Indo-Pakistani wars and conflicts

Since the partition of British India in 1947 and creation of modern states of India and Pakistan, the two South Asian countries have been involved in four wars, including one undeclared war, and many border skirmishes and military stand-offs. Most of these wars and conflict have ended with defeat or disaster for Pakistan.[1][2]

The Kashmir issue has been the main cause of all major conflicts between the two countries with the exception of the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 where conflict originated due to turmoil in erstwhile East Pakistan (now Bangladesh).

Background

Four nations (India, Pakistan, Dominion of Ceylon and Union of Burma) that gained independence in 1947 and 1948

The Partition of British India came about in the aftermath of World War II, when both Great Britain and British India were dealing with the economic stresses caused by the war and its demobilisation.[3] It was the intention of those who wished for a Muslim state to come from British India to have a clean partition between independent and equal "Pakistan" and "Hindustan" once independence came.[4]

The partition itself, according to leading politicians such as Mohammed Ali Jinnah, leader of the All India Muslim League, and Jawaharlal Nehru, leader of the Indian National Congress, should have resulted in peaceful relations. As the Hindu and Muslim populations were scattered unevenly in the whole country, the partition of British India into India and Pakistan in 1947 was not possible along religious lines. Nearly one third of the Muslim population of British India remained in India.[5] Inter-communal violence between Hindus, Sikhs and Muslims resulted in between 500,000 and 1 million casualties.[3]:6

Princely-ruled territories, such as Kashmir and Hyderabad, were also involved in the Partition. Rulers of these territories had the choice of joining India or Pakistan.

Wars

Refugees awaiting evacuation by IAF Dakota on Poonch Airstrip, December 1947.

Indo-Pakistani War of 1947

Indian soldiers during the 1947–1948 war.

The war, also called the First Kashmir War, started in October 1947 when Pakistan feared that the Maharaja of the princely state of Kashmir and Jammu would accede to India. Following partition, princely states were left to choose whether to join India or Pakistan or to remain independent. Jammu and Kashmir, the largest of the princely states, had a majority Muslim population and significant fraction of Hindu population, all ruled by the Hindu Maharaja Hari Singh. Tribal Islamic forces with support from the army of Pakistan attacked and occupied parts of the princely state forcing the Maharaja to sign the Instrument of Accession of the princely state to the Dominion of India to receive Indian military aid. The UN Security Council passed Resolution 47 on 22 April 1948. The fronts solidified gradually along what came to be known as the Line of Control. A formal cease-fire was declared at 23:59 on the night of 1 January 1949.[6]:379 India gained control of about two-thirds of the state (Kashmir valley, Jammu and Ladakh) whereas Pakistan gained roughly a third of Kashmir (Azad Kashmir, and Gilgit–Baltistan). The Pakistan controlled areas are collectively referred to as Pakistan administered Kashmir.[7][8][9][10]

Indo-Pakistani War of 1965

This war started following Pakistan's Operation Gibraltar, which was designed to infiltrate forces into Jammu and Kashmir to precipitate an insurgency against rule by India. India retaliated by launching a full-scale military attack on West Pakistan. The seventeen-day war caused thousands of casualties on both sides and witnessed the largest engagement of armored vehicles and the largest tank battle since World War II.[11][12] The hostilities between the two countries ended after a ceasefire was declared following diplomatic intervention by the Soviet Union and USA and the subsequent issuance of the Tashkent Declaration.[13] India had the upper hand over Pakistan when the ceasefire was declared.[14][15][16][17][18][19][20][21][22]

Indo-Pakistani War of 1971

Lieutenant-General A. A. K. Niazi, the commander of Pakistan Eastern Command, signing the instrument of surrender in Dhaka on 16 Dec 1971, in the presence of India's Lt. Gen. Jagjit Singh Aurora.
Pakistan's PNS Ghazi, the Pakistani submarine which sank off during the 1971 Indo-Pakistani War under mysterious circumstances[23] on the Visakhapatnam coast.

This war was unique in the way that it did not involve the issue of Kashmir, but was rather precipitated by the crisis created by the political battle brewing in erstwhile East Pakistan between Sheikh Mujibur Rahman, Leader of East Pakistan, and Yahya Khan and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto, leaders of West Pakistan. This would culminate in the declaration of Independence of Bangladesh from the state system of Pakistan. Following Operation Searchlight and the 1971 Bangladesh atrocities, about 10 million Bengalis in East Pakistan took refuge in neighbouring India.[24] India intervened in the ongoing Bangladesh liberation movement.[25][26] After a large scale pre-emptive strike by Pakistan, full-scale hostilities between the two countries commenced.

