Racism in Italy

Racism in Italy deals with the relationship between Italians and other populations of different nationalities which has existed throughout the country's history. Racism, like bigotry, is encountered in most societies, and Italy is no exception.[1] Even though a unified sense of national-corporate identity as found in the classic European nations to the north has been historically fragile,[2] the peoples of Italy have long prided themselves on an absence of racial enmity.[3]

Front page of the Italian newspaper Corriere della Sera on 11 November 1938: the fascist regime approved the racial laws, enacting persecution of the Italian Jews. The title reads: The laws for the defense of race approved by the Council of Ministers.

These ideas were first inculcated when Italy began invading and colonizing African countries, though policies regarding "miscegenated" children (meticci) were confusing.[4] Under Benito Mussolini's fascist state, once the Italian régime consolidated its pact with Nazi Germany, anti-Semitic laws were passed, as were laws prohibiting internal migration under certain circumstances.[5] The post-war mass migration from Southern Italy towards the more industrialized North engendered a degree of diffidence across the Italian social strata. A successive wave of immigration by extracomunitari (non-EU immigrants; the word has strong undertones of rejection)[6] from the late 80s, gave rise to political movements, like the Northern League, once hostile to the so-called terroni (an Italian slur against southern Italians) and clandestini (illegal immigrants: this word also has a strongly negative connotation of secrecy and criminal behavior[7]) from the areas south of the Mediterranean.

In 2011, a report by Human Rights Watch pointed to growing indications of a rise in xenophobia within the Italian society.[8][9] A 2017 Pew Research Center survey indicated Italy as the most racist country in western Europe.[10] A 2019 survey by Sgw revealed that 55% of the Italian interviewees justified the perpetration of racist acts.[11]

Middle Ages

In Medieval Italy, slavery was widespread, but was justified more often on religious rather than racial grounds.[12] Almost all slaves in Genoa belonged to non-European races; the situation was different in Venice and Palermo, where emancipated slaves were considered free citizens in the 13th century.[12]

19th and early 20th centuries

Lombroso and scientific racism in Italy

Even though there was already a wealth of Italian works engaging in racially motivated research on some groups, like those pertaining to the "Oriental" character of the Sardinians living under Savoyard rule,[13] or their supposedly malevolent and "degenerated" nature,[14][15] scientific racism as a proper discipline began to impose itself at the national level only through the works of the criminologist Cesare Lombroso. Lombroso's theory of atavism compared the "white civilization" among the other races with the "primitive" or "savage" societies.[16]

A skull sample of an "atavistic" individual studied by Cesare Lombroso.
Geographical distribution of blond hair in the "Italian geographical region", according to the physical anthropologist Renato Biasutti (1941).[17]

Lombroso would publish his thesis in the wake of the Italian unification, thus providing an explanation for the unrest developing immediately thereafter in the recently annexed portion of the new country; the people inhabiting the formerly Bourbon Kingdom were in fact racially stereotyped, thereby fostering feelings of Northern Italian supremacy over the Southeners,[12] while being paradoxically integrated in the nation's broad collective imaginary;[18] he deemed the Southerners in Italy to be "atavistic", alongside criminals and prostitutes.[19]

Lombroso's theories connecting physiognomy to criminal behavior explicitly blamed higher homicide rates in Calabria, Sicily, and once again the Savoy-ruled island of Sardinia upon some residual influence of "African" and "Asian" blood amongst their populations.[12] According to Lombroso, facial features like black hair, slight beard, bigger lips and longer nose were signs of such foreign "contamination" and directly correlated with a natural predisposition to delinquency.[12]

In 1871, Lombroso published "The White Man and the Man of Color", aimed at showing that the white man was superior in every respect to other races.[20] Lombroso explicitly stated his belief in white supremacy: «It's a question of knowing if we whites, who haughtily tower over the summit of civilization, ought one day to bow down before the prognathous muzzle of the black, and the yellow, and to the frightful face of the Mongol; if, in the end, we owe our primacy to our biological organism or to the accidents of chance. (...) Only we whites have achieved the most perfect symmetry in the forms of the body [...] possess a true musical art [...] have proclaimed the freedom of the slave [...] have procured the liberty of thought».[12] Lombroso proceeded again to equate the criminal offending of the white population to some inherited physical traits, pointing to a varying degree of residual "blackness".[20][21]

