List of tallest towers

Comparison of the world's seven tallest towers

This is a list of extant towers that fulfill the engineering definition of a tower: "a tall human structure, always taller than it is wide, meant for public or regular operational access by humans, but not for living in or office work, and are self-supporting or free-standing, which means no guy-wires for support."[1][2][3] The definition means the exclusion from this list of continuously habitable buildings and skyscrapers as well as radio and TV masts. Also excluded from this list because they are not designed for public or regular operational access are bridge towers or pylons, chimneys, transmission towers, sculptures and most large statues and obelisks.

Towers are most often built to use their height for various purposes and can stand alone or as part of a larger structure. Some common purposes are for telecommunications, and as a viewing platform.

The Tokyo Skytree, completed in February 2012, reaches a height of 634 m (2,080 ft), making it the tallest tower, and second-tallest free-standing structure in the world.[4][5][6]

Entirely self-supported towers

Towers taller than 250 metres

Rank Name Pinnacle height Year Structure Country City Remarks
1Tokyo Skytree634 m (2,080 ft)2012Steel JapanTokyoBecame tallest tower in 2011, second-tallest freestanding structure in the world
2Canton Tower604 m (1,982 ft)2010Steel & concrete ChinaGuangzhouTallest in the world 2009–11
3CN Tower553.33 m (1,815.4 ft)1976Concrete CanadaTorontoTallest freestanding structure in the world 1975–2007, tallest in the western hemisphere
4Ostankino Tower540.1 m (1,772 ft)1967Concrete RussiaMoscowTallest freestanding structure in the world, 1967–75, tallest in Europe
5Oriental Pearl Tower468 m (1,535 ft)1994Concrete ChinaShanghaiTallest in China 1994–2007
6Milad Tower435 m (1,427 ft)2007Concrete IranTehranTallest in the Middle East
7KL Tower421 m (1,381 ft)1994Concrete MalaysiaKuala LumpurTallest in South East Asia
8Tianjin Radio and Television Tower415.2 m (1,362 ft)1991Concrete ChinaTianjinTallest in Asia 1991-1994,Tallest in North China
9Central Radio and TV Tower405 m (1,329 ft)1992Concrete ChinaBeijing
10Zhongyuan Tower388 m (1,273 ft)2011Steel ChinaZhengzhou
11Kiev TV Tower385 m (1,263 ft)1973Steel UkraineKiev
12Tashkent Tower374.9 m (1,230 ft)1985Steel UzbekistanTashkentTallest in Central Asia
13Liberation Tower372 m (1,220 ft)1996Concrete KuwaitKuwait City
14Almaty Tower371.5 m (1,219 ft)1983Steel KazakhstanAlmaty
15Riga Radio and TV Tower368.5 m (1,209 ft)1986Steel LatviaRigaTallest in the European Union
16Berliner Fernsehturm368 m (1,207 ft)1969Concrete GermanyBerlinTallest structure in Germany
17Stratosphere Tower350.2 m (1,149 ft)1996Concrete United StatesLas VegasTallest observation tower in the United States
18Lotus Tower350 m (1,150 ft)2018Concrete Sri LankaColombo Tallest structure in South Asia
19West Pearl Tower339 m (1,112 ft)2004Concrete ChinaChengdu
20Macau Tower338 m (1,109 ft)2001Concrete ChinaMacau
21Dragon Tower336 m (1,102 ft)2000Lattice ChinaHarbin
22Europaturm337.5 m (1,107 ft)1979Concrete GermanyFrankfurt
23Tokyo Tower332.6 m (1,091 ft)1958Lattice JapanTokyoTallest in the world 1958–67
24Emley Moor TV Tower330.4 m (1,084 ft)1971Concrete United KingdomKirkleesTallest freestanding structure in the United Kingdom
25Sky Tower (Auckland)328 m (1,076 ft)1997Concrete New ZealandAucklandTallest freestanding structure in the Southern Hemisphere
26Vilnius TV Tower327 m (1,073 ft)1980Concrete LithuaniaVilnius
27Saint Petersburg TV Tower326 m (1,070 ft)1962Lattice RussiaSaint Petersburg
28Eiffel Tower324 m (1,063 ft)1889Lattice FranceParisFirst to surpass 300 metres, tallest tower in the world 1889–1958, oldest in this list
29Rameswaram TV Tower323 m (1,060 ft)1995Concrete IndiaRameswaram
30Jiangsu Nanjing TV Tower318.5 m (1,045 ft)1996Concrete ChinaNanjing
31Tallinn TV Tower314 m (1,030 ft)1980Concrete EstoniaTallinn
32Yerevan TV Tower311.7 m (1,023 ft)1977Lattice ArmeniaYerevan[7]
33Tortoise Mountain TV Tower311.4 m (1,022 ft)1986Concrete ChinaWuhanChina's first self-supported TV tower
34Baku TV Tower310 m (1,020 ft)1996Concrete AzerbaijanBaku
35Sydney Tower309 m (1,014 ft)1981Concrete AustraliaSydney
36Liaoning Broadcast and TV Tower305.5 m (1,002 ft)1989Concrete ChinaShenyang
37Jaisalmer TV Tower300 m (984 ft)1993Concrete IndiaJaisalmer
38Samatra TV Tower300 m (984 ft)1999Concrete IndiaBhuj
39VRT Toren300 m (984 ft)1996Concrete BelgiumSint-Pieters-Leeuw
40Zhuzhou Television Tower293 m (961 ft)1999Concrete ChinaZhuzhou
41Fernmeldeturm Nürnberg292 m (958 ft)1977Concrete GermanyNuremberg
42Olympiaturm289.5 m (950 ft)1968Concrete GermanyMunich
43Torre de Collserola288 m (945 ft)1992Steel SpainBarcelona
44Telemax282.2 m (926 ft)1992Concrete GermanyHannover
45Jalandhar TV Tower280 m (920 ft)2007Concrete IndiaJalandhar
46Heinrich-Hertz-Turm279.7 m (918 ft)1968Concrete GermanyHamburg
47Georgia Tbilisi TV Broadcasting Tower274.5 m (901 ft)1972Steel GeorgiaTbilisi
48Hillbrow Tower269 m (883 ft)1971Concrete South AfricaJohannesburgTallest in Africa
49Kaifeng TV Tower268 m (879 ft)1995Concrete ChinaKaifeng
50Colonius266 m (873 ft)1981Concrete GermanyCologne
51Novorossiysk TV Tower261.5 m (858 ft)1996Concrete RussiaNovorossiysk
52Daqing Radio and Television Tower260 m (850 ft)1989Concrete ChinaDaqing
53Olympic Park Observation Tower258 m (846 ft)2014Steel ChinaBeijing
54Fernmeldeturm Kühkopf255 m (837 ft)1976Concrete GermanyKoblenz
55Donauturm252 m (827 ft)1964Concrete AustriaVienna
56Fernsehturm Dresden-Wachwitz252 m (827 ft)1969Concrete GermanyDresden
57Swisscom-Sendeturm St. Chrischona250 m (820 ft)1984Concrete  SwitzerlandSt. Chrischona
58Jeddah TV Tower250 m (820 ft)2007Concrete Saudi ArabiaJeddah

