Luis Echeverría

Luis Echeverría
OMRI GCB OJ (Hon.)
50th President of Mexico
In office
1 December 1970 – 30 November 1976
Preceded by Gustavo Díaz Ordaz
Succeeded by José López Portillo
Secretary of the Interior
In office
16 November 1963 – 11 November 1969
President Adolfo López Mateos
Gustavo Díaz Ordaz
Preceded by Gustavo Díaz Ordaz
Succeeded by Mario Moya Palencia
Personal details
Born Luis Echeverría Álvarez
(1922-01-17) 17 January 1922
Mexico City, Mexico
Nationality Mexican
Political party Institutional Revolutionary Party
Spouse(s) María Esther Zuno Arce
(m. 1945–1999, her death)
Children 8
Alma mater National Autonomous University of Mexico

Luis Echeverría Álvarez, OMRI GCB OJ (Hon.) (Spanish pronunciation: [lwis etʃeβeˈri.a ˈalβaɾes]; born 17 January 1922)[1] is a Mexican politician affiliated with the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) who served as the 50th President of Mexico from 1970 to 1976. At 96, he is currently the oldest living former Mexican president.

His presidency was characterized by his authoritarian manners,[2] the 1971 Corpus Christi massacre against student protesters, the Dirty War against leftist sublevations in the country (while adopting a leftist-populist rhetoric himself),[3][4] and the economic crisis that occurred in Mexico towards the end of his term.[5]

At the international stage, he attempted to become a leader of the so-called "Third World", the countries that were not aligned with either the US or the USSR during the Cold War;[6] he established diplomatic relations with the People's Republic of China after visiting the country and meeting with Mao Zedong,[7], strained relations with Israel (and Jews in the United States) after supporting a UN resolution that equated Zionism to racism,[8][9] and unsuccessfully tried to become Secretary-General of the United Nations.[10]

In 2006, he was indicted and ordered under house arrest for his role in the 1968 Tlatelolco massacre and the 1971 Corpus Christi massacre,[11] but in 2009 the charges against him were dismissed and he regained freedom.[12]

Early life and career

He was born in Mexico City to Rodolfo Echeverría and Catalina Álvarez. Echeverría joined the faculty of the National Autonomous University of Mexico in 1947 and taught political theory. He rose in the hierarchy of the Institutional Revolutionary Party (PRI) and eventually became the private secretary of the party president, Rodolfo Sánchez Taboada.

Echeverría served as Interior Secretary under President Gustavo Díaz Ordaz from 1964 to 1970. He maintained a hard line against student protesters throughout 1968. Clashes between the government and protesters culminated in the Tlatelolco massacre in October 1968, a few days before the 1968 Summer Olympics were held in Mexico City.[13][14] In a separate incident, he ordered the transfer of 15% of the Mexican military to the state of Guerrero to counter guerrilla groups that were operating there.

Presidency

Domestic policy

US President Richard Nixon (left) and Luis Echeverría reviewing US troops (1972).

Echeverría was the first president born after the Mexican Revolution. At one point during his campaign for the presidency, Echeverría called for a moment of silence to remember the victims of the Tlatelolco massacre, an act that enraged President Díaz Ordaz and almost prompted him to call for Echeverría's resignation. Once Echeverría became president, he embarked on a massive program of populist political and economic reform, nationalizing the mining and electrical industries, redistributing private land in the states of Sinaloa and Sonora to peasants, imposing limits on foreign investment, and extending Mexico's patrimonial waters to 370 kilometres (230 mi). State spending on health, housing construction, education, and food subsidies was also significantly increased,[15] and the percentage of the population covered by the social security system was doubled.[16]

However, he enraged the left because he did not bring the perpetrators of the Corpus Christi massacre to justice. Also, he angered the business community with his populist rhetoric and his moves to nationalize industries and redistribute land. He was unpopular within the rank and file of his own party.

After decades of economic growth under his predecessors, the Echeverría administration oversaw an economic crisis during its final months, becoming the first in a series of Presidencies in Mexico that faced severe economic crises during the next two decades.[17] Echeverría was accused of irresponsible government spending, increasing inflation, and cronyism, which was symbolized by appointing his childhood friend and eventual successor, José López Portillo, as Finance Minister as well as by repeatedly devaluing the peso, from 12.50 pesos per dollar in 1954 to 20 pesos per dollar in late 1976. During his period in office, the country's external debt soared from $6 billion in 1970 to $20 billion in 1976.[5] That caused a gradual loss of prestige in the ruling party, at least in terms of its economic policies, at home and abroad. At the end of his term, Mexico was in a state of economic crisis.

