Terrorism in Russia

Terrorist incidents in Russia[1][2]
YearNumber of
incidents		DeathsInjuries
20173036108
2016546461
2015212124
2014486788
2013144148288
2012151161260
2011188160433
2010251231609
2009152141218
200817095233
20075155140
2006565759
200563156350
2004436071,176
200376328812
200289512426
2001135228454
2000138362568
199954395678
19982649118
19977761108
199666135124
19953714534
1994473433
1993437
1992213438
1991342822
19903658101
19897627
1988000
1987000
1986000
1985000
1984000
1983000
1982000
1981000
1980000
1979000
1978140
1977000
1976000
1975000
1974000
1973000
1972000
1971000
1970000
Total2,1864,2817,428

Terrorism in Russia has a long history starting from the time of the Russian Empire. Terrorism, in the modern sense,[3] means violence against civilians to achieve political or ideological objectives by creating extreme fear.[4] Terrorism was an important tool used by Marxist revolutionaries in the early 20th century to disrupt the social, political, and economic system and enable rebels to bring down the Tzarist government. Terrorist tactics, such as hostage-taking, were widely used by the Soviet secret agencies, most notably during the Red Terror and Great Terror campaigns, against the population of their own country, according to Karl Kautsky and other historians of Bolshevism.

Starting from the end of the 20th century, significant terrorist activity has taken place in Moscow, most notably apartment bombings and the Moscow theater hostage crisis. Many more acts of terrorism have been committed in Chechnya, Dagestan, and other parts of the country. Some of them became a matter of significant controversy, since journalists and scholars claimed that they were directed by the Russian secret services, often through their Chechen agent provocateurs.

19th century

German Social Democrat Karl Kautsky traces the origins of terrorism, including the one in Russian Empire, to the "Reign of Terror" of the French Revolution.[5][6] Others emphasize the role of Russian revolutionary movements during the 19th century, especially Narodnaya Volya ("People's Will") and the Nihilist movement, which included several thousand followers. "People's Will" organized one of the first political terrorism campaigns in history. In March 1881, it assassinated the Emperor of Russia Alexander II, who twenty years earlier had emancipated the Russian serfs.[7]

Important ideologists of these groups were Mikhail Bakunin and Sergey Nechayev, who was described in Fyodor Dostoevsky's novel The Possessed.[7] Nechayev argued that the purpose of revolutionary terror is not to gain the support of the masses, but on the contrary, to inflict misery and fear on the common population. According to Nechayev, a revolutionary must terrorize civilians in order to incite rebellions. He wrote:[7]

"A revolutionary must infiltrate all social formations including the police. He must exploit rich and influential people, subordinating them to himself. He must aggravate the miseries of the common people, so as to exhaust their patience and incite them to rebel. And, finally, he must ally himself with the savage word of the violent criminal, the only true revolutionary in Russia".
"The Revolutionist is a doomed man. He has no private interests, no affairs, sentiments, ties, property nor even a name of his own. His entire being is devoured by one purpose, one thought, one passion - the revolution. Heart and soul, not merely by word but by deed, he has severed every link with the social order and with the entire civilized world; with the laws, good manners, conventions, and morality of that world. He is its merciless enemy and continues to inhabit it with only one purpose - to destroy it."

According to historian and writer Edvard Radzinsky, Nechayev's ideas and tactics were widely used by Joseph Stalin and other Russian revolutionaries.[7]

Early (tsarist) 20th century

Terrorism, economic, political and agrarian, was central to the strategy of the Socialist-Revolutionary Party. The SR Combat Organization, founded in 1902 as an autonomous branch of the Socialist Revolutionary Party responsible for assassinating government officials, was led by Grigory Gershuni and operated separately from the party so as not to jeopardize its political actions. SRCO agents assassinated two Ministers of the Interior, Dmitry Sipyagin and V. K. von Plehve, Grand Duke Sergei Aleksandrovich, the Governor of Ufa N. M. Bogdanovich, and many other high-ranking officials.[8] It has been estimated that all together in the last twenty years of the Tsarist regime (1897-1917) more than 17,000 people were killed or wounded in terror attacks.[9]

