List of German inventions and discoveries
The following (incomplete) list is composed of items, techniques and processes that were invented by or discovered by people from Germany or German-speaking Europe.
Anatomy
- Discovery of the Ampulla of Vater by Abraham Vater in 1720.[1]
- First description of Auerbach's plexus by Leopold Auerbach (19th century).
- First description of Brodmann's areas by Korbinian Brodmann in 1909.[2]
- First description of Crypts of Lieberkühn by Johann Nathanael Lieberkühn in 1745.
- First description of Duct of Wirsung by Johann Georg Wirsung.
- First description of Meissner's plexus and Tactile corpuscle by Georg Meissner.
- First description of Merkel cell by Friedrich Sigmund Merkel
- Discovery of the Alzheimer disease by Alois Alzheimer in 1906
- Discovery of Langerhans cell and Islets of Langerhans by Paul Langerhans
- Discovery of Schwann cells in the peripheral nervous system by Theodor Schwann
- Discovery and study of pepsin by Theodor Schwann
Archaeology
Troy
- Troy by Heinrich Schliemann
- Hattusa by Hugo Winckler
- Gordium by Gustav Körte and Alfred Körte
Arts
Astronomy
Illustration of Kepler's second law
Neptune
- Cosmic ray by Theodor Wulf and Victor Hess
- Kepler's laws of planetary motion by Johannes Kepler
- Schwarzschild metric and Schwarzschild radius by Karl Schwarzschild
- Neptune by Johann Galle
- Uranus, with two of its major moons, (Titania and Oberon), by the British-German William Herschel
Biology and genetics
- (Modern) Bacteriology by Robert Koch[3]
- Cell theory by Theodor Schwann, Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Rudolf Virchow
- Cell division by Hugo von Mohl in 1835[4]
- Isolated the non-protein component of "nuclein", nucleic acid, and later isolated its five primary nucleobases by Albrecht Kossel
- Chromatography by Friedlieb Ferdinand Runge
- Humboldt penguin by Franz Meyen
- Humboldtian science by Alexander von Humboldt
Overview of the citric acid cycle (click to enlarge)
Plateosaurus Skelett
- Plateosaurus by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer
- Rhamphorhynchus by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer
- Archaeopteryx by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer
- Teratosaurus by Christian Erich Hermann von Meyer
- Aegyptosaurus by Ernst Stromer
- Bahariasaurus by Ernst Stromer
- Carcharodontosaurus by Ernst Stromer
- Spinosaurus aegyptiacus, the largest known theropod, by Ernst Stromer
- Giant crocodilian Stomatosuchus by Ernst Stromer
- Alternation of generations by Wilhelm Hofmeister
- Mesonephros by Caspar Friedrich Wolff
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A reconstruction of Homo heidelbergensis.
- Homo heidelbergensis by Otto Schoetensack
- Neanderthal by Johann Carl Fuhlrott
- Recapitulation theory by Ernst Haeckel
- Weismann barrier by August Weismann
- Germ plasm by August Weismann
- Hardy–Weinberg principle by Wilhelm Weinberg
- Centrosome by Theodor Boveri
- Determining the chemical composition of nucleic acids by Albrecht Kossel
Events involving meiosis, showing chromosomal crossover
- Meiosis by Oscar Hertwig.
- Mitosis by Hugo von Mohl
- Mitochondrion by Richard Altmann, 1894
Chemistry
- Glauber's salt by Johann Rudolf Glauber (German-Dutch alchemist and chemist) in 1625.
- Eupione by Carl Reichenbach.
- Paraffin wax was identified by Carl Reichenbach in 1830.[5]
- Caesium by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff
- Rubidium by Robert Bunsen and Gustav Kirchhoff
- Protactinium by Otto Hahn and Lise Meitner
- Indium by Ferdinand Reich and Hieronymous Theodor Richter in 1863-1864.[6][7][8]
- Germanium by Clemens Winkler in 1886.[9]
- Bohrium at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research between 1981 and 1996.[10]
- Meitnerium at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research on August 29, 1982.[11]
- Hassium at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in 1984.[12]
- Darmstadtium by Peter Armbruster and Gottfried Münzenberg, under the direction of professor Sigurd Hofmann, on November 9, 1994, at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research in Darmstadt.[13]
- Roentgenium at the GSI Helmholtz Centre for Heavy Ion Research on December 8, 1994.[14]
- Element Uranium, discovered by Martin Heinrich Klaproth
- Zirconium by Martin Heinrich Klaproth
- Oxygen (although Joseph Priestley published his findings first) by Carl Wilhelm Scheele
- Identification of molybdenum, tungsten, barium, hydrogen and chlorine by Carl Wilhelm Scheele
- Phenol[15]
- Pittacal
- Opioids including morphine,[16] methadone,[17] oxycodone,[18] hydrocodone,[19] hydromorphone,[20] oxymorphone,[21] nicomorphine,[22] desomorphine, dihydrocodeine, dipropanoylmorphine, hydromorphinol, heterocodeine, and a number of others.
