Asghar Khan

Asghar Khan
Asghar Khan (1921–2018)
President of Pakistan International Airlines
In office
20 August 1965 – 30 November 1968
Preceded by Mirza Ahmad Ispahani
Succeeded by Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen.) Nur Khan
Director-General of the Civil Aviation Authority
In office
1965–1968
Commander in Chief of Pakistan Air Force
In office
23 July 1957 – 22 July 1965
President Ayub Khan (1960–65)
Iskander Mirza (1956–59)
Deputy Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen.) Sharbat Changezi
(Deputy Air Cdr-in-C)
Preceded by AVM Arthur McDonald
Succeeded by AM. Nur Khan
Chairman of the Solidarity Movement
In office
29 June 1970 – 12 December 2011
Preceded by Party established
Succeeded by Imran Khan
Personal details
Born Mohammad Asghar Khan
(1921-01-17)17 January 1921
Jammu, Kashmir, British India
(Present day in Jammu in Jammu and Kashmir in India)
Died 5 January 2018(2018-01-05) (aged 96)
Combined Military Hospital in Rawalpindi, Punjab in Pakistan
Cause of death Cardiac arrest
Resting place Abottabad, Khyber-Pakhtunkhwa, Pakistan
Citizenship British subject
(1921–1947)
Pakistan (1947–2018)
Political party Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf
Other political
affiliations		 National Democratic Party
Children Nasreen, Shereen, Omar and Ali Asghar
Civilian awards Hilal-i-Pakistan
Hilal-i-Quaid-i-Azam
Order of Crown
Order of the Crown of Thailand:vii[1]
Military service
Nickname(s) Shaheen-i-Pakistan
Night Flyer
Allegiance British Raj India
 Pakistan
Service/branch  British Indian Army
Royal Indian Air Force
 Pakistan Air Force
Years of service 1939–68[2]
Rank Air Marshal
(Lieutenant-General)
Unit 9th Deccan Horse, Armored Corps
Commands Pakistan Air Force Academy
ACAS (Admin.), Air AHQ
Peshawar Air Force Base
No. 9 Squadron, RIAF
Battles/wars

World War II
First Burma Campaign

Second Burma Campaign

Military awards Crosses of Aeronautical Merit

Mohammad Asghar Khan (Urdu: اصغر خان‬‎  17 January 1921 – 5 January 2018), was a Pakistani politician and an autobiographer, later a dissident serving for the cause of pacifism, peace, and the human rights.[3]

Born into a military family, Asghar Khan briefly served as an officer in the Indian Army before being deputed to the Royal Indian Air Force as a military adviser in 1941— he was later drafted in the air force as its commanding officer in the Asian front of the World War II.[4] After the partition of India in 1947, he chose to join the Pakistan Air Force and subsequently secured promotion as a three star rank air force general where he was appointed to command the air force at the age of 36 in 1959– the youngest officer at the command level in the military at that time. In 1965, his dissenting opinion with Gen. Musa Khan, the army commander, over the area contingency plans and vetoing the decisions to go on war with India eventually led to his replacement with Lt-Gen. Nur Khan.[3] He continue to serve with his rank when he was deputed as an airline executive until retiring in 1968.[2]

After his retirement from the military in 1968, Asghar Khan founded the Solidarity Party with a secular and centrist political program in a direct opposition to the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP) and the Pakistan Muslim League (PML) but failed to make any significant impact when the general elections held in 1970. From 1970s–90s, his political career focused towards the politics of agitations against the elected civilian governments, and gained notability when he filed the multiple lawsuits against the PPP and the PML(N) at the Supreme Court of Pakistan in 1990s.[5] During this time, he authored many political books, some very critical or given dissenting criticism to the Pakistan Army's involvement in the national politics.[6][7]

In 2011, Asghar Khan later merged his party with the Pakistan Movement for Justice led by Imran Khan,[8] and was buried with state honours after passing away in January 2018.[9]

Biography

Family background, early life and military career in India

The Gloster Meteor in flight in 1955: Maj. Asghar Khan became the First Indian to be qualified to fly the jet engine aircraft, the Gloster Meteor in 1946.[4]