Towers between 200 and 250 metres tall

Tower Year Country City Pinnacle height Remarks
Shaanxi Provincial TV Tower 1987  China Xi'an 245 m
Rheinturm Düsseldorf 1981  Germany Düsseldorf 240.5 m Was 234.2 m before another antenna was mounted in 2004
Pattaya Park Tower ?  Thailand Pattaya 240 m
N Seoul Tower 1975  South Korea Seoul 239.7 m
Menara TVRI 1994  Indonesia Jakarta 239 m
Foshan TV Tower 1995  China Foshan 238 m
Sentech Tower 1962  South Africa Johannesburg 237 m
Endem TV Tower 2002  Turkey Istanbul 236 m
Bremen-Walle Telecommunication Tower 1986  Germany Bremen-Walle 235.7 m
Pitampura TV Tower 1988  India Delhi 235 m
Fukuoka Tower 1989  Japan Fukuoka 234 m
Qingdao TV Tower 1994  China Qingdao 232 m
Torrespaña 1982  Spain Madrid 231 m
Ryan Tower 1968  Canada Chelsea, Quebec 228.9 m
Tower of the Americas 1968  United States San Antonio, Texas 228.6 m
Torre Espacial 1980  Argentina Buenos Aires 228 m
Katanga TV Tower 1992  India Jabalpur 225 m
Brasilia TV Tower 1965  Brazil Brasilia 224 m
Buková hora TV Tower 1975  Czech Republic Bukova hora 223 m
Fernmeldeturm Münster 42 1986  Germany Münster 222.5 m
Florianturm 1959  Germany Dortmund 219.6 m
Jilin Radio and TV Tower 1996  China Jilin 218 m
Guangzhou TV Tower 1991  China Guangzhou 217 m
Fernsehturm Stuttgart 1956  Germany Stuttgart-Degerloch 216.8 m World's first concrete TV tower
Prague - Žižkov Television Tower 1992  Czech Republic Prague 216 m
Fernmeldeturm Mannheim 1975  Germany Mannheim 212.8 m
Fernmeldeturm Berlin 1964  Germany Berlin 212 m
Turkmenistan Broadcasting Centre 2011  Turkmenistan Ashgabat 211 m
Minaret of Hassan II Mosque 1993  Morocco Casablanca 210 m
Transmitter Hornisgrinde 1972  Germany Hornisgrinde 206 m
Ujudvar TV Tower 1972  Hungary Ujudvar 206 m
Baghdad Tower 1994  Iraq Baghdad 205 m Formerly International Saddam Tower
Donnersberg TV Tower 1962  Germany Donnersberg 204.82 m
Avala TV Tower 1965  Serbia Avala, near Belgrade 204.5 m Destroyed in NATO bombing on April 29, 1999; reconstruction completed October 2009; tallest in the Balkans
Rousse TV Tower 1987  Bulgaria Rousse 204 m
TV tower Helpterberge 1981  Germany Helpterberge 203.2 m
Woobang Tower 1992  South Korea Daegu 202 m
Guangdong TV Tower 1965  China Guangzhou 200 m