- Cocaine[23]
- Amphetamines[24]
- Barbiturates[25]
- Methadone by Max Bockmühl and Gustav Ehrhart (IG Farben)
- Urea by Friedrich Wöhler in 1828
- Claus process by the chemist Carl Friedrich Claus, 1883
- Haber process by Fritz Haber and Carl Bosch
- Paal–Knorr synthesis by Carl Paal and Ludwig Knorr
Bunsen burner
- Bunsen burner by Robert Bunsen
- Pinacol coupling reaction by Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig
- Ostwald process by Wilhelm Ostwald
- Diels–Alder reaction by Otto Diels and Kurt Alder
- Wittig reaction by Georg Wittig
- Coal liquefaction by Friedrich Bergius
- Büchner flask and Büchner funnel[26]
- Erlenmeyer flask
- Petri dish[27]
- Schlenk flask[28]
- Prussian blue by Heinrich Diesbach[29]
- Zyklon B by Walter Heerdt, Bruno Tesch, others, at Degesch[30]
- Nitrogen-based fertilizer by Justus von Liebig[31][32]
- Siemens cycle
- Siemens-Martin process
- Ziegler–Natta catalyst by Karl Ziegler and Natta
- Styrene-butadiene (synthetic rubber) by Walter Bock
- Galalith by Wilhelm Krische
- Poly(methyl methacrylate) by Wilhelm Rudolph Fittig, 1877
- Polycarbonate by Alfred Einhorn, 1898
- Polyvinyl chloride by Eugen Baumann, 1872
- Polyethylene by Hans von Pechmann, 1898
- Polyurethane, by Otto Bayer, 1937
- Hampson–Linde cycle by Carl von Linde, 1895
Clothing and fashion
- Blue Jeans by German-born Levi Strauss (with American Jacob Davis, who came up with the concept)[33]
- Permanent wave by German-born Karl Nessler
- Lederhosen
- Dirndl
- Tracht and Gamsbart
Computing
Replica of the Z1 in the German Museum of Technology in Berlin
- First programmable, fully automatic digital Computer by Konrad Zuse[34]
- Plankalkül by Konrad Zuse
- Modern Binary numeral system by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz[35]
- Smart card by Jürgen Dethloff and Helmut Gröttrup
- Hellschreiber (precursor of the impact dot matrix printers and faxes) by Rudolf Hell[36][37]
Construction and architecture
Drill scheme
- Concrete pump by Max Giese
- Electrically-driven hand drill by Wilhelm Emil Fein
- Wire rope by Wilhelm Albert[38][39][40]
- Breaker (hydraulic)
- Portable electric and petrol chainsaw
- Angle grinder
- Modern (plastic) wall plug (Fischer Wall Plug) by Artur Fischer[41][42][43]
Cuisine
- First automat restaurant (Quisisana) in Berlin, 1895[44]
- Baumkuchen
- Modern beer – Reinheitsgebot[45][46] and "developing the beverage [beer] to its highest perfection"[47]
- Berliner (doughnut)
- Bethmännchen
A glass of Berliner Weisse flavoured with raspberry syrup
Currywurst
- Currywurst by Herta Heuwer
- Dominostein by Herbert Wendler[48]
- Donauwelle
- Fanta
- Frankfurter Kranz
- Frankfurter Würstchen
- Gummy bear
- Hamburger (the "founder" is unknown, but it has German origins)[49][50]
- Hamburg steak
- Hedgehog slice (Kalter Hund)
- Hot Dog[51][52]
- Lager[53]
- Lebkuchen
- Meat extract by Justus von Liebig
- Obatzda
- Parboiled rice (Huzenlaub Process) by Erich Gustav Huzenlaub
- Pilsener by Josef Groll[54][55]
- Pinkel
- Pretzel (origin is unknown, but the earliest recorded evidence of pretzels appeared in Germany)[56]