Mohammad Asghar Khan was born in Jammu, Kashmir in India on 17 January 1921 into a Pashtun family.[10]:iii[4] His family belonged to Afridi tribe from the Tirah valley in the tribal-belt region that settled in Jammu and Kashmir.[4] His father, Brigadier Thakur Rehmatullah Khan, was an army officer in the Jammu and Kashmir Rifles of the Indian Army, and later emigrated to Abbottabad after the partition of India in 1947.[11][12]

His elder brother, Brig. Aslam Khan, was an one-star rank army general in the Pakistan Army who earned his reputation as the "Legend of Baltistan" after his participation in first war with India in 1947.[13]

After his education at the boarding school, Asghar was sent to attend the Royal Indian Military College in 1933 where he secured his matriculation in 1939, subsequently joining the Indian Army in 1939.:67[14] After graduating from the Indian Military Academy 1940, he gained commissioned in the Indian Army as the 2nd-Lt. in the Royal Deccan Horse attached to the Armoured Corps of the Indian Army in December 1940.[15] In 1941, Lt. Asghar Khan was seconded to the Royal Indian Air Force, joining the No. 9 Squadron as its military adviser during the Burma fronts.:15[16][4] In 1942, Capt. Asghar Khan was transferred to the Royal Indian Air Force, where he saw actions in the first front in Burma against Japan, and flown bomer missions on the Hawker Hurricane.:14[17]

In 1944, Sq-Ldr. (Major) Asghar Khan later served in the second front in Burma, commanding the No. 9 Squadron alongside with Sq Ldr. Arjan Singh who led the No. 1 Squadron during the aerial operations in Arkan in 1944-45.:content[18][4]

After the end of the World War II in Asia, Sq-Ldr. (Major) Asghar Khan was posted at the Ambala Air Force Station where he was assigned to served as the flight instructor at the Flying Instructors School until 1947.:15[16] He was noted to be the first Indian to have qualified to fly fighter jet, a Gloster Meteor, in the United Kingdom in 1946.[4]

During this time, Sq-Ldr. (Major) Asghar Khan decided to transfer to the Pakistan Air Force and went to Great Britain to attend the RAF Staff College at Bracknell, where he graduated in 1949.[4] He was later directed to attend the Joint Service Defence College located in Latimer, Buckinghamshire and graduated in 1952.:v[10] He continued his further education at the Imperial Defence College and graduated in 1955.:v[10][4]

Command and war appointments in the Pakistani military

Upon returning to Pakistan, Wg-Cdr. (Lt-Col.) Asghar was appointed as the first Commandant of the Pakistan Air Force Academy in Risalpur in 1947 until 1949, he was attached to command the Peshawar Air Force base in 1949–50.[19] In 1948–49, Wg-Cdr. Asghar Khan greeted Governor-General Muhammad Ali Jinnah when Jinnah visited the famed Pakistan Air Force Academy.[20] For a short brief of time in 1953, Gp-Capt. (Col.) Asghar was taken in deputation in the services of the Pakistan International Airlines (PIA) where he served in the corporate administration.:38[21] In 1955, Gp-Capt. (Col.) Asghar Khan was appointed as the commander of the No. 1 Group.:120[22]:97[23]

In 1955-56, Air-Cdre. (Brig.) Asghar Khan was posted in the Air AHQ and briefly met with the Brigadier-General Saxton of the U.S. Air Force to discuss the military advisory and equipment procurement for the Pakistan Air Force.:97[23] In 1957, AVM (Maj-Gen.) Asghar Khan was appointed as the ACAS of Administration and took initiative in establishing the Air Force Education Command that oversaw the establishment of the Air War College in Islamabad and the College of Aeronautical Engineering in Risalpur.[19]

Commander-in-Chief and President of Pakistan International Airlines

The map of northern frontier of Pakistan in 2004. Lt-Gen. Asghar reportedly in a view of disapproving the second war with India over the Kashmir issue in 1965– later, he was replaced before the second war broke out between two nations.[24]

In 1957, the Government of Pakistan announced to retire the services of Royal Air Force's officer, AVM Sir Arthur McDonald, and promoted AVM Asghar Khan to the two-star rank.:v[10] In 1957, AVM (Maj-Gen.) Asghar took over the command of the air force as its first and the youngest air commander in the military– he was only at the age of 36 at that time of promotion.[25] In 1958, Maj-Gen. Asghar Khan's rank was upgrades to three-star rank.:v[10][25]