Lombroso, who also wrote extensively on the topic of anti-Semitism in Europe and attacked anti-Semitic racial theory, distinguished between European Jews, as generally "Aryan", and traditionalist Jews whose religious practices he excoriated.[22][23][24]

The ideas expounded by Lombroso about race would enjoy a great deal of popularity in Italy, and would therefrom spread outward across the whole of Europe by the end of the 19th century.[21]

Other Italian anthropologists and sociologists also expanded on the theories previously set by Lombroso. The Sicilian Alfredo Niceforo followed Lombroso's physiognomical approach, and in 1906 published a racial theory wherein blond pigmentation of hair and dark skin were considered signs of degeneration, with the "Italian race" situated in a positive middle ground.[12] According to Niceforo, the reason as to why criminal behaviour was so entrenched in inner Sardinia firmly lay in the racial inferiority of the native population,[25] more specifically stating that it was due to latter's historical isolation and the resulting «quality of the race that populated those areas, a race absolutely lacking the plasticity which causes the social conscience to change and evolve».[26][27][28]

Niceforo held these views as late as 1952, claiming that «Negroid and Mongoloid types were more frequent in the lower classes».[12] In 1907 anthropologist Ridolfo Livi attempted to show that Mongolian facial features correlated with poorer populations. However, he maintained that the superiority of the "Italian race" was proven by its capability to positively assimilate other ethnic components.[12]

Fascist Italy

Anti-Semitism before 1938

Italian Jews had one of the highest rates of integration in mixed marriages in the diaspora. Jews fervently supported the Risorgimento, identified as Italian nationalists, proved valiant as soldiers in WW1, and, in terms of their relatively small numerical presence within the general population, went on to later form a disproportionate part of the Fascist party from its beginnings down to 1938.[29][30]

It is still debated whether Italian Fascism was originally anti-Semitic. Mussolini originally distinguished his position from Hitler's fanatical racism while affirming he himself was a Zionist. More broadly, he even proposed building a mosque in Rome as a sign that Italy was the Protector of Islam, a move blocked by a horrified Pope. German propagandists often derided what they called Italy's "Kosher Fascism".[31] There were however some Fascists, Roberto Farinacci and Giovanni Preziosi being prime examples, who held fringe extremist racist views before the alliance with Nazi Germany.[32][33] Preziosi was the first to publish an Italian edition of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, in 1921, which was published almost simultaneously with a version issued by Umberto Benigni in supplements to Fede e Ragione..[34][35][36] The book however had little impact until the mid-1930s.[36]

It has also been indicated Benito Mussolini had his own, if somewhat different from Nazi, brand of racist views.[37][38] Mussolini was quoted as saying: "the white man has to subdue the black, brown and yellow races."[39]

Mussolini had held the view that a small contingent of Italian Jews had lived in Italy "since the days of the Kings of Rome" (a reference to the Bené Roma) and should "remain undisturbed".[40] One of Mussolini's mistresses, Margherita Sarfatti, was Jewish. There were even some Jews in the National Fascist Party, such as Ettore Ovazza who founded the Jewish Fascist paper La Nostra Bandiera in 1935.[41] Mussolini once declared "Anti-Semitism does not exist in Italy... Italians of Jewish birth have shown themselves good citizens and they fought bravely in [World War I]."[42]

Despite the presence of a Fascist regime, Italy in the first half of the 1930s was seen as a safe haven by some Jewish refugees. The country hosting up to 11,000 persecuted Jews, including 2,806 of German descent.[43] However, as early as 1934 there had been removals of Jewish personnel from institutions and state organizations.[43] 1934 also saw press campaigns against anti-fascist Jews, equating them with Zionists.[44] Between 1936 and 1938, Fascist regime-endorsed anti-Semitic propaganda was mounting in the press and even in graffiti. Equally, scholars of eugenetics, statistics, anthropology and demographics began to outline racist theories.[43]