Towers between 100 and 200 metres tall

Tower Year Country City Pinnacle height Remarks
Xuzhou TV Tower 1990  China Xuzhou 199 m
KPN-Zendmast Waalhaven 1962  Netherlands Rotterdam-Waalhaven 199 m
Zendmast Roermond 1957  Netherlands Roermond 197.7 m
KPN Tower Hilversum 1973  Netherlands Hilversum 196 m
Bantiger TV Tower 1996   Switzerland Bolligen 196 m
Sky Tower Nishitōkyō 1988  Japan Nishitōkyō, Tokyo 195 m
Telstra Tower 1980  Australia Canberra 195 m
Kamzik TV Tower 1975  Slovakia Bratislava 194 m
Gateway Arch 1965  United States St. Louis 192 m
Orissaare TV Tower 1965  Estonia Orissaare 191 m
Dalian Radio and TV Tower ?  China Dalian 190.5 m
Calgary Tower 1967  Canada Calgary 190 m
BT Tower 1964  United Kingdom London 188 m
Cairo Tower 1961  Egypt Cairo 188 m
Telecom Italia Tower Rozzano 1990  Italy Rozzano - Milan 187 m
Kuwait Towers 1979  Kuwait Kuwait City 187 m
Euromast 1962  Netherlands Rotterdam 186 m
TV tower Decquede 1959  Germany Dequede 184.5 m
Space Needle 1962  United States Seattle 184 m
Brasilia Digital TV Tower 2012  Brazil Brasília, DF 182 m
Nagoya TV Tower 1954  Japan Nagoya 180 m
PL Peace Tower 1970  Japan Tondabayashi 180 m
Hošťálkovice transmitter 1979  Czech Republic Ostrava 180 m
Telecommunication Tower Bungsberg 1977  Germany Bungsberg 179 m
Löffelstelz Transmitter 2000  Germany Bad Mergentheim 179 m
Monte da Virgem Tower ?  Portugal Vila Nova de Gaia 177 m
Pécs TV Tower 1973  Hungary Pécs 176 m
Olympic Stadium tower
1987  Canada Montreal 175.3 m Highest inclined tower in the world, with its 45-degree angle.
Zendstation Markelo ?  Netherlands Markelo 174.4 m
San Jacinto Monument 1939  United States La Porte, Texas 172.92 m / 567.31 ft World's tallest monumental column
Reunion Tower 1978  United States Dallas 170.7 m
Iriški Venac TV Tower 1975  Serbia near Novi Sad 170 m
Juche Tower 1982  North Korea Pyongyang 170 m
Riyadh TV Tower 1981  Saudi Arabia Riyad 170 m
Spinnaker Tower 2005  United Kingdom Portsmouth 170 m
Washington Monument 1884  United States Washington, DC 169.3 m / 555 ft 5 in Observation level at 152 m
Zagreb TV Tower 1973  Croatia Zagreb 169 m
Fernmeldeturm Bödefeld ?  Germany Schmallenberg-Bödefeld 168.7 m
Näsinneula Observation Tower 1971  Finland Tampere 168 m Located at Särkänniemi amusement park
Menara Alor Star 1998  Malaysia Alor Star 165.5 m
Hünenburg Telecommunication Tower ?  Germany Bielefeld-Hühnenburg 165 m Also known as Fernmeldeturm Teutoburger Wald
Heubach Telecommunication Tower ?  Germany Heubach 164.8 m
Las Vegas Eiffel Tower 1999  United States Las Vegas 164.6 m Replica of Eiffel Tower
Praděd TV Tower 1983  Czech Republic Praděd Mountain 162 m
Ulm Münster 1377–1890  Germany Ulm 161.5 m Tallest church tower in the world
British Airways i360 2016  United Kingdom Brighton 161 m Thinnest tall tower in the world[8]
Osaka Tower 1966  Japan Osaka 160 m
Skylon Tower 1965  Canada Niagara Falls 160 m
Blackpool Tower 1894  United Kingdom Blackpool 158 m
Gold Tower 1988  Japan Utazu, Kagawa 158 m