Soviet Union

Red terror

The policy of Red terror in Soviet Russia served to frighten the civilian population and exterminate certain social groups considered as "ruling classes" or enemies of the people. Karl Kautsky said about Red Terror: "Among the phenomena for which Bolshevism has been responsible, Terrorism, which begins with the abolition of every form of freedom of the Press, and ends in a system of wholesale execution, is certainly the most striking and the most repellent of all.. Kautsky recognized that Red Terror represented a variety of terrorism because it was indiscriminate, intended to frighten the civilian population, and included taking and executing hostages ". Martin Latsis, chief of the Ukrainian Cheka, emphasized that Red terror was an extrajudicial punishment not for specific acts, but membership in condemned social classes:

"Do not look in the file of incriminating evidence to see whether or not the accused rose up against the Soviets with arms or words. Ask him instead to which class he belongs, what is his background, his education, his profession. These are the questions that will determine the fate of the accused. That is the meaning and essence of the Red Terror."[10]

One of the most common terrorist practices was hostage-taking. A typical report from a Cheka department stated: "Yaroslavl Province, 23 June 1919. The uprising of deserters in the Petropavlovskaya volost has been put down. The families of the deserters have been taken as hostages. When we started to shoot one person from each family, the Greens began to come out of the woods and surrender. Thirty-four deserters were shot as an example".[11]

Contemporary Russia

Accusations of sponsoring terrorism

Contemporary Russian government has been frequently accused of sponsoring or inspiring terrorist activities inside the country and in other countries in order to achieve its political goals.

Former FSB officer Alexander Litvinenko, Johns Hopkins University and Hoover Institute scholar David Satter,[12] Russian lawmaker Sergei Yushenkov, historian Yuri Felshtinsky, politologist Vladimir Pribylovsky and former KGB general Oleg Kalugin asserted that Russian apartment bombings were in fact a "false flag" attack perpetrated by the FSB (successor to the KGB) in order to legitimize the resumption of military activities in Chechnya and bring Vladimir Putin and the FSB to power. FSB operatives were actually briefly arrested in the case, but their presence at the crime scene was explained as "training".[13][14] Researchers such as Gordon Bennett, Robert Bruce Ware, Vlad Sobell, Peter Reddaway and Richard Sakwa have criticized this as a conspiracy theory, pointing out that the theories' proponents have provided little evidence to support them, and also that the theory ignores the history of Chechen terrorism and threats made by the militants before the bombings.[15][16][17][18][19]

Former FSB officer Aleksander Litvinenko and investigator Mikhail Trepashkin alleged that a Chechen FSB agent directed the Moscow theater hostage crisis in 2002.[20][21] International and Russian journalists accused the FSB of staging many terrorism acts, such as a market-place bombing in the city of Astrakhan in 2001, bus-stop bombings in the city of Voronezh, and the blowing up the Moscow-Grozny train,[22][23] whereas innocent people were convicted or killed. Journalist Boris Stomakhin claimed that a bombing in Moscow metro in 2004[24] was probably organized by FSB agents rather than by the unknown man who called the Kavkaz Center and claimed his responsibility.[25] Stomakhin was arrested and imprisoned to five years of prison for inciting hatred and defamatory statements aimed at groups and persons of particular religious and ethnic background and for promoting violent change of constitutional regime and violation of territorial integrity of Russian Federation (articles 280 and 282 of the Russian Criminal Code).[26]

Many journalists and workers of international NGOs were reported to be kidnapped by FSB-affiliated forces in Chechnya who pretended to be Chechen terrorists: Andrei Babitsky from Radio Free Europe, Arjan Erkel and Kenneth Glack from Doctors Without Borders, and others.[27]

Alexander J. Motyl, professor of political science at Rutgers University argues that Russia's direct and indirect involvement in the violence in eastern Ukraine qualifies as a state-sponsored terrorism, and that those involved qualify as "terrorist groups."[28]

In May 2016, Reuters published a Special Report titled "How Russia allowed homegrown radicals to go and fight in Syria" that, based on first-hand evidence, said that at least in the period between 2012 and 2014 the Russian government agencies ran a programme to facilitate and encourage Russian radicals and militants to leave Russia and go to Turkey and then on to Syria; the persons in question had joined jihadist groups, some fighting with the ISIL.[29]