- Prinzregententorte
- Pumpernickel
Pfälzer Saumagen
Toast Hawaii
Education and printing
- Printing with movable type, by Johannes Gutenberg
- First printed modern newspaper by Johann Carolus[57]
- Kindergarten by Friedrich Fröbel
- Humboldtian model of higher education by Wilhelm von Humboldt
- Grimms' Fairy Tales by Jacob Grimm and Wilhelm Grimm
- Lithography by Alois Senefelder
- Recyclable paper and deinking by Justus Claproth
- Waldorf education by Rudolf Steiner
Entertainment and media
- PAL, short for Phase Alternating Line, is a colour encoding system for analogue television by Walter Bruch (Telefunken)
- Twisted nematic field effect by Wolfgang Helfrich (with Swiss physicist Martin Schadt)[58]
- Integrated circuit by Werner Jacobi (Siemens AG)[59][60]
- Closed-circuit television (CCTV) by Siemens AG at Test Stand VII in Peenemünde[61]
- Oscilloscope and cathode ray tube by Ferdinand Braun
- Magazines[62]
- Nipkow disk (fundamental component in mechanical television) by Paul Gottlieb Nipkow
- Fernsehsender Paul Nipkow (TV Station Paul Nipkow) in Berlin, first public television station in the world[63][64]
- Magnetic tape[65]
- Short Message Service (SMS) concept by Friedhelm Hillebrand[66]
- Small format camera (35mm format) by Oskar Barnack[67]
- MP3 compression algorithm (fundamental for MP3 players) by i.a. Karlheinz Brandenburg (Fraunhofer Society) in the late 1980s and early 1990s.[68]
- (Modern) tape recorder[69][70]
- (Pocket) Watch by Peter Henlein[71][72]
Geology and mining
- Mohs scale of mineral hardness by Friedrich Mohs in 1812 (one of several definitions of hardness in materials science).[73]
Map of Pangaea with modern continents outlined
- Theory of continental drift (presented in 1912) and postulation of the existence of Pangaea by Alfred Wegener
Household and office appliance
- Paper Coffee filter[74]
- (Modern) Tea Bag by Adolf Rambold and Teekanne[75][76]
- Wigomat, the first Electrical drip coffee maker patented in 1954[77]
Two-hole (filebinder) hole punch
- Hole punch by Friedrich Soennecken
- Ring binder by Friedrich Soennecken
- Glue stick by company Henkel
- Ink eraser by company Pelikan
- Adhesive tape by company Beiersdorf AG
- (Modern) Laundry detergent[78]
- Washing machine by Jacob Christian Schäffer in 1767[79][80][81]
- Ingrain wallpaper by Hugo Erfurt
Mathematics
Regional variations (English, German, Russian) of the integral symbol.
- Integral symbol by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
- Leibniz's notation by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
- Leibniz formula for π by Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz
surfaces of Gaussian curvature.
- Gaussian curvature by Carl Friedrich Gauss
- Gauss map by Carl Friedrich Gauss
- Gaussian elimination by Carl Friedrich Gauss
- Hilbert space by David Hilbert
- Cantor–Bernstein–Schroeder theorem
- Cantor's theorem by Georg Cantor
- Cantor's first uncountability proof by Georg Cantor
- Cantor's diagonal argument by Georg Cantor
Illustration the intersection of two sets.