Cologne Cathedral 1248–1880  Germany Cologne 157.4 m Twin spires
Snejanka tower 1978  Bulgaria Pamporovo - Mount Snejanka 156 m Also known as Pamporovo TV Tower
Kaknästornet TV Tower 1964  Sweden Stockholm 155 m
Funkturm Arsenal ?  Austria Vienna 155 m
Kaikyo Yume Tower 1996  Japan Shimonoseki 153 m
BT Tower 1967  United Kingdom Birmingham 152 m
Rouen Cathedral 1145–1876  France Rouen 151 m
Cuyahoga Falls Cathedral Tower 1971  USA Cuyahoga Falls 150.57 m unfinished TV tower
Funkturm Berlin 1926  Germany Berlin 150 m Only observation tower standing on insulators
Cruz de los Caídos 1956  Spain San Lorenzo de El Escorial 150 m Tallest cross in the world
Galaţi TV Tower 1978  Romania Galaţi 150 m
St. Nikolai, Hamburg 1846–77  Germany Hamburg 147.3 m Church ruin
Sapporo TV Tower 1957  Japan Sapporo 147.2 m
Dobrich TV Tower 1979  Bulgaria Dobrich 146 m
Fallturm Bremen 1990  Germany Bremen 146 m
Vasco da Gama Tower 1998  Portugal Lisboa 145 m
Strasbourg Cathedral 1176–1439  France Strasbourg 144 m
Nozema Tower Wormer 1968  Netherlands Wormer 144 m
Zigong TV Tower 1988  China Zigong 143.6 m
Jakobsberg Telecommunication Tower 1978  Germany Porta Westfalica-Jakobsberg 142 m
Monte Mario Tower ?  Italy Rome 140 m
Nozema Zendstation 1957  Netherlands Mierlo 139.5 m
Twin Arch 138 1995  Japan Ishinomiya 138 m
Goes TV Tower 1957  Netherlands Goes 137 m Also known as Nozema TV Tower Goes. Between 1957 and 2007 153 m tall.
Hohenstadt Transmission Tower ?  Germany Hohenstadt 137 m
Monas 1975  Indonesia Jakarta 137 m
St. Chrischona, old tower 1962   Switzerland St. Chrischona 136 m
Montjuic Communications Tower 1992  Spain Barcelona 136 m
Higashiyama Sky Tower 1989  Japan Nagoya 134 m
Radio City Tower 1969  United Kingdom Liverpool 134 m
KLIA2 Control Tower 2013  Malaysia Kuala Lumpur 133.8m Tallest air-traffic control tower in the world[9]
Mulleklenkes 1984  Germany Aachen 133 m Radio-DVB-T Transmission Tower de:Mulleklenkes
Nozema Zendstation The Hague 1965  Netherlands The Hague 133 m
BKK Control Tower 2006  Thailand Bang Phli 132.2 m Second-tallest air-traffic control tower in the world
Telefónica Chile Tower 1996  Chile Santiago 132 m
TV-toren Ittervoort ?  Netherlands Ittervoort 132 m
Telecommunication Tower Leipzig ?  Germany Leipzig 132 m
Kyoto Tower 1964  Japan Kyoto 131 m
1000 Islands SkyDeck 1965  Canada Hill Island, Ontario 130 m
TV Tower Nordhelle 1984  Germany Nordhelle 130 m
Telecommunication tower Großerlach 1985  Germany Großerlach 130 m
Zendstation Loon op Zand 1986  Netherlands Loon op Zand 130 m
Shiraz Tower 2011  Iran Shiraz 130 m
KUL Control Tower 1998  Malaysia Kuala-Lumpur 130 m
Piątkowo transmitter, Tower 2 1993  Poland Poznań 128 m
Sanctuary of Our Lady of Licheń 2004  Poland Licheń 128 m
Express Lift Tower 1980–82  United Kingdom Northampton 127.45 m
Torre Entel 1974  Chile Santiago 127.4 m
Glasgow Tower 2001  United Kingdom Glasgow 127 m
Aliant Tower 1971  Canada Moncton 127 m
Sender Inselsberg 1974  Germany Inselsberg Mountain + 126 m Was 43.31 when constructed in 1939