In 2018, after the poisoning of Skripals, the State Department was reportedly prepared to officially designate Russia as "state sponsor of terrorism" by US law based on the cases described above, but the work has been stopped as it was decided that it would interefere with US options in areas where it has to cooperate with Russia.[30]

Threats of terrorism in the 2010s

Islamic terrorism is a recent threat to the security of Russia,[31] with most terrorist activity taking place in Chechnya and Dagestan. Since October 2007, the Caucasus Emirate has withdrawn its nationalist goals of creating a sovereign state in Chechnya. It has since fully adopted the Islamic fundamentalist ideology of Sunni jihadism.[32] They have made repeated statements in their speeches that they have declared war on "anyone who wages war against Muslims".

Many Arab and human-rights activists have criticized the Russian government's counter-terrorism operations, saying they unfairly target Muslims.[33]

1999 Russian apartment bombings

The Russian apartment bombings were a series of bombings in Russia that killed nearly 300 people and, together with the Dagestan War, led the country into the Second Chechen War. The five bombings took place in Moscow and two other Russian towns during ten days of September 1999. None of the Chechen field commanders accepted the responsibility for the bombing. Chechen president Aslan Maskhadov denied involvement of his government.

The bombings had stopped after a controversial episode when a similar bomb was found and defused in an apartment block in the Russian city of Ryazan on 23 September and suspects who planted the bomb were found to be FSB operatives, which was then explained as an "exercise". Later in the evening, Vladimir Putin praised the vigilance of the Ryzanians and ordered the air bombing of Grozny, which marked the beginning of the Second Chechen War.[34]

An official investigation of the bombings was completed only three years later, in 2002. It was conducted by the Russian FSB agency. Seven suspects were killed, six have been convicted on terrorism-related charges, and one remains a fugitive. According to the investigation, all bombings were organized and led by Achemez Gochiyaev - who as of 2007 remained at large.

The Russian Duma rejected two motions for parliamentary investigation of the Ryazan incident. An independent public commission to investigate the bombings chaired by Duma deputy Sergei Kovalev was rendered ineffective because of government refusal to respond to its inquiries. Two key members of the Kovalev Commission, Sergei Yushenkov and Yuri Shchekochikhin, both Duma members, have since died in assassinations in April 2003 and July 2003 respectively. The Commission's lawyer Mikhail Trepashkin was arrested in October 2003 to become one of the better-known political prisoners in Russia.

More recent attacks

2004

In September 2004, following bombing attacks on two aircraft and the downtown Moscow Metro, Chechen terrorists seized over 1,000 hostages at a school in Beslan, North Ossetia.

2006

The 2006 Moscow market bombing occurred on August 21, 2006, when a self-made bomb of the power of more than 1 kg of TNT exploded at Moscow's Cherkizovsky Market frequented by foreign merchants.[35] The bombing killed 13 people and injured 47. In 2008, eight members of the neo-Nazi organization The Saviour were sentenced for their roles in the attack.[36]

2010

In March 2010 suicide bombings were carried out by two women who were aligned with Caucasus Emirate and Al-Qaeda. The terrorist attack happened during the morning rush hour of March 29, 2010, at two stations of the Moscow Metro (Lubyanka and Park Kultury), with roughly 40 minutes interval between. At least 40 people were killed, and over 100 injured.

2011

The Domodedovo International Airport bombing was a suicide bombing in the international arrival hall of Moscow's Domodedovo International, in Domodedovsky District, Moscow Oblast, on 24 January 2011.

The bombing killed 37 people[37] and injured 173 others, including 86 who had to be hospitalised.[38] Of the casualties, 31 died at the scene, three later in hospitals, one en route to a hospital,[39] one on 2 February after having been put in a coma, and another on 24 February after being hospitalised in grave condition.[37]

Russia's Federal Investigative Committee later identified the suicide bomber as a 20-year-old from the North Caucasus, and said that the attack was aimed "first and foremost" at foreign citizens.[40]

2013

In December 2013, two separate suicide bombings a day apart targeted mass transportation in the city of Volgograd, in the Volgograd Oblast of Southern Russia, killing 34 people overall, including both perpetrators who were aligned to Caucasus Emirate and Vilayat Dagestan. The attacks followed a bus bombing carried out in the same city two months earlier.