Racial laws

In 1937, the Second Italo-Ethiopian War led to the first Fascist Laws promoting explicit racial discrimination. These were the laws against madamato – that is, the concubinage between Italians and African women in occupied territories.[36][45] The penalty for madamato was from one to five years of prison.[45] Remarkably, one of the justifications of the laws was that such relationships were abusive towards the women. In the occupied Eritrea women in fact took marriage by the traditional custom of dämòz, which was not legally recognized by the Italian state, thus relieving the husband from any legal obligation toward the woman.[46] However, at the same time, a campaign against the putative dangers of miscegenation started in Italy.[36] The Church endorsed the laws which stated the "hybrid unions" had to be forbidden because of "the wise, hygienic and socially moral reasons intended by the State": the "inconvenience of a marriage between a White and a Negro", plus the "increasing moral deficiencies in the character of the children".[45]

In the late 1930s Benito Mussolini became a major ally of Nazi Germany, culminating in the Pact of Steel. The influence of Nazi ideology on Italian Fascism appeared in a 16 February 1938 press release by Mussolini in which some restrictions on Jewish people were suggested.[43] An anti-Semitic press campaign intensified, with Jews blamed for high food prices and unemployment.[44] The Fascist regime assumed an overt racist position with the Manifesto of Race, originally published as Il fascismo e i problemi della razza ("Fascism and the problems of race"), on 14 July 1938 in Il Giornale d'Italia. The Manifesto was then reprinted in August in the first issue of the scientific racist magazine La Difesa della Razza ("The Defense of Race"), endorsed by Mussolini and at the direction of Telesio Interlandi.[47] On 5 August 1938 Mussolini issued another press release, this time acknowledging that restrictions on Jews were going to be enacted. The release noted that "segregating does not mean persecuting", but persecution had in fact begun.[43]

The anti-Semitic metamorphosis of Fascism culminated in the racial laws of 18 September 1938. Although they did not directly threaten Jewish lives, the laws excluded Jews from public education, the military and government, and made it practically impossible for them to pursue most economic activities. Jews could not hire non-Jews. The marriage of Jews to non-Jews were also prohibited.[44]

Fascist racism also impacted French, German, and Slavic minorities, most notably in the attempts to fully Italianize the Balkans' territories that were annexed after World War I.[48]

Julius Evola
Main article: Julius Evola § Race

Julius Evola was an intellectual of war and post-war period. It is believed that Evola was the main Italian theoretician of racism during the 20th century.[49] Evola published two systematic works on racism, including The Blood Myth (1937) and Synthesis of the Doctrine of Race (1941). Furthermore, Evola discussed the subject in a substantial number of articles in several Italian journals and magazines.[50] Evola also introduced the 1937 edition of the Protocols of the Elders of Zion, published by Giovanni Preziosi. Evola wrote:

Whether or not the controversial Protocols of the Learned Elders of Zion are false or authentic does not affect the symptomatic value of the document in question, that is, the fact, that many of the things that have occurred in modern times, having taken place after their publication, effectively agree with the plans assumed in that document, perhaps more than a superficial observer might believe.[51]

While The Blood Myth aimed at being an impartial review of the history and latest developments of racism theories in Europe, Synthesis of the Doctrine of the Race introduced the concept of spiritual racism.[50] This concept met with the approval of Benito Mussolini. Mussolini was looking for a theoretical justification of racism different from that of biological racism, which was mainstream in Nazi Germany.[50] Evola's brought together several underlying themes of her thought. Among those themes were anti-Darwinism, anti-materialism and anti-reductionism. Anti-Darwinism is the concept of history as regressive, positioning the apex of civilization at the beginning of history.[50] For Evola, race existed on three levels: body race, soul race and spiritual race. The concept was pinned to a transcendent foundation. Evola wrote: "[r]ace and caste exist in the spirit before manifesting themselves in the earthly existence. The difference comes from the top, what refers to it on earth is only a reflection, a symbol."[50] Evola explicitly criticized the Nazi racist view, deeming them "trivial darwinism" or "divinified biologism".[52] For Evola, the Jewish race was not meant to be discriminated for mere biological reasons. In fact, Jewishness was essentially instead a "race of the soul, an unmistakable and hereditary style of action and attitude to life."[50] Evola's spiritual racism was more powerful than biological racism, because it also recognized Jewishness as a spiritual and cultural component which tainted what Evola recognized as the Aryan race.[50] Despite this peculiar theoretical elaboration, Evola's overall description of Jewishness was not particularly different from the common racist stereotypes of this period.[50]