- Set theory by Georg Cantor
- Kepler conjecture by Johannes Kepler
- Riemann geometry by Bernhard Riemann
- Riemann hypothesis by Bernhard Riemann
- Weyl tensor by Hermann Weyl
Medicine
- Alzheimer's disease by Alois Alzheimer
- Morphine[82]
- Prontosil by Gerhard Domagk
- Aspirin by Felix Hoffmann and Arthur Eichengrün
- Combined oral contraceptive pill by Schering AG[83][84]
- Adhesive bandage (Guttaperchapflastermulle) by Paul Carl Beiersdorf in 1882[85]
- Eucerit and Labello
- Pressure-sensitive tape by company Beiersdorf
- Cardiac catheterization by Werner Forssmann
- Intrauterine device by Richard Richter and Ernst Gräfenberg (IUD)[86]
- X-ray tube by Wilhelm Röntgen
- Tubercle bacillus by Robert Koch
- Vibrio cholerae by Robert Koch
- Koch's postulates by Robert Koch
- Microscopic pathology by Rudolf Virchow
- Diphtheria antitoxin by Emil Adolf von Behring
- Luria–Delbrück experiment by Max Delbrück (together with Luria)
- Arsphenamine by Paul Ehrlich (together with Hata)
- Intramedullary rod by Gerhard Küntscher
- Alcohol thermometer by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
- Homeopathy, conceived by Samuel Hahnemann
- Electroencephalography for humans, by Hans Berger, 1924. Berger discovered Alpha waves[87]
- Discovery and description of Graves-Basedow disease by Karl Adolph von Basedow (also Graves)
- Chain Osteotome by Bernhard Heine
- Glass Contact lenses by Adolf Gaston Eugen Fick
- C-Leg by Ottobock
- Discovery of the organism causing diphtheria (Corynebacterium diphtheriae), Löffler's medium and the cause of Foot-and-mouth disease (Aphthovirus) by Friedrich Loeffler.
Military
- Modern flamethrower by Richard Fiedler in 1901.[88]
- Submachine gun – MP 18 by Theodor Bergmann[89]
- Modern assault rifle – StG 44[90]
Replica of V2
- Cruise missile: V-1 flying bomb
- Ballistic missile: A-4,[91] known as the V-2 rocket in the 1940s under direction of Wernher von Braun.
- First precision-guided munition (PGM): Kampfgeschwader 100 (KG 100)
- Rifling[92]
- Dreyse needle gun by Johann Nicolaus von Dreyse
- Rocket-powered aircraft, the Lippisch Ente in 1928.[93]
- Mass-produced rocket-powered aircraft, the Messerschmitt Me 163 in 1944[94]
- Brandtaucher by Wilhelm Bauer
- Anti-tank missile
- Anti-tank grenade
- Anti-tank rifle: Mauser 1918 T-Gewehr
Musical instruments
- Wagner tuba by Richard Wagner in the 1850s (inspired by Adolphe Sax)[95]
- Accordion[96]
- Bandoneon by Heinrich Band[97]
- Glockenspiel, invented either in Germany (then part of the Holy Roman Empire) or in the County of Hainaut (now Belgium) in the 18th century.
- Gramophone record by Emil Berliner
- Metronome by Johann Nepomuk Maelzel and (German-Dutch) Dietrich Nikolaus Winkel[98]
- Clarinet by Johann Christoph Denner
- Harmonica by Christian Friedrich Ludwig Buschmann
- Microphone by Emile Berliner[99][100]
Physics
- Atomic force microscope by Gerd Binnig and other physicist.
- First telephone transmitter in 1861 by Johann Philipp Reis; he also invented the term telephone.
- Cathode ray tube by Karl Ferdinand Braun
- Coincidence method by Walther Bothe
- Deinking by Justus Claproth
- Frequency comb by Theodor W. Hänsch and John L. Hall
- Geissler tube by Heinrich Geißler
- Heterojunction by Herbert Kroemer and Zhores Alferov
- Planck constant by Max Planck
- Planck's law by Max Planck
- Refractometer by Ernst Abbe in 1874.[101]
- Scanning tunneling microscope by Gerd Binnig (German) and Heinrich Rohrer (Swiss) (at IBM Zürich) .[102][103]
- Schrödinger equation by Erwin Schrödinger
- Stark effect by Johannes Stark
- Stark spectroscopy by Johannes Stark
- Stern–Gerlach experiment by Otto Stern and Walther Gerlach
- Electron microscope by Ernst Ruska and Max Knoll
- Meissner effect by Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld
- Mössbauer effect by Rudolf Mössbauer
- Nuclear isomerism by Otto Hahn
- Nuclear fission by Otto Hahn, Lise Meitner and Fritz Straßmann
- Penning trap by Hans Georg Dehmelt
- Quadrupole ion trap by Wolfgang Paul
- Geiger–Müller tube by Hans Geiger and Walther Müller
Geiger-Müller Counter
4-meter-tall sculpture of Einstein's 1905 E = mc2 formula at the 2006 Walk of Ideas, Berlin, Germany.