On 21 October 2013, a suicide bombing took place on a bus in the city of Volgograd, in the Volgograd Oblast of Southern Russia. The attack was carried out by a female perpetrator named Naida Sirazhudinovna Asiyalova (Russian: Наида Сиражудиновна Асиялова) who was converted to Islam by her husband, she detonated an explosive belt containing 500–600 grams of TNT inside a bus carrying approximately 50 people, killing seven civilians and injuring at least 36 others.

The Investigative Committee of Russia recorded 661 terrorist offences for 2013, including 31 terrorist attacks, which claimed about 40 lives and dozens more injuries.[41]

2014

On October 5, 2014 a 19-year-old man named Opti Mudarov went to the town hall where an event was taking place to mark Grozny City Day celebrations in Grozny coinciding with the birthday of Chechen President Ramzan Kadyrov. Police officers noticed him acting strangely and stopped him. The officers began to search him and the bomb which Mudarov had been carrying exploded. Five officers, along with the suicide bomber, were killed, while 12 others were wounded.

On 4 December 2014, a group of Islamist militants, in three vehicles, killed three traffic policemen, after the latter had attempted to stop them at a checkpoint in the outskirts of Grozny.[42] The militants then occupied a press building and an abandoned school, located in the center of the city. Launching a counter-terrorism operation, security forces, with the use of armored vehicles, attempted to storm the buildings and a firefight ensued.[43]

14 policemen, 11 militants and 1 civilian were killed. Additionally 36 policemen were wounded in the incident. The Press House was also burned and severely damaged in the incident.[44][45]

2015

Metrojet Flight 9268 was an international chartered passenger flight operated by Russian airline Kogalymavia (branded as Metrojet). On 31 October 2015 at 06:13 local time EST (04:13 UTC), an Airbus A321-231 operating the flight disintegrated above the northern Sinai following its departure from Sharm El Sheikh International Airport, Egypt, en route to Pulkovo Airport, Saint Petersburg, Russia. All 217 passengers and seven crew members who were on board were killed.

Shortly after the crash, the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant (ISIL)'s Sinai Branch, previously known as Ansar Bait al-Maqdis, claimed responsibility for the incident, which occurred in the vicinity of the Sinai insurgency.[46][47] ISIL claimed responsibility on Twitter, on video, and in a statement by Abu Osama al-Masri, the leader of the group's Sinai branch.[48][49] ISIL posted pictures of what it said was the bomb in Dabiq, its online magazine.

By 4 November 2015, British and American authorities suspected that a bomb was responsible for the crash. On 8 November 2015, an anonymous member of the Egyptian investigation team said the investigators were "90 percent sure" that the jet was brought down by a bomb. Lead investigator Ayman al-Muqaddam said that other possible causes of the crash included a fuel explosion, metal fatigue, and lithium batteries overheating.[50] The Russian Federal Security Service announced on 17 November that they were sure that it was a terrorist attack, caused by an improvised bomb containing the equivalent of up to 1 kilogram (2.2 lb) of TNT that detonated during the flight. The Russians said they had found explosive residue as evidence. On 24 February 2016, Egyptian President Abdel Fattah el-Sisi acknowledged that terrorism caused the crash.[51]

2017

On 3 April 2017, a terrorist attack using an explosive device took place on the Saint Petersburg Metro between Sennaya Ploshchad and Tekhnologichesky Institut stations.[52] Seven people (including the perpetrator) were initially reported to have died, and eight more died later from their injuries, bringing the total to 15.[53][54][55][56][57] At least 45 others were injured in the incident.[58][59][60] The explosive device was contained in a briefcase.[58] A second explosive device was found and defused at Ploshchad Vosstaniya metro station.[56] The suspected perpetrator was named as Akbarzhon Jalilov, a Russian citizen who was an ethnic Uzbek born in Kyrgyzstan.[61] Prior to the attack, Chechen separatists had been responsible for several terrorist attacks in Russia. In 2016, ISIS had plotted to target St. Petersburg due to Russia's military involvement in Syria, resulting in arrests.[62] No public transport system in Russia had been bombed since the 2010 Moscow Metro bombings.[63]ISIS propaganda was being circulated prior to this incident. It encouraged supporters to launch strikes on Moscow. ISIS propaganda showed bullet holes through Putin's head and a poster circulated before the attack of a falling Kremlin and included the message "We Will Burn Russia."[64]

