a record.”[708][709][710][711]
  • 24 June – The largest ever tanzanite gemstones are discovered, weighing 9.27 kg and 5.103 kg, respectively.[712]
  • 25 June – Astronomers report detecting a gravitational wave, named GW190521g, that is associated with, for the first time ever, a flash of light from the merger, within the vicinity of a third very large black hole, of two smaller black holes. No light is typically emitted from the merger of black holes.[713][714][715]

Predicted and scheduled events
  • July 17: Planned launch of NASA's Perseverance mission (previously called Mars 2020) to study the habitability of Mars and prepare for future human missions.[716]
  • July: The UAE will launch a probe, The Hope, to Mars.[717]
  • July: The Chinese Tianwen-1 mission to Mars targets a launch in July.[718][719][720]
  • December 21, 2020: Jupiter and Saturn come within a 6' arc, giving a rare telescopic view of the two so close together. No case has ever been found where Jupiter and Saturn had a mutual occultation.[721]

Date unknown
  • Several new rockets have planned maiden flights in 2020 in a race to lower launch costs, including Ariane 6,[722] H3[723] and first orbital flights of SpaceX Starship.[724]
  • Shenzhen East Waste-to-Energy Plant is planned to become operational, the largest waste to energy (WET) power plant in the world.[725]
  • Japan will host a World Robot Summit in August and October.[726][727]
  • Waymo, the first self-driving cars in ride-hailing services are announced for 2020 [728]
  • The Large Synoptic Survey Telescope is expected to achieve first light in 2020.[729]

Awards
Main article: Lists of science and technology awards

Deaths

See also

References
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