Pakistan attacked at several places along India's western border with Pakistan, but the Indian Army successfully held their positions. The Indian Army quickly responded to the Pakistan Army's movements in the west and made some initial gains, including capturing around 5,795 square miles (15,010 km2)[27][28][29] of Pakistan territory (land gained by India in Pakistani Kashmir, Pakistani Punjab and Sindh sectors but gifted it back to Pakistan in the Simla Agreement of 1972, as a gesture of goodwill). Within two weeks of intense fighting, Pakistani forces in East Pakistan surrendered to the joint command of Indian and Bangladeshi forces following which the People's Republic of Bangladesh was created.[30] This war saw the highest number of casualties in any of the India-Pakistan conflicts, as well as the largest number of prisoners of war since the Second World War after the surrender of more than 90,000 Pakistani military and civilians.[31] In the words of one Pakistani author, "Pakistan lost half its navy, a quarter of its air force and a third of its army".[32]

Indo-Pakistani War of 1999

Indian soldiers after winning a battle during the Kargil War.

Commonly known as the Kargil War, this conflict between the two countries was mostly limited. During early 1999, Pakistani troops infiltrated across the Line of Control (LoC) and occupied Indian territory mostly in the Kargil district. India responded by launching a major military and diplomatic offensive to drive out the Pakistani infiltrators.[33] Two months into the conflict, Indian troops had slowly retaken most of the ridges that were encroached by the infiltrators.[34][35] according to official count, an estimated 75%–80% of the intruded area and nearly all high ground was back under Indian control.[36] Fearing large-scale escalation in military conflict, the international community, led by the United States, increased diplomatic pressure on Pakistan to withdraw forces from remaining Indian territory.[33][37] Faced with the possibility of international isolation, the already fragile Pakistani economy was weakened further.[38][39] The morale of Pakistani forces after the withdrawal declined as many units of the Northern Light Infantry suffered heavy casualties.[40][41] The government refused to accept the dead bodies of many officers,[42][43] an issue that provoked outrage and protests in the Northern Areas.[44][45] Pakistan initially did not acknowledge many of its casualties, but Nawaz Sharif later said that over 4,000 Pakistani troops were killed in the operation and that Pakistan had lost the conflict.[46][47] By the end of July 1999, organized hostilities in the Kargil district had ceased.[37] The war was a major military defeat for the Pakistani Army.[48][49]

Other armed engagements

Apart from the aforementioned wars, there have been skirmishes between the two nations from time to time. Some have bordered on all-out war, while others were limited in scope. The countries were expected to fight each other in 1955 after warlike posturing on both sides, but full-scale war did not break out.[13]

Standing armed conflicts

Past skirmishes and standoffs

  • Indian integration of Junagadh: The princely state of Junagadh, which had a Hindu majority and a Muslim ruler acceded to Pakistan on 15 September 1947, claiming a connection by sea. Pakistan's acceptance of the Instrument of Accession was seen as a strategy to get a plebiscite held in Kashmir which had a Muslim majority and a Hindu ruler. Following communal tensions Indian military entered the territory which was protested by Pakistan as a violation of International law. Later a plebiscite was held and the accession was reversed for the state to join India.[56][57][58][59]
  • Operation Brasstacks: (the largest of its kind in South Asia), conducted by India between November 1986 and March 1987, and Pakistani mobilisation in response, raised tensions and fears that it could lead to another war between the two neighbours.[13]:129[60]
  • 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff: The terrorist attack on the Indian Parliament on 13 December 2001, which India blamed on the Pakistan-based terrorist organisations, Lashkar-e-Taiba and Jaish-e-Mohammed, prompted the 2001–2002 India–Pakistan standoff and brought both sides close to war.[61]
  • 2008 India Pakistan standoff: a stand-off between the two nations following the 2008 Mumbai attacks which was defused by diplomatic efforts. Following ten coordinated shooting and bombing attacks across Mumbai, India's largest city, tensions heightened between the two countries since India claimed interrogation results alleging[62][63] Pakistan's ISI supporting the attackers while Pakistan denied it.[64][65][66] Pakistan placed its air force on alert and moved troops to the Indian border, voicing concerns about proactive movements of the Indian Army[67] and the Indian government's possible plans to launch attacks on Pakistani soil.[68] The tension defused in short time and Pakistan moved its troops away from border.
  • 2016 India-Pakistan military confrontation: On 18 September 2016, militants attacked the Indian Army's brigade headquarters at Uri, killing 19 soldiers. The attack came after two months of extreme unrest in Kashmir, caused due to the killing of Hizbul Mujahideen commander Burhan Wani in an encounter with Indian security forces. Amid high tensions and risk of escalation along the Line of Control, ten days after the attack, on 29 September 2016, the Indian Army carried out a military raid in Pakistan-Administered-Kashmir, targeting launchpads along the LoC, the de facto border between India and Pakistan. An Indian soldier was captured by the Pakistan Army the very next day, but it was claimed that he had inadvertently crossed the border and that his capture was unrelated to the 'surgical strikes' conducted the night before. The soldier was eventually released as a goodwill gesture from the Pakistani side, and ceasefire violations stopped on either side as tensions were defused and normalcy returned to the Kashmir valley.