In 22 April 2017, two people were shot and killed in an attack in a Federal Security Service office in the Russian city of Khabarovsk. The gunman was also killed. The Russian Federal Security Service said that the native 18-year-old perpetrator was a known member of a neo-nazi group.;[65]

On 27 December 2017 a bomb exploded in a supermarket in St Petersburg, injuring thirteen people. Vladimir Putin described this as a terrorist attack.[66]

See also

References

  1. ↑ National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. (2016). Global Terrorism Database (globalterrorismdb_0616dist.xlsx). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland
  2. ↑ National Consortium for the Study of Terrorism and Responses to Terrorism. (2016). Global Terrorism Database (gtd1993_0616dist.xlsx). Retrieved from https://www.start.umd.edu/gtd University of Maryland
  3. ↑ See the "Etymology" section
  4. ↑ Humphreys, Adrian (17 January 2006). "One official's 'refugee' is another's 'terrorist'". National Post. p. 1. Archived from the original on 27 February 2011. Retrieved 11 October 2007. The divergent assessments of the same evidence on such an important issue shocks a leading terrorism researcher. 'The notion of terrorism is fairly straightforward — it is ideologically or politically motivated violence directed against civilian targets.'" said Professor Martin Rudner, director of the Canadian Centre of Intelligence and Security Studies at Ottawa's Carleton University.
  5. ↑ Terrorism and Communism by Karl Kautsky. Kautsky said: "It is, in fact, a widely spread idea that Terrorism belongs to the very essence of revolution, and that whoever wants a revolution must somehow come to some sort of terms with terrorism. As proof of this assertion, over and over again the great French Revolution has been cited." (Chapter 1)
  6. ↑ The Gulag Archipelago by Aleksandr Solzhenitsyn
  7. 1 2 3 4 Edvard Radzinsky Stalin: The First In-depth Biography Based on Explosive New Documents from Russia's Secret Archives (1997) ISBN 0-385-47954-9
  8. ↑ Anna Geifman. Entangled in Terror: The Azef Affair and the Russian Revolution, Wilmington, Scholarly Resources Inc., 2000, 247 pp. ISBN 0-8420-2651-7 ISBN 0-8420-2650-9
  9. ↑ Figes, Orlando (1996). A People's Tragedy: The Russian revolution, 1891-1924. New York: Penguin. p. 138. ISBN 014024364X.
  10. ↑ Yevgenia Albats and Catherine A. Fitzpatrick. The State Within a State: The KGB and Its Hold on Russia - Past, Present, and Future, 1994. ISBN 0-374-52738-5.
  11. ↑ Nicolas Werth, Karel Bartošek, Jean-Louis Panné, Jean-Louis Margolin, Andrzej Paczkowski, Stéphane Courtois, The Black Book of Communism: Crimes, Terror, Repression, Harvard University Press, 1999, hardcover, 858 pages, ISBN 0-674-07608-7
  12. ↑ David Satter. Darkness at Dawn: The Rise of the Russian Criminal State. Yale University Press. 2003. ISBN 0-300-09892-8.
  13. ↑ "Archived copy" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 27 September 2011. Retrieved 2012-01-29.
  14. ↑ "Oleg Kalugin: "Putin Is a Temporary Twist In History"". The Ukrainian Week. 2011-09-08. Retrieved 2016-01-12.
  15. ↑ Sakwa, Richard (2008). Putin, Russia's choice (2nd ed.). Routledge. pp. 333–334. ISBN 978-0-415-40765-6.
  16. ↑ Vladimir Putin & Russia's Special Services Archived 12 April 2016 at the Wayback Machine. Gordon Bennet, 2002
  17. ↑ Western treatment of Russia signifies erosion of reason Dr. Vlad Sobell, 2007. The same article at Russia Profile
  18. ↑ Russia Profile Weekly Experts Panel: Russian Presidential Election – Affirming Democracy or Confirming Autocracy? Archived 19 January 2011 at the Wayback Machine.
  19. ↑ Bowker, Mike (2005). "Western Views of the Chechen Conflict". In Richard Sakwa. Chechnya: From Past to Future (1st ed.). London: Anthem Press. pp. 223–238. ISBN 978-1-84331-164-5.