On 8 October 1974, Echeverría issued a decree creating the new Mexican states of Baja California Sur and Quintana Roo.[18]

During the administration of Echeverría, a new Federal Election Law was approved:

  • Lowered the number of members a party needed to become officially registered from 75,000 to 65,000
  • Increased the number of Congress seats chosen according to proportional representation principle from 20 to 25
  • Introduction of a permanent voting card
  • Established the age of candidacy at 21, from 30.[19]

Several leftist guerrilla groups began operations: kidnappings and bank robberies. The government engaged in a dirty war in which hundreds of rebel suspects were tortured, killed, or disappeared from 1964 to 1982, to put an end to the revolutionary movements.[20]

Following the PRI tradition, Echeverría handpicked his successor for the Presidency, and chose his Finance Minister and childhood friend, José López Portillo, to be the PRI Presidential candidate for the 1976 elections. Due to a series of events and an internal conflict in the opposition party PAN, López Portillo was the only candidate in the Presidential election, winning unopposed.[21]

Ban on Rock music

As consequence of numerous student and youth protest movements during this administration, the PRI and President Echeverría attempted to neutralize the politicized youth. In late 1971, after the Corpus Christi massacre and the Avándaro Rock Festival, Echeverría famously issued a ban on almost every form of Rock music recorded by Mexican bands. The ban (also known as "Avandarazo" because it was in response to the Avándaro Rock Festival, which had been criticized by the conservative sectors of the PRI) included forbidding the recording of most forms of Rock music by national groups and the prohibition of its sales in retail stores, as well as forbidding live rock concerts and the airplay of rock songs. The ban lasted for many years, and it was only gradually lifted in the 1980s[22][23][24][25].

Foreign policy

With the so-called "tercermundismo" ("Third Worldism") a reorientation in Mexican foreign policy took place during the presidential term of Echeverría. He showed his solidarity with the developing nations and tried to establish Mexico as the defender of Third World interests.[26] The aims of Echeverría's foreign policy were to diversify Mexico's economic links and to fight for a more equal and just international order.[27]

He visited numerous countries and had strong ties with the socialist governments of Cuba and Chile. Echeverría visited Cuba in 1975.[28] Also, Mexico provided political asylum to many political refugees from South American countries who fled their country's repressive military dictatorships; among them Hortensia Bussi, the widow of former Chilean President Salvador Allende.[29] Moreover, he condemned Zionism and allowed the Palestine Liberation Organization to open an office in the capital.[30]

Echeverría's candidacy rode a wave of anger by citizens in Northwestern Mexico against the United States for its use (and perceived misappropriation) of water from the Colorado River, which drains much of the American Southwest before crossing into Mexico. The established treaty between the US and Mexico called for the US to allow a specified volume of water, 1.85 cubic kilometres (0.44 cu mi), to pass the U.S.-Mexican border, but it did not establish any quality levels. Throughout the 20th century, the United States, through its water policy managed by the United States Bureau of Reclamation, had developed wideranging irrigation along the river, which had led to progressively higher levels of salinity in the water as it moved downstream. By the late 1960s, the high salinity of the water crossing into Mexico had resulted in the ruin of large tracts of the irrigated land along the lower Colorado.

The sudden increase in oil prices in 1973, coupled with the possibility of new Mexican oil deposits in the Bay of Campeche, gave Echeverría a strong bargaining position against the Nixon administration in the United States. Echeverría threatened to bring the issue to the World Court, prompting the Nixon administration to renegotiate the treaty to include a salinity-control agreement. The implementation of salinity control at the border (supposed to be at US expense) has been ongoing and slow, however, and the lower Colorado remains largely a desolate shadow of what it once was.