Second World War

During the Second World War, Italians engaged in ethnic cleansing. In the summer and autumn of 1942, as many as 65,000 Italian soldiers destroyed several areas of occupied Slovenia. Many areas were left almost depopulated after the killing and arrest of the residents. Between 1941 and the Grand Council's deposing of Benito Mussolini on 25 July 1943, 25,000 Slovenians (roughly 8% of the population in the Ljubljana area) were put in Italian detention camps.[48]

In order to close Italian borders to all refugees and to expel illegal Jewish immigrants, Italian authorities complied with German requests to deport Jews in the occupied Balkans and French territories.[48]

A pivotal event of the Jewish persecution in Italy during the war was the so-called razzia, or roundup of October 1943, in Rome. On the morning of 16 October 1943, German troops arrested as many as 1259 Jews for deportation to Nazi concentration camps.[53] The Vatican, convents, monasteries and other Catholic homes and institutions had taken pre-emptive actions days prior to hide Jews, resulting in over four thousand escaping deportation.[53][54]

Mussolini also played upon long-standing racist attitudes against Sicilians, enacting a number of laws and measures directed at anyone born in Sicily/of Sicilian descent.[55] Regarding the treatment of Sicilians under Mussolini's regime, Count Ciano, Mussolini's son-in-law, wrote in his diaries on 4 October 1941: "The internal situation - coming apart in various places - is becoming grave in Sicily...So, then is it worse to be Sicilian than to be Jewish?"[56]

21st century

Anti-Roma racism

Anti-Roma sentiment exists in Italy, and takes the form of hostility, prejudice, discrimination or racism directed at the Roma people (Gypsies or "Zingari"). There's no reliable data for the total number of Roma people living in Italy, but estimates put it between 140,000 and 170,000.

In Italy, many national and local political leaders engaged in rhetoric during 2007 and 2008 that maintained that the extraordinary rise in crime at the time was mainly a result of uncontrolled immigration of people of Roma origin from recent European Union member state Romania.[57] National and local leaders declared their plans to expel Roma from settlements in and around major cities and to deport illegal immigrants. The mayors of Rome and Milan signed "Security Pacts" in May 2007 that "envisaged the forced eviction of up to 10,000 Romani people."[58]

In October 2007, extraordinary anti-immigrant sentiment exploded into violence toward Romanian immigrants and Roma in general. The violence was triggered by the murder of 47-year-old Giovanna Reggiani, a naval captain’s wife, which was attributed to a Romanian immigrant of Roma origin. Reggiani was raped, beaten, left in a ditch, and died the following week. The Italian government responded with roundups of Romanian immigrants and summary expulsions of some two hundred, mostly Roma, disregarding E.U. immigration rules.[59] According to Rome's then Mayor Walter Veltroni Romanians of Roma origin made up 75 percent of those who raped, stole and killed in the first seven months of the year.[59]

In May 2008, an unnamed 16-year-old Roma Romanian girl from a different part of town was arrested for trying to snatch an unattended six-month-old baby.[60] After that mobs in several areas around Naples attacked Roma communities, setting homes alight, and forcing hundreds of Roma to flee.[61] The camp in Ponticelli was set on fire each month between May and July 2008.[62]

According to a May 2008 poll 68% of Italians, wanted to see all of the country's approximately 150,000 Gypsies, many of them Italian citizens, expelled.[63] The survey, published as mobs in Naples burned down Gypsy camps that month, revealed that the majority also wanted all Gypsy camps in Italy to be demolished.[63]

Racism in politics and sports
An Italian bus with advertising by the president of A.C. Monza football team, Anthony Armstrong Emery, against racism in football (2013).

Actions by the Lega Nord have been criticized as xenophobic or racist by several sources.[64][65][66][67][68] Italians protested the murder of Burkina Faso native, Abdul Salam Guibre, along with racism in Italy on 20 September 2008.[69] L'Osservatore Romano, the semi-official newspaper for the Holy See, indicated that racism played an important role in the riot in Rosarno.[70] According to a Eurobarometer study, Italians had the third lowest level of "comfort with person of Gypsy origin as neighbour", after Austrians and Czechs.[71][72]

Contemporary Italian football fans, of lower-league and top-flight teams, have been noted by foreign media for racist behaviour.[73]