  20. ↑ Lazaredes, Nick (4 June 2003). "Terrorism takes front stage — Russia's theatre siege". SBS. Archived from the original on 21 August 2006. Retrieved 28 November 2006.
  21. ↑ М. Трепашкин: "Создана очень серьезная группа" (in Russian). Chechen Press State News Agency. 1 December 2006. Retrieved 2006-12-01.
  22. ↑ Special services stage undermining activities - by Yulia Latynina, Novaya Gazeta, 3 April 2006.
  23. ↑ The marketplace was blown up by photorobots by Vjacheslav Izmailov, Novaya Gazeta, 7 November 2005.
  24. ↑ The Moscow metro bombing - by Roman Kupchinsky, RFE/RL Reports, 12 March 2004
  25. ↑ Stomakhin, Boris (2006-10-12). "Pay back for genocide" (in Russian). Retrieved 2008-12-02.
  26. ↑ ARTICLE 19’S Statement on the conviction of Russian newspaper editor Boris Stomakhin, 23 November 200
  27. ↑ Ismailov, Vyacheslav (2005-01-27). "Special services of delivery". Novaya Gazeta (in Russian). Retrieved 2008-12-02.
  28. ↑ "Putin's Russia as a State Sponsor of Terrorism". World Affairs Journal. Retrieved 2017-06-09.
  29. ↑ "How Russia allowed homegrown radicals to go and fight in Syria". Reuters. Retrieved 2017-06-09.
  30. ↑ "The U.S. Considered Declaring Russia a State Sponsor of Terror, Then Dropped It — ProPublica". ProPublica. Sebastian Rotella. 2018-05-21. Retrieved 2018-05-23.
  31. ↑ State Duma Deputy: US Making strategic mistake Archived 29 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine. Pravda
  32. ↑ Darion Rhodes, Salafist-Takfiri Jihadism: the Ideology of the Caucasus Emirate, International Institute for Counter-Terrorism, March 2014
  33. ↑ Bigg, Claire. "Russia: Rights Groups Say Muslims Are Unfairly Targeted In Fight Against Terrorism". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty. Retrieved 2016-08-09. The Russian government is fabricating cases against Muslims in order to prosecute them for terrorism, leading Russian human rights campaigners charged today.
  34. ↑ Alex Goldfarb, with Marina Litvinenko Death of a Dissident: The Poisoning of Alexander Litvinenko and the Return of the KGB, The Free Press, 2007, ISBN 1-4165-5165-4
  35. ↑ Market Blast Kills 10 and Injures 55
  36. ↑ Russian court jails market bombers Archived 2008-05-19 at the Wayback Machine. Al Jazeera. 15 May 2008.
  37. 1 2 Число жертв теракта в Домодедово возросло до 37 (in Russian). RIA Novosti. 24 February 2011. Retrieved 24 February 2011.
  38. ↑ Steve Rosenberg (24 January 2011). "Moscow bombing: Carnage at Russia's Domodedovo airport". BBC News. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  39. ↑ На месте взрыва в Домодедово погиб 31 человек, сообщил Минздрав (in Russian). RIA Novosti. 24 January 2011. Retrieved 24 January 2011.
  40. ↑ "Russia 'identifies' Domodedovo airport bomber suspect". BBC News. 29 January 2011. Retrieved 2 February 2011.
  41. ↑ "Russia hit by 31 terror attacks in 2013 – chief investigator". TV-Novosti. February 27, 2014. Retrieved 5 March 2014.
  42. ↑ Walker, Shaun (4 December 2014). "Gun battles erupt in Chechnya's capital after militants launch attack". The Guardian. Retrieved 4 December 2014.
  43. ↑ "Putin thanks Kadyrov, Chechen law enforcers for counterterrorism operation in Grozny". ITAR-TASS. Moscow. 5 December 2014. Archived from the original on 5 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
  44. ↑ "В спецоперации в Грозном уничтожено 11 боевиков, заявил Кадыров". 5 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
  45. ↑ "Во время спецоперации в Грозном погибли 14 полицейских". 5 December 2014. Retrieved 5 December 2014.
  46. ↑ "Updates: Russian airliner crashes in Egypt's Sinai peninsula". BBC News. Retrieved 31 October 2015.