- Mass–energy equivalence (E = mc2) by Albert Einstein
- General relativity by Albert Einstein
- Special relativity by Albert Einstein
- STED microscopy by Stefan Hell
- Bose–Einstein statistics, Bose–Einstein condensate and Boson by Albert Einstein (together with Bose)
X-rays are part of the electromagnetic spectrum, with wavelengths shorter than visible light. Different applications use different parts of the X-ray spectrum.
- X-ray by Wilhelm Röntgen
- Laser's theoretical foundation by Albert Einstein
- Noether's theorem by Emmy Noether
- Nuclear shell model by Maria Goeppert-Mayer and J. Hans D. Jensen
- Quantum Hall effect by Klaus von Klitzing
- Quantum mechanics by Werner Heisenberg
- Giant magnetoresistance by Peter Grünberg (together with Albert Fert)
- Anode ray by Eugen Goldstein
- Ohm's law by Georg Ohm
- Vacuum pump and Magdeburg hemispheres by Otto von Guericke
- First electrostatic generator by Otto von Guericke[104]
- Radio waves and Electromagnetic radiation by Heinrich Hertz
- Nernst lamp by Walther Nernst
- Wien approximation and Wien's displacement law by Wilhelm Wien
- Ultraviolet by Johann Wilhelm Ritter
- Uncertainty principle by Werner Heisenberg
- Barkhausen effect and Barkhausen stability criterion by Heinrich Barkhausen
- Echo sounding by Alexander Behm. The patent was granted in 1913.[105][106]
- Betz's law by Albert Betz, 1913[107]
Sociology, philosophy and politics
- Marxism by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels
- Philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche by Friedrich Nietsche
- Verstehen by Max Weber
- Experimental psychology by Wilhelm Wundt[108][109][110]
- Scientific-Humanitarian Committee, first LGBT rights organization in history,[111][112] by Magnus Hirschfeld in 1897
- Critical theory and Frankfurter School
- Health insurance (Krankenversicherung in 1883), by Otto von Bismarck[113]
- Accident insurance (Unfallversicherung in 1884), by Otto von Bismarck[113]
- Pension insurance (Gesetzliche Rentenversicherung in 1889), by Otto von Bismarck[113]
Religion and ethics
Wreath with two candles lit for the second Sunday of Advent
Easterbunny
- Easter Bunny
- Protestantism and Lutheranism: in 1517 by Martin Luther, an Augustinian priest, who published his Ninety-Five Theses[117]
- Plastination by Gunther von Hagens
- Kantianism by Immanuel Kant
- German idealism
Science
- Bark scale by Eberhard Zwicker in 1961. It is named after Heinrich Barkhausen.
- Bergius process by Friedrich Bergius in 1913.[118][119]
- Richter magnitude scale by Beno Gutenberg (together with Charles Francis Richter)
- Fahrenheit, temperature scale by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
Scientific instruments
- Stauroscope by Wolfgang Franz von Kobell in 1855.[120]
- laboratory refractometer, the Abbe refractometer by Ernst Abbe
- (Modern) hand-held metal detector by Gerhard Fischer[121]
- Fahrenheit hydrometer by Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit
- Abbe refractometer by Ernst Abbe[122]
Spaceflight
- V-2 (part of the so-called Aggregat series), the first long-range guided ballistic missile[123]
Sport
- Handball[124][125]
- Paralympic Games by Ludwig Guttmann[126][127][128]
- Elfmeter in football by Karl Wald
- Modern football boots with screw-in studs by Adolf Dassler
- Underwater rugby[129]
- Parallel bars by Friedrich Ludwig Jahn
- Wheel gymnastics by Otto Feick
Tourism and recreation
- Strandkorb
- Carabiner for climbing by Otto Herzog[130]
- First purpose-built Cruise ship by Albert Ballin (cruise ship Prinzessin Victoria Luise)
Toys
- Teddy Bear[131]
- First home video console Magnavox Odyssey by German-born Ralph H. Baer