Following the 2013 nomination of Cécile Kyenge, a Congolese-born Italian immigrant, as Minister of Integration in the government of Enrico Letta, she became subject to several racial slurs by local and national politicians.[74][75] One of these slurs was made by Roberto Calderoli, a prominent figure of the anti-immigration and populist party Lega Nord. Calderoli claimed that whenever he saw Minister Kyenge, an orangutan came to his mind.[76] During a speech by Kyenge at a meeting of the Democratic Party a few days after Calderoli's slur, some members of the far-right and neo-fascist New Force threw a clump of bananas at the minister.[77][78]

Another example is the packages containing a pig's head that were sent to Rome's Synagogue, the Israeli embassy and a museum showing an exhibition on the Holocaust in January 2014.[79][80]

Racist attacks, shootings and murders from 2018 onward
See also: 2011 Florence shootings
  • Macerata shooting, Marche: On 3 February 2018, a 28-year-old Italian, Luca Traini, performed a terror attack by severely injuring six migrants from Sub-Saharan Africa in a drive-by shooting incident that was described as an act of revenge motivated by the Murder of Pamela Mastropietro. The suspect was later arrested while wearing the Flag of Italy draped over his shoulders near a WW2 memorial in Macerata.[81][82] Traini was described as a far-right political sympathizer[83] who ran for the League and was reported to be supposedly acquainted with Mastropietro.[84]
  • San Calogero, Calabria. During the evening on 2 June, in the province of Vibo Valentia, a 29-year-old trade unionist from Mali, Soumayla Sacko, died of a shot in the temple. The attack may have been actually ordered by the local mafia group on the ground of the man's political activism.
  • Caserta, Campania, 11 June 2018. Two Malian men were attacked by a few people with air guns from a car and got shot. According to the victims, the aggressors were heard singing in praise the Interior minister Matteo Salvini.[85]
  • Naples, Campania, 20 June 2018. Konate, a young Malian immigrant, was injured by a few people shooting him in the belly with a pellet gun while returning home after his work at a restaurant.[86]
  • Forlì, Emilia-Romagna, 5 July 2018. An Ivorian man was injured by air gun shots from a running car.[87]
  • Latina, Lazio, 11 July 2018. Two African migrants got shot at a bus stop, again from a running car.[88]
  • Rome, Lazio, 17 July 2018. A Roma child was wounded after being shot with an air gun. Some days later, the shooter was found and justified himself on the score of “doing some training with the new gun, without intention of shooting anyone”.[89]
  • Vicenza, Veneto, 26 July 2018. An Italian man shot a builder from Capo Verde who was working across the street. He justified himself stating that he was “just taking aim at a pigeon”.[90]
  • Partinico Sicily. A migrant from Senegal got beaten up by some Italian men that were yelling “Go back to your country, dirty nigger”.[91]
  • Roseto, Abruzzo, 30 July 2018. An Italian-Senegalese man tried to renew his health card at a local hospital. Upon seeing him, a public employee refused to offer him service, going on to suggest that he'd better find more luck in a veterinary office.[92]
  • Pistoia, Tuscany, 2 August 2018. An immigrant of unknown nationality was assaulted by two men that were shouting racist comments against him.[93]
  • Falerna, Calabria, 14 August 2018. A Dominican citizen was assaulted and injured by a group of assailants that shouted racist comments against him. His Italian mother-in-law was also beaten.[94]
  • Partinico, Sicily, 14 August 2018. Four Gambians and an Ivorian citizen were beaten and assaulted by several attackers for racist motives.[94]
  • Mestre, Veneto, 19 January 2020. A 19-year-old student of Chinese descent was publicly spat on by a group of teenagers, who hurled insults at her and told her to "go back to her country".[95]