  47. ↑ "Russian plane that crashed in Egypt 'broke up in air'". France 24 News. Retrieved 2 November 2015.
  48. ↑ "Plane bombing mastermind unmasked as Egyptian cleric". The Sunday Times. 8 November 2015. Retrieved 8 November 2015.
  49. ↑ "Abu Osama al-Masri: Portrait of the Egyptian terrorist suspected of downing Russian plane". Regina Leader–Post. ISSN 0839-2870. Archived from the original on 3 March 2016. Retrieved 9 November 2015.
  50. ↑ Hassan, Ahmed Mohamed; Georgy, Michael (9 November 2015). "Investigators '90 percent sure' bomb downed Russian plane" (U.S. ed.). Reuters. Retrieved 11 November 2015.
  51. ↑ "Egypt's president admits Russian plane downed by 'terrorism'". Gulf Today. 24 February 2016.
  52. ↑ Youngman, Mark (6 April 2017). "Russia's domestic terrorism threat is serious, sophisticated and complex". The Conversation. The Conversation Trust (UK). Retrieved 9 April 2017. The April 3 bombing on the St Petersburg metro was the highest-profile terror attack on Russian soil since a suicide bombing at Moscow’s Domodedovo airport in January 2011.
  53. ↑ "Число жертв теракта в Петербурге выросло до 14 человек [Number of fatalities of the terrorist act in Petersburg has grown to fourteen people". Meduza. Meduza. 4 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017. В результате взрыва в метро Санкт-Петербурга погибли 14 человек, сообщила министр здравоохранения России Вероника Скворцова. [In the aftermath of explosion in the metro of Saint Petersburg 14 people have died, reported by the minister of health of Russia Veronika Skvortsova]
  54. ↑ "Signs of terror attack in St. Petersburg subway blast obvious – Kremlin". TASS. Saint Petersburg. 4 April 2017. Retrieved 4 April 2017. The Russian Investigative Committee has qualified the blast as a terrorist attack, but other versions are looked into.
  55. ↑ MacFarquhar, Neil; Nechepureneko, Ivan. "Explosion in St. Petersburg Metro Kills at Least 10". The New York Times. The New York Times. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
  56. 1 2 "Взрыв в метро Санкт-Петербурга: погибли 10 человек" [Explosion in Metro St. Petersburg, killing 10 people] (in Russian). BBC Russia. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
  57. ↑ "В петербургской больнице скончались двое пострадавших при взрыве в метро" [Two injured in the explosion in the subway died in the St. Petersburg hospital] (in Russian). RIA Novosti. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
  58. 1 2 "St Petersburg metro explosions kill ten – media". BBC. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
  59. ↑ "At least 10 people may have been killed by Russia metro blast: TASS". Reuters. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
  60. ↑ "Explosion in St. Petersburg Metro, fatalities confirmed (GRAPHIC IMAGES)". Russia: RT. 3 April 2017. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
  61. ↑ "St Petersburg metro bombing suspect 'from Kyrgyzstan'". BBC News. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
  62. ↑ Bergen, Peter (4 April 2017). "The likely culprits behind the St. Petersburg bombing". CNN. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
  63. ↑ Ioffe, Julia (4 April 2017). "How Russians Got Used to Terrorism". The Atlantic. Retrieved 4 April 2017.
  64. ↑ Griffin, Andrew (4 April 2017). "St Petersburg attacks: Isis celebrates explosions that killed 10 people". Retrieved 4 April 2017.
  65. ↑ "Murderous attack on FSB office in Khabarovsk 'was by a neo-Nazi - not an IS terrorist'". siberiantimes.com. Retrieved 2018-03-10.
  66. ↑ Stonestreet, John (28 December 2017). "Putin says St Petersburg supermarket bombing was terrorism". Retrieved 28 December 2017.
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