Soon after his promotion in 1958, Air-Mshl (Lt-Gen.) Asghar Khan soon become involved in the national politics and harboured strong feelings towards nation's politicians involved in monetary corruption.:104[26] He sided with army commander, Lt-Gen. Ayub Khan against navy commander, V-Adm. HMS Choudhri over the contingency plans and management of the Joint Staff.:381–382[27] Eventually in 1958, Lt-Gen. Asghar played crucial role in support of the martial law and consolidating the control in support of Gen. Ayub Khan, alongside with Admiral A. R. Khan and four army and air force generals: Azam, Amir, Wajid, who were instrumental in Ayub Khan's rise to power.:104[26]

Ouster of President Mirza was welcomed at public circles, Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen) Asghar backed the actions for the martial law enforcement which he viewed necessary step to eradicate the corrupt practices found in the nation's politics.:104[26][28] In 1960, Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen) Asghar was given the first extension and was allowed to continue the command of the air force.:37[29] In 1963, Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen) Asghar was approved for the second extension from the President Ayub Khan, which was set till 1965.[24] During this time, he maintained close ties with the U.S. Air Force to continue training and supported the test pilot program where many of Pakistan air force's pilots qualified as career test pilots on U.S. military aircraft.[23]

In 1965, Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen) Asghar reportedly was in conflict with the army department led by its army commander Gen. Musa Khan when he questioned over the contingency plans and secret infiltration in Indian side of Kashmir.[30] Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen) Asghar reported that the air force department nor the naval department was kept informed by the military planners when the second war with India broke out in 1965.[31] Before the declaration of war by either sides, Lt-Gen. Asghar reportedly spoke with the Air Chief Marshal Arjan Singh, the Indian IAF's Chief of the Air Staff, where both reached mutual understanding of avoiding bombardment of residential cities of each sides.:17[32]

He boldly came out against the war with India during the meeting with the President Ayub Khan and correctly calculated that "a provoked India is likely to respond along the border in an all-out war."[24] Though, President Ayub took the war option after being convinced by the arguments presented by his Foreign Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto.[24]

On August 1965, President Ayub Khan reportedly refused to approve his extension papers for the third term and was confirmed to be replaced from his command appointment when Lt-Gen. Nur Khan was appointed his post.:67[29]:148[33] By the time, Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen) Asghar was replaced from his command appointment, the Pakistan Air Force had been formidable branch of the armed forces.[31]

After leaving the command of the air force, President Ayub appointed him as the President of the Pakistan International Airlines, which he served with his rank.[34][35][36] There, Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen) Asghar qualified to fly the commercial airline and obtained his commercial license.[36] Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen) Asghar transformed the corporate culture into professionalism when he introduced new uniforms for the air hostesses and stewards which earned words of admiration at domestic and international airports.[37]

After the deadly aviation incident took place in 1966 involving the PIA's helicopter service in Eastern Pakistan, he stressed towards the aviation safety which led to the PIA achieved lowest aircraft accident rate and highest net profit of Pakistan, and was a formidable competitor in the world airline business.[38] In addition, Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen.) Asghar briefly served as the Director-General of the Civil Aviation Authority (CAA) from 1965 until retiring in 1968.:196[39] His tenure as president is often reminded as "Golden age of PIA" by his supporters.[38] In 1968, Air-Mshl. (Lt-Gen) Asghar eventually retired from his military service and later left the corporate affairs of the airlines, also in 1968.[2]

Political career in Pakistan

Solidarity Party, politics of agitation and support for martial law

An example of Dharna. Asghar Khan instigated multiple Dharna movements to remove the elected civilian governments in Pakistan over the leveled accusations of monetary corruption throughout the 1970s and the 1990.[5]

After retiring from his military service, Asghar Khan announced to form the political party, the Tehrik-e-Istiqlal (lit. Movement for Solidarity Party), in response of Zulfikar Ali Bhutto's announcement of forming of the Pakistan Peoples Party (PPP).[24] The TeI was a centrist political party found in direct opposition to left-wing PPP, though both were opposing the Ayub administration.:169[40] Despite its centerist and secular program, the TeI attracted the right-wing conservative vote bank and support from the ultraconservative clergy.:169[40][41] During the election campaign in 1969–70, Asghar Khan placed the blame on Zulfikar Ali Bhutto for starting the second war with India in 1965 after reading the statement from Ayub Khan after meeting the latter.:23-24[42]