- Mensch ärgere dich nicht game board
- Skat, Doppelkopf and Schafkopf, card game
The fischertechnik
- Fischertechnik
- The Settlers of Catan
- Plastilin, patented by Franz Kolb in 1880
Transportation
automobile Benz Velo
- First production and modern[132] automobile (gasoline engine) by Karl Benz in 1885.[133][134][135]
- Motorcycle (gasoline engine) by Gottlieb Daimler and Wilhelm Maybach (Daimler Reitwagen in 1885)
- Dandy horse (forerunner to the modern bicycle) by Baron Karl von Drais[136][137]
- Helicopter, the first operational and practical helicopter was the Focke-Wulf Fw 61 developed the Focke-Achgelis company[138]
- Internal combustion engine buses
- Trolleybus (Electromote) by Werner von Siemens[139]
- First electric tramway, the Gross-Lichterfelde Tramway by Siemens & Halske (although claims can be made that Russian Fyodor Pirotsky invented it first)[140][141]
- First aircraft with a turbojet by Hans von Ohain
- Otto engine (first modern internal combustion engine) by Nicolaus Otto
- Diesel engine by Rudolf Diesel
- Wankel engine by Felix Wankel
- Modern truck in 1896 by Gottlieb Daimler[142]
- Zeppelin (a type of rigid airship) by Ferdinand von Zeppelin in 1893.[143]
- Lilienthal Normalsegelapparat by Otto Lilienthal
- Rocket-powered aircraft by Fritz Stamer in 1928
- World's first practical all-metal aircraft: Junkers J 1
- Jerrycan
- Gyrocompass by Hermann Anschütz-Kaempfe
- Defogger by Heinz Kunert
- Krueger flap by Werner Krüger
- Swept wing by Adolf Busemann[144]
- Taximeter by Friedrich Wilhelm Gustav Bruhn[145]
- Tachometer by Diedrich Uhlhorn
- Spoiler
- First high voltage spark plug by Gottlob Honold[146]
- Driver's license by Karl Benz in 1888[147]
- Filling station
- Diesel fuel
- Biodiesel
See also
References
- ↑ Dissertatio anatomica quo novum bilis dicetilicum circa orifucum ductus choledochi ut et valvulosam colli vesicæ felleæ constructionem ad disceptandum proponit, 1720
- ↑ Brodmann K. Vergleichende Lokalisationslehre der Grosshirnrinde. Leipzig : Johann Ambrosius Bart, 1909
- ↑ "Robert Koch (1843-1910)". broughttolife.sciencemuseum.org.uk. Retrieved 2018-01-18.
- ↑ Rogers, Kara (2011). The Cell. Britannica Educational Pub. p. 172. ISBN 978-1615303144.
- ↑ Britannica (1911)
- ↑ Venetskii, S. (1971). "Indium". Metallurgist. 15 (2): 148–150. doi:10.1007/BF01088126.
- ↑ Reich, F.; Richter, T. (1864). "Ueber das Indium". Journal für Praktische Chemie (in German). 92 (1): 480–485. doi:10.1002/prac.18640920180.
- ↑ Schwarz-Schampera, Ulrich; Herzig, Peter M. (2002). Indium: Geology, Mineralogy, and Economics. Springer. ISBN 978-3-540-43135-0.
- ↑ Winkler, Clemens (1887). "Germanium, Ge, a New Nonmetal Element" (English translation). Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft (in German). 19 (1): 210–211. doi:10.1002/cber.18860190156.
- ↑ WebElements.com – Bohrium
- ↑ Münzenberg, G.; Armbruster, P.; Heßberger, F. P.; Hofmann, S.; Poppensieker, K.; Reisdorf, W.; Schneider, J. H. R.; Schneider, W. F. W.; et al. (1982). "Observation of one correlated α-decay in the reaction 58Fe on 209Bi→267109". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 309 (1): 89. Bibcode:1982ZPhyA.309...89M. doi:10.1007/BF01420157.
- ↑ Barber, R. C.; Greenwood, N. N.; Hrynkiewicz, A. Z.; Jeannin, Y. P.; Lefort, M.; Sakai, M.; Ulehla, I.; Wapstra, A. P.; Wilkinson, D. H. (1993). "Discovery of the transfermium elements. Part II: Introduction to discovery profiles. Part III: Discovery profiles of the transfermium elements (Note: for Part I see Pure Appl. Chem., Vol. 63, No. 6, pp. 879-886, 1991)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 65 (8): 1757. doi:10.1351/pac199365081757.