Dreamworld Tower 1997  Australia Dreamworld, Coomera 126.5m
Grobal Tower 1995  Japan Beppu 125 m
FMT 6 - Brackenheim ?  Germany Brackenheim 125 m
Craigkelly TV Tower ?  United Kingdom Craigkelly, Burntisland, Fife 125 m
Chiba Port Tower 1986  Japan Chiba 125 m
Atakule Tower 1989  Turkey Ankara 125 m
Riga Radio Station ?  Latvia Riga 125 m
Gatlinburg Space Needle 1970  United States Gatlinburg 124 m
Transmitter Geiersberg ?  Germany Geiersberg 124 m
Tyholttårnet 1985  Norway Trondheim 124 m
Banharn-Jamsai Tower ?  Thailand Suphan Buri 123.25 m
Salisbury Cathedral 1220–1320  United Kingdom Salisbury 123 m
Sender Brocken 1937 &
1974
 Germany Brocken Mountain 123 m 95 m on original tower
Mont Pèlerin TV Tower 1974   Switzerland Mont Pèlerin 122.6 m
Pääskyvuoren linkkitorni 1964  Finland Turku 122 m
Ginosa Water Tower ?  Italy Ginosa 122 m
Zendstation Megen 1980  Netherlands Megen 121 m
Fernmeldeturm Duisburg  Germany Duisburg 121 m
Gibloux Radio Tower ?   Switzerland Sorens 118.7 m
Crossland Tower 1994  Japan Oyabe, Toyama 118 m
Silistra TV Tower 1979  Bulgaria Silistra 117 m
Lisebergstornet 1990  Sweden Göteborg 116.1 m
Observation tower of la Cité de l'Énergie ?  Canada Shawinigan, Quebec 115 m
Bernauer Birzel ?  Germany Bernau 115 m
Torrazzo of Cremona 1309  Italy Cremona 112.7 m
Domtoren 1328  Netherlands Utrecht 112.5 m Free-standing medieval church tower, see also list of tallest churches
Tiger Sky Tower 2004  Singapore Sentosa Island 110 m Tallest free-standing observation tower in Asia
Bytków TV Tower ?  Poland Siemianowice Śląskie 110 m
Taming Sari Tower 2008  Malaysia Melaka 110 m First revolving tower in Malaysia
Exelberg Telecommunication Tower  Austria Vienna 109 m
Torre Branca 1933  Italy Milano 108.6 m
Kobe Port Tower 1963  Japan Kobe 108 m
Vitosha Mountain TV Tower 1985  Bulgaria Vitosha Mountain 186 m
Tour Hertzienne TDF de Romainville 1984  France Paris-Romainville 108 m Also known as Tour Relais TDF
Goryokaku Tower 2006  Japan Hakodate 107 m
Perry's Victory and International Peace Memorial 1915  United States Put-in-Bay, Ohio 107 m World's most massive Doric column; fourth-tallest memorial in the U.S.
Torre Jaume I 1931  Spain Barcelona 107 m Connected with Torre Sant Sebastia by Port Vell Aerial Tramway
Bremerhaven Radar Tower 1965  Germany Bremerhaven 106.1 m
Yokohama Marine Tower 1961  Japan Yokohama 106 m
Borisova Gradina TV Tower 1959  Bulgaria Sofia 106 m
Tsutenkaku 1956  Japan Osaka 103 m
Scream 1992  Germany Soltau - Heidepark 103 m Gyro-Drop Tower
Total Tower 1994  United States Denver 102.4 m
Joseph Chamberlain Memorial Clock Tower 1908  United Kingdom Birmingham, England 100 m
Beppu Tower 1957  Japan Beppu 100 m
Hakata Port Tower 1964  Japan Hukuoka 100 m
Ještěd TV Tower 1968  Czech Republic Jested 100 m
Hokkaido Centennial Monument 1970  Japan Sapporo 100 m
Bazita Peak TV Tower 1975  Hungary Zalaegerszeg 100 m
Holstein Tower 1988  Germany Sierksdorf 100 m Additionally guyed Gyro-Tower
Faro de Moncloa 1992  Spain Madrid 100 m