He also was very critical of Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto and Mujibur Rehman when they quietly sustained the turnover of central government under President Yahya Khan.:89-90[43] He was later imprisoned alongside with Bhutto and Mujib for sometime, sharing the limelight in the news for his imprisonment.:76[44] In protest in 1969, Asghar renounced his civil awards bestowed to him by the Government of Pakistan.:vii[45] He later advised President Yahya Khan of transferring the control of the government to Mujibur Rehman to prevent the breaking-up the unity of Pakistan as early as 1971.:contents[46]

During the nationwide general elections held in 1970, Asghar Khan decided to run on the Rawalpindi's constituencies, believing that the city's population would vote in appreciation of the retired air force general who is also close to the military establishment.:76[44] However, Asghar Khan clearly lost the election to the less-known politician, Khurshid Hasan Mir of PPP; the TeI generally lost the election without winning any seats for the National Assembly as the PPP had performed well to claim the exclusive mandate in the Four Provinces of Pakistan.:159[47]

After the disastrous third war with India in 1971, Asghar Khan joined the National Assembly, only to be served in the Opposition bench led by Wali Khan of communist Awami National Party.:159[47][36] After Yahya administration turned over the civilian government to Zulfikar Ali Bhutto as President, Asghar Khan accused Bhutto of escalating the situation that led to the breaking-up the nation's unity and noting that: "We are living virtually under one-party state... The outstanding feature is suppression."[41]

In 1973, his criticism on Prime Minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto grew further and held him directly responsible of authorizing the military operations to curb the nationalism in Balochistan in Pakistan.:205[48].[41] In 1974, Asghar criticized the nationalization of industry and his party was benefitted with financial support from industrialists such as Nawaz Sharif, Javed Hashmi, Shuja'at Hussain to oppose such policy measure programs.[4] In 1975–76, Asghar Khan eventually supported and was instrumental informing the National Front, a massive nine-party conservative alliance, and was said to be determined to oust Bhutto and his party from the government and power.:163[49]

In 1977, Asghar Khan participated in the general elections on his previous constituency but lost the elections to less-known politicians, much to his surprise.:76[44] He refused the election results and leveled charges on the government of vote rigging, immediately calling for the massive dharnas against the government.:76[44] When provincial governments led the arrests of massive workers of National Front, it was reported by historians that it was Asghar Khan who penned a letter to the Chairman joint chiefs Admiral Mohammad Shariff and army chief Gen. Zia-ul-Haq of reminding them of not to obey the law of their civilian superiors.:68[50]:contents[51] Excerpts of this letter is later published by the historians as Asghar Khan later asking the military to renounce their support for the "Illegal regime of Bhutto", and asked the military leadership to "differentiate between a "lawful and an unlawful" command... and save Pakistan.".:181[52]

To the historians and observer, the letter was a pivot for the military to engage in establishing the martial law against Prime Minister Bhutto in 1977.:68[50][52] Asghar Khan was reportedly offered cabinet post in the Zia administration but he declined to be served.[52]

Imprisonment and political struggle to maintain image

After the martial law upheld by army chief, Gen. Zia, supported by Chairman joint chiefs Adm. Sharif, Asghar Khan began opposing the Zia administration and called for supporting the restoration of democracy.[52] On a television interviews with the news channels, Asghar Khan strongly defended his letter as according to him "nowhere in the letter had he asked for the military to take over", and he had written it in response to a news story that he had read in which an army major had shot a civilian showing him the "V sign".[52]

In 1983, Asghar Khan went onto join the left-wing alliance, the Movement for Restoration of Democracy (MRD) led by Benazir Bhutto, supported by the communist parties at that time.[53]

He was kept under house arrest at his Abbottabad residence from 16 October 1979 to 2 October 1984 and was named a prisoner of conscience by Amnesty International.[54] In 1986, Asghar Khan left the MRD, which was under the influence of the PPP and ANP, and had paving a way for the Bhuttoism which had irked Asghar Khan.:51-52[55] His decision of boycotting the non-partisan general elections held in 1985 eventually led many of his party's key member defecting to the Pakistan Muslim League led by its President M. K. Junejo.:134[56]

In 1988, his penned letter calling for support for the martial law became a public matter and failed to defend his multiple constituencies against the PPP's politicians when the general elections held in 1988.:114-115[57] He also lost the general elections held in 1993 and leveled accusations on the military of financing the conservative PML(N) and PPP.:187[58] He eventually took his case to the Supreme Court of Pakistan where the hearings of his case are still being heard by the Nisar Court of present.[5] In 1997, Asghar Khan boycotted the general elections held in 1997.:703[59]