- ↑ Karol, P. J.; Nakahara, H.; Petley, B. W.; Vogt, E. (2001). "On the discovery of the elements 110-112 (IUPAC Technical Report)". Pure and Applied Chemistry. 73 (6): 959. doi:10.1351/pac200173060959.
- ↑ Hofmann, S.; Ninov, V.; Heßberger, F. P.; Armbruster, P.; Folger, H.; Münzenberg, G.; Schött, H. J.; Popeko, A. G.; et al. (1995). "The new element 111". Zeitschrift für Physik A. 350 (4): 281. Bibcode:1995ZPhyA.350..281H. doi:10.1007/BF01291182.
- ↑ F. F. Runge (1834) "Ueber einige Produkte der Steinkohlendestillation" (On some products of coal distillation), Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 31 : 65-78. On page 69 of volume 31, Runge names phenol "Karbolsäure" (coal-oil-acid, carbolic acid). Runge characterizes phenol in: F. F. Runge (1834) "Ueber einige Produkte der Steinkohlendestillation," Annalen der Physik und Chemie, 32 : 308-328.
- ↑ Andreas Luch (2009). Molecular, clinical and environmental toxicology. Springer. p. 20. ISBN 3-7643-8335-6.
- ↑ M. Bockmuhl, Über eine neue Klasse von analgetisch wirkenden Verbindungen Ann. Chem. 561, 52 (1948)
- ↑ German (DE) Patent 296916
- ↑ Mannich, C.; Löwenheim, H. (1920). "Ueber zwei neue Reduktionsprodukte des Kodeins". Archiv der Pharmazie. 258 (2–4): 295–316. doi:10.1002/ardp.19202580218.
- ↑ Felden, L.; C. Walter; S. Harder; R.-D. Treede; H. Kayser; D. Drover; G. Geisslinger; J. Lötsch (22 September 2011). "Comparative Clinical Effects of Hydromorphone and Morphine". British Journal of Anaesthesia. 107 (3): 319–328. doi:10.1093/bja/aer232. PMID 21841049. Retrieved 10 March 2012.
- ↑ Sinatra, Raymond (2010). The Essence of Analgesia and Analgesics. MA, USA: Cambridge University Press; 1 edition. p. 123. ISBN 978-0-521-14450-6.
- ↑ Nicotinates: Nicomorphine, Nicocodeine, Etofibrate, Nicodicodeine, Ronifibrate, Aluminium Nicotinate, Morniflumate, Xantinol Nicotinate. LLC Books. 2010. p. 30. ISBN 978-1-157-22061-9.
- ↑ F. Gaedcke (1855). "Ueber das Erythroxylin, dargestellt aus den Blättern des in Südamerika cultivirten Strauches Erythroxylon Coca". Archiv der Pharmazie. 132 (2): 141–150. doi:10.1002/ardp.18551320208.
- ↑ Edeleano L (1887). "Ueber einige Derivate der Phenylmethacrylsäure und der Phenylisobuttersäure". Berichte der deutschen chemischen Gesellschaft. 20 (1): 616–622. doi:10.1002/cber.188702001142.
- ↑ "Barbiturates". Retrieved 2007-10-31.
- ↑ Jensen, William B. (September 2006). "The Origins of the Hirsch and Büchner Vacuum Filtration Funnels" (PDF). Journal of Chemical Education. 83 (9): 1283. Bibcode:2006JChEd..83.1283J. doi:10.1021/ed083p1283.
- ↑ Yahoo Education:Petri dish Archived 2013-10-22 at the Wayback Machine.
- ↑ Royal Society of Chemistry :Classic Kit: Schlenk apparatus
- ↑ Jens Bartoll. "The early use of prussian blue in paintings" (PDF). 9th International Conference on NDT of Art, Jerusalem Israel, 25–30 May 2008. Retrieved 2010-01-22.
- ↑ Van Husen, William H. "Zyklon B". World War II in Europe: An Encyclopedia(1999) p. 1153.
- ↑ "Justus von Liebig: Feeding billions of people - Halfapage.com". Halfapage.com. 2015-08-23. Retrieved 2018-04-22.
- ↑ Horn, Jeff (2016). The Industrial Revolution: History, Documents, and Key Questions. ABC-CLIO. p. 64. ISBN 978-1610698849.
- ↑ "Who Made America? | Innovators | Levi Strauss". www.pbs.org. Retrieved 2018-04-23.
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