Environmental racism

References
  1. Grace Russo Bullaro, 'From terrone to extracomunitario:A snapshot of Italian society in a globalized world,' in Grace Russo Bullaro (ed.), From Terrone to Extracomunitario: New Manifestations of Racism in Contemporary Italian Cinema : Shifting Demographics and Changing Images in a Multi-cultural Globalized Society, Troubador Publishing Ltd, 2010 p.xiv.
  2. John Foot, Modern Italy, Rev.ed.Palgrave Macmillan, 2014 pp.20ff.
  3. Michael Alexander, Cities and Labour Immigration: Comparing Policy Responses in Amsterdam, Paris, Rome and Tel Aviv, Rev.ed. Ashgate Publishing, Ltd., 2012 p.56.
  4. Giulia Barrera,'Patrilinearity, Race and Identity: The Upbringing of Italo-Eriteans during Italian Colonialism,' in R. Ben-Ghiat, M. Fuller (eds.), Italian Colonialism, Palgrave Macmillan, (2005) 2016 ISBN 978-1-403-98158-5 pp.97-108 pp.97f.
  5. Foot p.42.
  6. Alexander p.57.
  7. Grazia Naletto (2013). "Clandestino, Lingua italiana".
  8. Melissa Coburn, Race and Narrative in Italian Women's Writing Since Unification, Fairleigh Dickinson, 2013 p.11.
  9. Judith Sunderland, L’intolleranza quotidiana La violenza razzista e xenofoba in Italia, 21 March 12011
  10. "Western Europeans vary in their nationalist, anti-immigrant and anti-religious minority attitudes". Pew Research Center. Retrieved 29 August 2019.
  11. Laura Melissari (2019). "Più della metà degli italiani giustifica il razzismo".
  12. Steven Epstein (1 January 2001). Speaking of Slavery: Color, Ethnicity, and Human Bondage in Italy. Cornell University Press. ISBN 978-0-8014-3848-6. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
  13. Antonio Bresciani (1850). Dei costumi dell'isola di Sardegna comparati cogli antichissimi populi orientali. Napoli: Uff. della Civiltà Cattolica.
  14. Gian Giacomo Ortu (2001). "Una razza inferiore, così l'Europa vedeva la Sardegna".
  15. Dehumanizing language with regard to the island and the people thereof in Italian literature is considered to have been used starting with Dante Alighieri's De Vulgari Eloquentia, wherein the Sardinians are likened to «apes that imitate humans» (Lib. I, XI, 7) because of the language they used to speak. This view also makes its appearance in many Savoyard works which aimed at dealing with the situation of the island; the philosopher and administrator of the Kingdom Joseph de Maistre, for instance, refers to the Sardinians as a race «unreceptive like no other to all the sentiments, tastes, and talents honouring humankind. The Sardinian is more savage than the savage, for the savage does not know any light whilst the Sardinian just hates it. They lack, in fact, the most desirable attribute of mankind, which is perfectibility.» (Oeuvres complètes, v. IX, pp.410-411). Cfr. Francesco Casula. "I sardi? Ladri e delinquenti. Ed anche "negri"". Il Manifesto. Moreover, in ancient Italian, the name of the island was also used as a metonymy to indicate a place where to dump dead or infected animals (Battaglia, Salvatore (1961). Grande dizionario della lingua italiana, UTET, Torino, V. XVII, p.578; "Sardigna, Vocabolario Treccani".).
  16. Gibson, Mary; Hahn Rafter, Nicole (15 June 2006). "Editors' Introduction". In Lombroso, Cesare (ed.). Criminal Man. Duke University Press. pp. 17–. ISBN 978-0-8223-8780-0. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
  17. Renato Biasutti, 1941. Le Razze e popoli della Terra. Turin: Union Tipografico-Editrice, archived page
  18. Dickie, J. (1999). Darkest Italy: The nation and stereotypes of the Mezzogiorno, 1860-1900. London: Palgrave MacMillan.
  19. Ruth Ben-Ghiat Fascist Modernities: Italy, 1922-1945, University of California Press, 2001 p.262 n.97.
  20. Nicole Rafter (1 January 2008). The Criminal Brain: Understanding Biological Theories of Crime. NYU Press. pp. 1–. ISBN 978-0-8147-7656-8. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
  21. Dr Suman Fernando; Suman Fernando (15 April 2013). Cultural Diversity, Mental Health and Psychiatry: The Struggle Against Racism. Routledge. pp. 63–. ISBN 978-1-135-45270-4. Retrieved 27 August 2013.