Public disapproval and merging with Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf

Since 1990, Asghar Khan's political image had failed to sustain any political influence in the country.[60] In 1998–99, Asghar Khan made unsuccessful attempts to merged his party's cause to Imran Khan's PTI.:887[61]

In 2002, he handed over his small party to his elder son, Omar, who was the cabinet minister in the early Musharraf administration.[60] After his son's death, Asghar joined the National Democratic Party in 2004, which he remained part of until 2011.:428[62] On 12 December 2011, Asghar Khan announced his full support to Pakistan Tehreek-e-Insaf (PTI) and Imran Khan.[63] He praised Imran Khan for his struggle and endorsed him as the only hope left for the survival of Pakistan.[63] This endorsement came at a crucial time for Imran Khan, when many tainted politicians were joining his party.[63][64]

Dissent: Criticism on state, military and politicians

During this political career, Asghar Khan was very critical of Pakistan Army's involvement in the politics and issued strong criticism to Pakistan Army's general in first instance in 1980, which led to his imprisonment– he stressed the importance of the civilian control of the military for the economic development.:133[65] On various occasion, Asghar Khan called for normalization of Indo-Pakistan relations and reportedly accused the Pakistan Army inciting the deliberate attempts to start the conflict with India.[66] Asghar Khan also renounced the nuclear tests operations conducted by Pakistan, targeting Prime minister Nawaz Sharif move for making that move.[66] In 2011 Asghar Khan maintained that:

In the last over 60 years, India has never attacked Pakistan, as it cannot afford it. Indians know well, if Pakistan is destroyed, they will be the next target... It was made our problem that one day India would invade us. But we did so four times and the first attack was on Kashmir, where Maharaja was not prepared to accede to India for he wanted to join Pakistan and waited for this for 21 days. Indian forces came to East-Pakistan when people were being slaughtered there. Moreover, again at Kargil, Indian never mounted an assault...

— Asghar Khan, 2011, [66]

In 1972, Asghar Khan accused Zulfikar Ali Bhutto for the break-up of the country, later blatantly blaming Bhutto for the starting of the conflict in Western Pakistan in 1976, and the war in Eastern Pakistan in 1971, terming it "inflexible attitude" of Bhutto.[66][67]

Commenting of his political collapse, Asghar Khan accused the civil society for his failure, and marked that: "the majority in Pakistan voted for the (corrupt) politicians, as they also wanted their job done by "hook or by crook".[66]

In 1990s, he briefly fought the several legal battles against his country's elected politicians where he accused them of involved in monetary corrupt practices, and eventually filed a lawsuit against the PPP and PML(N) at the Supreme Court of Pakistan.[66] He held a numerous televised press conferences where he attached the case file of his lawsuits and penned an article to the public: Is Hamam Main Sab Nangay… (lit. Everyone's naked in this bathroom...).[68]

Asghar Khan was also a prolific political writer and historian where he penned criticism on the politics of Pakistan army and the role of military establishment in country's political system. Of 13 books, three of his popular bibliography included: We've Learnt Nothing from History, Pakistan at the Crossroads and Generals in Politics.[19]

Personal life, death and funeral

Asghar Khan was married to Amina Shamsie in 1946 and they had four children, Nasreen, Sheereen, Omar (deceased) and Ali Asghar Khan.:103[69] Asghar Khan passed away on 5 January 2018, two weeks shy of his 97th birthday.[70][3] The government of Pakistan buried him with full state honours and he was given a state funeral, the fifth such funeral in the history of the nation (After Mohammad Ali Jinnah, Zulfiqar Ali Bhutto, Abdul Sattar Edhi, and Ruth Pfau).[71]

Selected books

English

  • Khan, Ashghar (1969). Pakistan at the Cross Roads. Karachi: Ferozsons. OCLC 116825.
  • —— (1979). The First Round, Indo-Pakistan War 1965. Sahibabad: Vikas. ISBN 0-7069-0978-X.
  • —— (1983). Generals in Politics. New Delhi: Vikas. ISBN 0-7069-2215-8.
  • —— (1985). The Lighter side of the Power Game. Lahore: Jang Publishers. OCLC 15107608.
  • —— (2005). We've Learnt Nothing from History. Karachi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 0-19-597883-8.
  • —— (2008). My Political Struggle. Karachi: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-547620-0.
  • —— (2009). Milestones in a Political Journey. Islamabad: Dost Publications. ISBN 978-9694963556.