Campaign for United Nations Secretary-General

As the end of his term approached, Echeverría sought to parlay his Third World credentials into a position as Secretary-General of the United Nations. Instead of stepping back to pave the way for José López Portillo to succeed him, Echeverría maintained a high public profile until the end of his term. Portillo's aides expressed their hope that Echeverría could become Secretary-General so that he would be out of the country for most of Portillo's term.[31]

Secretary-General Kurt Waldheim of Austria was running for a second term in the 1976 Secretary-General selection. Although Secretaries-General usually run unopposed, China was dissatisfied that a European headed an organization that had a Third World majority.[32] On 18 October 1976, Echeverría entered the race against Waldheim.[33] However, he was defeated by a large margin when the Security Council voted on 7 December 1976. China cast one symbolic veto against Waldheim in the first round and then voted in favor in the second round. Echeverría received only 3 votes to Waldheim's 14, with only Panama abstaining to deny Waldheim a unanimous victory.[10]

Continued influence

Echeverría's brother-in-law, Rubén Zuno Arce, was convicted by a California court in 1992 and sentenced to life in prison for his role as leader of the Guadalajara drug cartel and the murder of a US federal agent seven years earlier.[34] Echeverría repeatedly requested President Carlos Salinas to pressure Washington for the release of Zuno Arce but to no avail.

After leaving office, Salinas, the president from 1988 to 1994, publicly accused Echeverría of inspiring the murder of their party's presidential candidate in March 1994 and of leading a conspiracy against Salinas's reformist allies in the party, which had led to a systemic political and economic crisis.[35] Salinas claimed that Echeverría pressed him to replace the murdered candidate, Luis Donaldo Colosio, with an old-guard figure. Echeverría brushed off the accusations as absurd.

After the defeat of the PRI in the general elections of July 2000, it emerged that Vicente Fox (the president from 2000 to 2006) had met privately with Echeverría at the latter's home in Mexico City numerous times during the former's presidential campaign in 1999 and 2000.[36]

Fox appointed several Echeverría loyalists to top positions in his government, including Adolfo Aguilar Zínser, who headed Echeverría's "Third World University" in the 1970s, as national security advisor and Juan José Bremer (Echeverría's personal secretary) as ambassador to Washington. The most controversial was Alejandro Gertz Manero, who had been accused by the Mexican press of bearing responsibility for the suicide of a museum owner in 1972, as Gertz, then working for Echeverría's attorney general, attempted to confiscate his private collection of pre-Hispanic artifacts (Echeverría has a collection of such artifacts).[37] Fox appointed Gertz as chief of the Federal Police.

Later life

In 2002, he was the first political official called to testify before the Mexican justice system for the massacre of students in the Plaza de las Tres Culturas in Tlatelolco in 1968.

In February 2006, at 84, he was hospitalized for a problem of blood supply to the brain.

On 4 April 2006, a total of 14 sites in Cozumel were seized for 30 years' accumulated municipal tax debt, amounting to nearly 2 million pesos.

On 23 July 2006, a special prosecutor indicted Echeverría and requested his arrest for allegedly ordering the attack that killed and wounded many student demonstrators during a protest in Mexico City over education funding on 10 June 1971. The incident became known as the Corpus Christi massacre for the feast day on which it took place, but also as the Halconazo ("Falcon Strike") since the special unit involved was called Los Halcones ("The Falcons"). The evidence against Echeverría appeared to be based on documents that allegedly show that he ordered the formation of special army units that committed the killings and that he had received regular updates about the episode and its aftermath from his chief of secret police. At the time, the government argued police forces and civilian demonstrators were attacked and people on both sides killed by armed civilians, who were convicted and later freed because of a general amnesty.

After the political transition of 2000, Echeverría was charged with genocide by the special prosecutor, an untested charge in the Mexican legal system, partly because the statute of limitations for charges of homicide had expired (charges of genocide under Mexican law have no statute of limitations since 2002). On 24 July 2004, a judge refused to issue an arrest warrant for Echeverría because of the statute of limitations, apparently rejecting the special prosecutor's assertion of genocide-based special circumstances. The special prosecutor said that he would appeal the judge's decision. Echeverría has steadfastly denied any complicity in the killings.

On 24 February 2005, the Supreme Court of Justice decided 4-1 that the statute of limitations (30 years) had expired by the time the prosecution began and that Mexico's ratification by Congress in 2002 of the convention on 26 November 1968, signed by the president on 3 July 1969 but ratified by Congress on 10 December 2001 and coming into effect 90 days later, which states that genocide has no statute of limitations, could not be applied retroactively to Echeverría's case since only Congress can make such agreements part of the legal system.

Charges of genocide, which would have been difficult to sustain even if they were accepted, were about the last hope for Echeverría's prosecution. While the case is still technically open in court, it will be difficult to obtain a conviction. The prosecution argued before the Supreme Court that political conditions prevented an earlier prosecution, the president was constitutionally protected against charges for his full term so the statute of limitations should be extended, and the UN convention accepted by Mexico covered past events of genocide.