  22. Wiley Feinstein, The Civilization of the Holocaust in Italy: Poets, Artists, Saints, Anti-semites, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2003 pp.162f.
  23. Paul Knepper 'Lombroso and Jewish Social Science,' in Paul Knepper, Per Jørgen Ystehede (eds.),The Cesare Lombroso Handbook, Routledge, 2013 pp.171-185 pp-181ff.
  24. William Brustein, Roots of Hate: Anti-Semitism in Europe Before the Holocaust, Cambridge University Press, 2003
  25. «Nel suo caso il giudizio sulla inferiorità razziale della popolazione si fa categorico, presentandosi tra l'altro con un alone di scientificità, suffragato da dati statitici sulla delinquenza e da <<oggettivi>> responsi craniometrici». Riccardo, Gaetano. L'antropologia positivista italiana e il problema del banditismo in Sardegna. Qualche nota di riflessione , in Nel nome della razza. Il razzismo nella storia d'Italia 1870-1945, Burgio, Alberto (edited by), Società Editrice Il Mulino, p.98
  26. Niceforo, Alfredo (1977 - 1897). La delinquenza in Sardegna, Edizioni della Torre, Cagliari, p.59
  27. Birgit Wagner (2011), La questione sarda. La sfida dell’alterità in Il postcoloniale in Italia, Aut Aut n. 349
  28. "Lo sapevate? Lo scienziato siciliano Alfredo Niceforo teorizzò che i Sardi fossero predisposti geneticamente a delinquere". vistanet.it. 2017.
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  30. R. J. B. Bosworth,Mussolini, Bloomsbury Publishing, Rev.ed. 2014 pp.123f.
  31. Piers Brendon, The Dark Valley: A Panorama of the 1930s, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2007 pp.552f.
  32. Salvatore Garau, Fascism and Ideology: Italy, Britain, and Norway, Routledge, 2015 pp.122-123.
  33. John Whittam, Fascist Italy, Manchester University Press, 1995 pp.95f.
  34. Michele Sarfatti, Anne C. Tedeschi, The Jews in Mussolini's Italy: From Equality to Persecution, University of Wisconsin Press, 2006 p.13.
  35. David I. Kertzer, The Popes Against the Jews: The Vatican's Role in the Rise of Modern Anti-Semitism, Knopf Doubleday Publishing Group, 2007 p.266.
  36. Valentina Pisanty (2006). La difesa della razza: Antologia 1938–1943. Bompiani.
  37. Racial theories in Fascist Italy by Aaron Gilette
  38. Dictating Demography: The Problem of Population in Fascist Italy by Carl Ipsen, pg 187
  39. Duggan, Christopher (2008). The force of destiny : a history of Italy since 1796. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. ISBN 0618353674.
  40. Hollander, Ethan J. Italian Fascism and the Jews (PDF). University of California. ISBN 0-8039-4648-1. Archived from the original (PDF) on 15 May 2008.
  41. "The Italian Holocaust: The Story of an Assimilated Jewish Community". ACJNA.org. 8 January 2008.
  42. Benito Mussolini By Jeremy Roberts
  43. Giuseppe Acerbi (2011). Le leggi antiebraiche e razziali italiane ed il ceto dei giuristi. Giuffrè Editore. pp. 33–. ISBN 978-88-14-15571-0. Retrieved 9 August 2013.
  44. Richard S. Levy (1 January 2005). Antisemitism: A Historical Encyclopedia of Prejudice and Persecution. ABC-CLIO. pp. 585–. ISBN 978-1-85109-439-4. Retrieved 12 August 2013.
  45. Sergio Luzzatto (5 November 2008). "Pio XI e quel razzismo d'Africa". Corriere della Sera. Retrieved 19 September 2013.
  46. "Il madamato". Museo virtuale delle intolleranze e degli stermini. Istituto Piemontese per la Storia della Resistenza e della Società Contemporanea "Giorgio Agosti". Archived from the original on 13 April 2013. Retrieved 19 September 2013.
  47. "Manifesto della Razza". Dizionario di Storia (2011). Treccani. Retrieved 9 August 2013.
  48. Peter Hayes; John K. Roth (25 November 2010). The Oxford Handbook of Holocaust Studies. Oxford Handbooks Online. pp. 89–. ISBN 978-0-19-921186-9. Retrieved 12 August 2013.
  49. Mussolini's intellectuals: fascist social and political thought by Anthony James Gregor, Chapter 9
  50. Rota (2008). Intellettuali, dittatura, razzismo di stato. FrancoAngeli. pp. 57–. ISBN 978-88-568-2094-2.
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