Urdu

  • Khan, Ashghar (1985). Sada-i-Hosh (in Urdu). Lahore: Jang Publishers. OCLC 14214332.
  • —— (1998). Chehray nahi Nizam ko Badlo (in Urdu). Islamabad: Dost Publications. ISBN 978-9694960401.
  • —— (1999). Islam – Jamhooriat aur Pakistan (in Urdu). Islamabad: Dost Publications. ISBN 978-9694960852.
  • —— (1999). Ye Batain Hakim Logon Ki (in Urdu). Islamabad: Dost Publications. ISBN 978-9694960876.

See also

References

  1. ↑ Khan, Mohammad Asghar (1969). Pakistan at the cross-roads. Ferozsons. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  2. 1 2 3 Naseeruddin., G. (1968). Trade and Industry. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  3. 1 2 3 Naveed Siddiqui, Dawn.com (2018-01-05). "Air Marshal Asghar Khan passes away in Islamabad". DAWN.COM. Retrieved 2018-01-05.
  4. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Staff report. "Air Marshal Muhammad Asghar Khan". Pakistan Herald, 14 March 2012. Archived from the original on 10 June 2015. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  5. 1 2 3 Abbas, Mazhar (15 May 2018). "A story behind Asghar Khan case?". Mazhar Abbas report on GEO TV. GEO News. GEO TV. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
  6. ↑ "Asghar Khan: India An Imagined Enemy". 28 November 2009. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
  7. ↑ "Air Marshal Asghar Khan Exposes Pakistan Army From 1947 to 1999". 5 September 2015. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
  8. ↑ "Imran greets Asghar as Tehrik-e-Istaqlal, PTI merge". Dunyanews.tv. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
  9. ↑ "State funeral prayer for Air Marshal Asghar Khan offered in Rawalpindi - BOL News". 5 January 2018.
  10. 1 2 3 4 5 Khan, Mohammad Asghar (1969). Pakistan At the Cross Roads. Lahore, Pakistan: Ferozsons. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  11. ↑ Bhattacharya, Brigadier Samir (2013), Nothing But!: Book Three: What Price Freedom, Partridge Publishing, pp. 260–, ISBN 978-1-4828-1625-9
  12. ↑ Wasim Khalid, Kashmiri man who laid foundation of modern Pak air Force dies at 96, Kashmir Reader, 6 January 2018.
  13. ↑ Muqeet Malik, The Legend of Baltistan: Brigadier Muhammad Aslam Khan, The Nation, 21 August 2015.
  14. ↑ Singh, Bikram; Mishra, Sidharth (1997). "§Air Marshal Asghar Khan". Where Gallantry is Tradition: Saga of Rashtriya Indian Military College : Plantinum Jubilee Volume, 1997 (google books). New Delhi, India: Allied Publishers. p. 125. ISBN 9788170236498. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  15. ↑ Webdesk, staff (6 January 2018). "Air Marshal Asghar Khan laid to rest". www.thenews.com.pk. News International, 2018. News International. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  16. 1 2 Aero News. Kitab. 1965. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  17. ↑ London Calling. British Broadcasting Corporation. 1945. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  18. ↑ Subramaniam, Arjun (2017). India's Wars: A Military History, 1947-1971. Naval Institute Press. ISBN 9781682472422. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  19. 1 2 3 "Mohammad Asghar Khan". prideofpakistan.com. Pride of Pakistan. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  20. ↑ Kazi (MMBS). "The Founder visiting PAF Base Risalpur with Wing Commander Asghar Khan, 1948". Flicker photo, 1948. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  21. ↑ Aeroplane Directory of British Aviation. English Universities. 1953. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  22. ↑ Shuja., Nawaz, (2008). Crossed swords : Pakistan, its army, and the wars within. Oxford University Press. p. 655. ISBN 9780195476606.
  23. 1 2 3 Hussain, Syed Shabbir; Qureshi, M. Tariq (1982). History of the Pakistan Air Force, 1947-1982 (1st ed.). Islamabad: ISPR, Pakistan Air Force. p. 332. Retrieved 11 April 2018.
  24. 1 2 3 4 5 Taqi, Mohammad (10 January 2018). "Asghar Khan: From Air Marshal to Dogged Opponent of Military Rule in Pakistan - The Wire" (htm). The Wire. Islamabad: Taqi at The Wire. Retrieved 17 May 2018. He firmly believed Pakistan does not face an offensive threat from India and has nothing to fear on its eastern front unless it keeps provoking its giant neighbour...