Towers under construction

This is a list of towers that are proposed or under construction with a minimum height of 250m

Tower Year Country City Pinnacle height Remarks
Dubai Creek Tower 2021  UAE Dubai 1300 m

Diagram

CN TowerTokyo sky treeCanton TowerOstankino TowerOriental Pearl TowerMilad TowerTallest towers in the world.svg
About this image

Timeline of tallest towers

From To Tower Country City Pinnacle height
280 BC1180 ADPharos Lighthouse EgyptAlexandria122 m (400 ft)
11801240Malmesbury Abbey Tower United KingdomMalmesbury131.3 m (431 ft)
12401311Tower of Old St Paul's Cathedral United KingdomLondon150 m (490 ft)
13111549Tower of Lincoln Cathedral United KingdomLincoln159.7 m (524 ft)
15491647Tower of St Mary's church GermanyStralsund151 m (495 ft)
16471874Tower of Strasbourg Cathedral FranceStrasbourg142 m (466 ft)
18741876Tower of St. Nikolai GermanyHamburg147 m (482 ft)
18761880Tower of Rouen Cathedral FranceRouen151 m (495 ft)
18801889Tower of Cologne Cathedral GermanyCologne157.38 m (516.3 ft)
18891958Eiffel Tower FranceParis312.3 m (1,025 ft)
19581967Tokyo Tower JapanTokyo332.6 m (1,091 ft)
19671975Ostankino Tower RussiaMoscow540.1 m (1,772 ft)
19752009CN Tower CanadaToronto553.33 m (1,815.4 ft)
20092011Canton Tower ChinaGuangzhou604 m (1,982 ft)
2011presentTokyo Skytree JapanTokyo634 m (2,080 ft)

See also

References

  1. ctbuh. "CTBUH Criteria for Defining and Measuring Tall Buildings". www.ctbuh.org. Retrieved 2018-10-05.
  2. Gerometta, Marshall. "Height: The History of Measuring Tall Buildings". Council on Tall Buildings and Urban Habitat. CTBUH. Retrieved 30 August 2017.
  3. "World's Tallest Tower Rises in Tokyo". 2011-11-29. Retrieved 2018-07-26.
  4. "Tokyo Sky Tree construction ends: World's tallest tower prepares to open". Cable News Network. 1 March 2012. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
  5. Danielle Demetriou (1 March 2012). "Tokyo unveils world's tallest communications tower". The Daily Telegraph. Retrieved 1 March 2012.
  6. "Tokyo Skytree website" (in Japanese). Tobu Railway Co., Ltd. & Tobu Tower Skytree Co., Ltd. Retrieved 2011-03-08.
  7. Skyscraper Center. CTBUH http://www.skyscrapercenter.com/building/yerevan-tv-tower/9412. Retrieved 15 October 2017. Missing or empty |title= (help)
  8. "Duke of Edinburgh officially opens Brighton's i360 tower". BBC. 28 October 2016. Retrieved 27 March 2017.
  9. "Tallest airport control tower". Retrieved 4 April 2017.
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