The Supreme Court said that the law did not take into account political conditions and presidential immunity in calculating the statute of limitations, the prosecution failed to prove earlier charges against the defendants (producing only photocopies, with no legal value, of supposed legal proceedings from the late 1970s and early 1980s), and Article 14 of the Mexican Constitution bans retroactivity of laws.

On 20 September 2005, the special prosecutor for crimes of the past filed genocide charges against Echeverría for his responsibility, as interior minister at the time, in the 2 October 1968 Tlatelolco massacre. Again, the assigned criminal judge dismissed the file and held that the statute of limitations had expired and that the massacre did not constitute genocide. An arrest warrant for Echeverría was issued by a Mexican court on 30 June 2006, but he was found not guilty of the charges on 8 July 2006. Echeverría is now suing the PRD for untrue allegations. On 29 November 2006, he was charged with the massacres and ordered under house arrest by a Mexican judge.[11]

Finally, on 26 March 2009, a federal court ordered the absolute freedom of the former president and dismissed the charge of genocide for the events of Tlatelolco.

On 15 January 2018, it was reported that he had died, but this was denied. On 17 January 2018, he celebrated his 96th birthday in hospital and was discharged on 18 January.[38][39]

On 1 April 2018, with a lifespan of 35,138 days, he surpassed Pedro Lascuráin (1856–1952) in terms of longevity, and is now the oldest former president in Mexican history.

He was hospitalized again on 21 June 2018.[40] On 4 July he remained in hospital and search more than 2 weeks treatment.[41] He was discharged on 10 July 2018.[42]