  25. 1 2 Press release. "Air Marshal M Asghar Khan, HPk, HQA". PAF Falcons. PAF Falcons, Chiefs of Air Staff. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  26. 1 2 3 Rizvi, H. Military, State and Society in Pakistan. Springer, Rizvi. ISBN 9780230599048. Retrieved 1 November 2016.
  27. ↑ Singh, Ravi Shekhar Narain Singh (2008). The Military Factor in Pakistan. Lancer Publishers, Singh. ISBN 9780981537894. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  28. ↑ SoP (1 June 2003). "Ouster of President Iskander Mirza". Story Of Pakistan, Mirza's ouster section. Retrieved 3 November 2016.
  29. 1 2 Akhtar, Jamna Das (1969). Political conspiracies in Pakistan: Liaquat Ali's murder to Ayub Khan's exit (1st ed.). Lahore, Punjab,Pakistan: Punjabi Pustak Bhandar. p. 380. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
  30. ↑ Chaudhry, PAF, Lt-Gen. (Retd.) Shehza (31 October 2012). "The military-military divide - The Express Tribune" (html). The Express Tribune. Islamabad: Express Tribune, Chaudhry, 2012. Express Tribune. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
  31. 1 2 Editorial, et.al. (6 September 2005). "Nur Khan reminisces '65 war". DAWN.COM. Dawn Newspapers, 2005. Dawn. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
  32. ↑ Ganguly, Sumit (2016). Deadly Impasse: Indo-Pakistani Relations at the Dawn of a New Century (google books) (1st ed.). Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. p. 198. ISBN 9781316692363. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
  33. ↑ Sahni, Naresh Chander (1969). Political Struggle in Pakistan (1st ed.). Karachi, Pakistan: New Academic Publishing Company. p. 239. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
  34. ↑ PIA History. "PIA's Finest Men and Women". PIA History. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  35. ↑ PIA History. "The Legengs". PIA History.
  36. 1 2 3 Khan, M. Asghar (23 August 2010). "My political struggle". The News International. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  37. ↑ PIA. "Photo Gallery of PIA's Finest Men and Women". The PIA Historical Department. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  38. 1 2 Masood Hasan (23 October 2011). "The promise". The News International, Sunday, 23 October 2011. Archived from the original on 6 April 2012. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  39. ↑ The Commonwealth Office Year Book. H.M. Stationery Office. 1968.
  40. 1 2 Chari, P. R.; Cheema, Pervaiz Iqbal; Cohen, Stephen P. (2009). Four Crises and a Peace Process: American Engagement in South Asia. Brookings Institution Press. ISBN 081571386X. Retrieved 17 May 2018.
  41. 1 2 3 Saeed Shafqat, PhD (1997). Civil-military relations in Pakistan. Peshawar, Pakistan: Boulder: West View Press. pp. 283 pages. ISBN 978-0813388090.
  42. ↑ "Indian and Foreign Review". Indian and Foreign Review,. Publications Division of the Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India. 17 (8–24). 1980. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  43. ↑ Kapur, Ashok (2006). Pakistan in Crisis. Routledge. ISBN 9781134989775. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  44. 1 2 3 4 Burki, Shahid Javed (2015). Historical Dictionary of Pakistan. Rowman & Littlefield. ISBN 9781442241480. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  45. ↑ Khan, Mohammad Asghar (1969). Pakistan at the cross-roads. Ferozsons. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  46. ↑ Sengupta, Nitish (2011). Land of Two Rivers: A History of Bengal from the Mahabharata to Mujib. Penguin UK. ISBN 9788184755305. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
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  50. 1 2 Singh, Ravi Shekhar Narain Singh (2008). The Military Factor in Pakistan. Lancer Publishers. ISBN 9780981537894. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  51. ↑ Kapur, Ashok (2006). Pakistan in Crisis. Routledge. ISBN 9781134989768. Retrieved 18 May 2018.