Honours and awards

Personal life

On 2 January 1945, Echeverría married to María Esther Zuno (8 December 1924 – 4 December 1999) and had eight children.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Profile of Luis Echeverría Álvarez
  2. ↑ Grindle, Merilee (1977). Policy Change in an Authoritarian Regime: Mexico under Echeverria. Cambridge University Press. pp. 523–555.
  3. ↑ Reuters Editorial (2007-04-05). "Rights group urges Mexico to resolve "dirty war"". Reuters. Retrieved 2016-10-29.
  4. ↑ Michael Evans. "The Dawn of Mexico's Dirty War". Gwu.edu. Retrieved 2016-10-29.
  5. 1 2 Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2003). Historia de México Vol. II. Pearson Educación. pp. 387–388.
  6. ↑ Narain Roy, Ash (1999). The Third World in the Age of Globalisation: Requiem Or New Agenda?. Zed Books. p. 56.
  7. ↑ González, Fredy (2017). Paisanos Chinos: Transpacific Politics among Chinese Immigrants in Mexico. University of California Press. p. 177.
  8. ↑ "Mexico Votes for General Assembly Resolution Condemning Zionism". Jewish Telegraphic Agency. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  9. ↑ "Mexico Tells U.S. Jews It Does Not Link Zionism With Racism". The New York Times. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  10. 1 2 "Waldheim is Backed by Security Council for Five Years More". The New York Times. 8 December 1976.
  11. 1 2 "Warrant for Mexico ex-president". BBC News. 30 June 2006. Retrieved 11 May 2010.
  12. ↑ "Exculpa tribunal a Luis Echeverría". La Jornada (in Spanish). 27 March 2009. Retrieved 8 March 2018.
  13. ↑ Shapira, Yoram (1977). "Mexico: The Impact of the 1968 Student Protest on Echeverria's Reformism". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Nov., 1977), pp. 557-580 .
  14. ↑ Grindle, Merilee S. (1977). "Policy Change in an Authoritarian Regime: Mexico under Echeverria". Journal of Interamerican Studies and World Affairs, Vol. 19, No. 4 (Nov., 1977), pp. 523-555.
  15. ↑ The Penguin History of Latin America by Edwin Williamson
  16. ↑ Gendered struggles against globalisation in Mexico by Teresa Healy
  17. ↑ Fernández. Íñigo. Panorama Editorial. p. 123. ISBN 978-968-38-1697-9.
  18. ↑ "Fallece Félix Agramont Cota, primer gobernador de BCS". La Crónica de Hoy. 2013-05-12. Retrieved 2013-06-10.
  19. ↑ Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2003). Historia de México Vol. II. Pearson Educación. p. 349.
  20. ↑ "Mexico 'dirty war' crimes alleged". BBC. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  21. ↑ Fernández. Íñigo. Panorama Editorial. p. 123. ISBN 978-968-38-1697-9.
  22. ↑ Poniatowska, Elena (18 November 2007). "El poeta Alberto Blanco". La Jornada. Retrieved 27 September 2014.
  23. ↑ Doggett, Peter (4 October 2007). There's A Riot Going On: Revolutionaries, Rock Stars, and the Rise and Fall of '60s Counter-Culture (1st ed.). UK: Canongate Books Ltd. p. 431. ISBN 978-1847671141.
  24. ↑ Pilcher, Jeffrey M. (2002). The human tradition in Mexico. USA: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 221. ISBN 978-0842029766. Retrieved 24 June 2014.
  25. ↑ Lopez Segura, Eduardo (12 September 2013). "Avandaro y el festival de rock de 1971". Televisa. Noticieros Televisa. Retrieved 24 June 2014.
  26. ↑ Coerver, Don M. (2004). Mexico: An Encyclopedia of Contemporary Culture and History. ABC-CLIO. p. 153.
  27. ↑ Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2003). Historia de México Vol. II. Pearson Educación. p. 373.
  28. ↑ Delgado de Cantú, Gloria M. (2003). Historia de México Vol. II. Pearson Educación. p. 371.
  29. ↑ "Hortensia Bussi, Wife of Salvador Allende of Chile, Dies at 94". The New York Times. Retrieved 25 October 2013.
  30. ↑ Watt, Peter; Zepeda, Roberto (2012). Drug War Mexico: Politics, Neoliberalism and Violence in the New Narcoeconomy. London: Zed Books. ISBN 9781848138896. Echeverría later condemned Zionist expansion at the United Nations, criticising Israel's further incursion into Palestinian territory and its repression of the Palestinians, and allowed the Palestine Liberation Organisation (PLO) to open an office in Mexico City.
  31. ↑ Riding, Alan Riding (16 May 1976). "Retiring Mexican Is Not So Retiring". The New York Times.
  32. ↑ Hofmann, Paul (17 April 1976). "It's Election Year at U.N., With Waldheim Post Open". The New York Times.
  33. ↑ Grose, Peterr (19 October 1976). "Echeverria Indicates Readiness To Take Waldheim's Post at U.N." The New York Times.
  34. ↑ See www.ca9.uscourts.gov/ca9/newopinions.nsf/B989B7B5F7111E9C88256E5A00707ADE/$file/9856770.pdf?openelement
  35. ↑ See Julia Preston, "Salinas Denies New Charges by Mexico", New York Times, 5 December 1995. https://query.nytimes.com/gst/fullpage.html?res=9A01E3DB1139F936A35751C1A963958260
  36. ↑ See Martin Walker, "Walker's World: Why President Fox Failed", United Press International, 26 December 2006. "Archived copy". Archived from the original on 4 June 2008. Retrieved 11 November 2007.
  37. ↑ See "Dejó Fox en manos de Luis Echeverría los mandos de las policías federales", El Heraldo de Chihuahua, 6 April 2006. http://www.ariasking.com/files/HeraldoChih4.pdf
  38. ↑
  39. ↑ https://www.am.com.mx/2018/01/18/mexico/dan-de-alta-a-luis-echeverria--422599
  40. ↑
  41. ↑
  42. ↑ http://www.eluniversal.com.mx/nacion/politica/el-ex-presidente-luis-echeverria-sale-del-hospital-tras-superar-neumonia
  43. ↑ "ECHEVERRIA ALVAREZ S.E. Luis decorato di Gran Cordone" (in Italian). Archived from the original on 30 October 2013. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
  44. ↑ "Reply to a parliamentary question" (PDF) (in German). p. 397. Retrieved 14 October 2012.
  45. ↑ "Order of the Bath". Wikipedia. 2017-08-03.

Sources

  • Werner, Michael (Ed.) (1997). Encyclopedia of Mexico: History, Society, and Culture. Chicago: Fitzroy Dearborn.
  • Reisner, Marc. Cadillac Desert (regarding lower Colorado water issues).
  • Schmidt, Samuel (1972). El deterioro del presidencialismo mexicano. Mexico D.F.: EDAMEX.
Political offices
Preceded by
Gustavo Díaz Ordaz		 President of Mexico
1970–1976		 Succeeded by
José López Portillo
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