  52. 1 2 3 4 5 Talbot, Ian (1998). Pakistan A Modern History. United States.: St. Martin's Press. pp. 181–200. ISBN 0-312-21606-8.
  53. ↑ Hyman, Anthony; Ghayur, Muhammed; Kaushik, Naresh (1989). Pakistan, Zia and After--. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 52. ISBN 81-7017-253-5. The Tehrik-i-Istiqlal of retired air marshal Asghar Khan had also joined the MRD by [1984] ... The so-called 'three Khans' – Nazrullah Khan of the Pakistan Democratic Party, Walid Khan of National Awami Party and Asghar Khan of the Tehrik – opposed [participation in the 1985 elections] and carried the rest with them.
  54. ↑ "Pakistan" (PDF). Amnesty International. 1981. Retrieved 22 January 2012.
  55. ↑ Pakistan Review. S. Ahmad. 1985. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
  56. ↑ Hyman, Anthony; Ghayur, Muhammed; Kaushik, Naresh (1989). Pakistan, Zia and After--. New Delhi: Abhinav Publications. p. 134. ISBN 81-7017-253-5. Once the [1988] National Assembly elections were over ... Air Marshal Asghar Khan, leader of the Tehrik-i-Istiklal party, has been swept aside, in both the constituencies where he contested the elections from.
  57. ↑ Electoral Politics in Pakistan: National Assembly Elections 1993 : Report of Saarc-Ngo Observers. International Centre for Ethnic Studies. 1995. ISBN 9780706987317. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
  58. ↑ Tushnet, Mark; Khosla, Madhav (2015). Unstable Constitutionalism: Law and Politics in South Asia. Cambridge University Press. p. 400. ISBN 9781316419083. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
  59. ↑ Banks, Arthur S.; Day, Alan J.; Muller, Thomas C. (2016). Political Handbook of the World 1998. Springer. ISBN 9781349149513. Retrieved 19 May 2018.
  60. 1 2 Zia Khan (13 December 2011). "Reinforcement: Asghar Khan is latest PTI recruit". The Express Tribune. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  61. ↑ Banks, William C.; Muller, T.; Overstreet, W. (2005). Political Handbook of theWorld 2005-2006. CQ Press. ISBN 9781568029528. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  62. ↑ South Asia 2004. Taylor & Francis. 2003. |access-date= requires |url= (help)
  63. 1 2 3 Press Release (12 December 2011). "Asghar Khan backs Imran's PTI". Dawn Newspapers, 2011. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  64. ↑ Press Release (12 December 2011). "Air Marshal (retd) Asghar Khan to join PTI". Pakistan Tribune. Retrieved 14 March 2012.
  65. ↑ Degenhardt, Henry W.; Day, Alan John (1983). Political dissent: an international guide to dissident, extra-parliamentary, guerrilla, and illegal political movements. Gale Research Company. ISBN 9780582902558. Retrieved 20 May 2018.
  66. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Alvi, Mumtaz (21 October 2011). "Asghar Khan claims Pakistan attacked India four times since 1947". The News International, October 2011. Archived from the original on 31 March 2012. Retrieved 15 March 2012.
  67. ↑ Inam R Sehri (2015). The Living History of Pakistan Vol-I. GHP Surrey UK. pp. 1651–76.
  68. ↑ Inam R Sehri (2012). Judges & Generals in Pakistan Vol-I. GHP Surrey UK. pp. 168–73.
  69. ↑ Vikrant. 1973. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
  70. ↑ "First Muslim air chief of PAF Asghar Khan dies". En.dailypakistan.com.pk. Retrieved 5 January 2018.
  71. ↑ "State funeral for former air chief Asghar Khan held at Nur Khan Airbase - The Express Tribune". The Express Tribune. 6 January 2018. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
  • Bio of Air Marshal Asghar Khan
  • Biography of Asghar Khan
  • "State funeral prayer for Air Marshal Asghar Khan offered in Rawalpindi - BOL News". 5 January 2018.
  • "Asghar Khan: India An Imagined Enemy". 28 November 2009. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
  • "Air Marshal Asghar Khan Exposes Pakistan Army From 1947 to 1999". 5 September 2015. Retrieved 21 May 2018.
Military offices
Preceded by
Arthur McDonald		 Commander-in-Chief, Pakistan Air Force
1957–1965		 Succeeded by
Nur Khan
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