Incidents

Nuclear-arms race

The nuclear conflict between both countries is of passive strategic nature with nuclear doctrine of Pakistan stating a first strike policy, although the strike would only be initiated if and only if, the Pakistan Armed Forces are unable to halt an invasion (as for example in 1971 war) or a nuclear strike is launched against Pakistan, whereas India has a declared policy of no first use.

  • Pokhran-I (Smiling Buddha): On 18 May 1974 India detonated an 8-kiloton[76] nuclear device at Pokhran Test Range, becoming the first nation to become nuclear capable outside the five permanent members of United Nations Security Council as well as dragging Pakistan along with it into a nuclear arms race[77] with the Pakistani prime minister Zulfikar Ali Bhutto swearing to reciprocate India quoting "My countrymen would prefer having a nuclear bomb even if they have to eat grass". [78] The Pakistan Atomic Energy Commission (PAEC) Chairman Munir Ahmed Khan said that the test would force Pakistan to test its own nuclear bomb.[79]
  • Kirana-I: In 1980s a series of 24 different cold tests were conducted by PAEC, led by chairman Munir Ahmad Khan under extreme secrecy.[80] The tunnels at Kirana Hills, Sargodha, are reported to have been bored after the Chagai nuclear test sites, it is widely believed that the tunnels were constructed sometime between 1979 and 1983. As in Chagai, the tunnels at Kirana Hills had been bored and then sealed and this task was also undertaken by PAEC's DTD.[80] Later due to excessive US intelligence and satellite focus on the Kirana Hills site, it was abandoned and nuclear weapons testing was shifted to the Kala Chitta Range.
  • Pokhran-II (Operation Shakti): On 11 May 1998 India detonated another five nuclear devices at Pokhran Test Range. With jubilation and large scale approval from the Indian society came International sanctions as a reaction to this test, the most vehement reaction of all coming from Pakistan. Great ire was raised in Pakistan, which issued a stern statement claiming that India was instigating a nuclear arms race in the region. Pakistan vowed to match India's nuclear capability with statements like: "We are in a headlong arms race on the subcontinent".[81][82]
  • Chagai-I: (Youm-e-Takbir) Within half a month of Pokhran-II, on 28 May 1998 Pakistan detonated five nuclear devices to reciprocate India in the nuclear arms race. Pakistani public, like the Indian, reacted with a celebration and heightened sense of nationalism for responding to India in kind and becoming the only Muslim nuclear power. The day was later given the title Youm-e-Takbir to further proclaim such.[83][84]
  • Chagai-II: Two days later, on 30 May 1998, Pakistan detonated a sixth nuclear device completing its own series of underground tests with this being the last the two nations have carried out to date.[84][85]

Annual celebrations

Involvement of other nations

  •  Soviet Union:
    • The USSR remained neutral during the 1965 war[89] and played a pivotal role in negotiating the peace agreement between India and Pakistan.[90]
    • The Soviet Union provided diplomatic and military assistance to India during the 1971 war. In response to the US and UK's deployment of the aircraft carriers USS Enterprise and HMS Eagle, Moscow sent nuclear submarines and warships with anti-ship missiles in the Arabian Sea and Indian Ocean, respectively.[91][92][93]
  •  United States:
    • The US had not given any military aid to Pakistan in the Indo-Pakistani War of 1965.[94]
    • The United States provided diplomatic and military support to Pakistan during the 1971 war by sending USS Enterprise into the Indian Ocean.[95][96][97]
    • The United States did not support Pakistan during the Kargil War, and successfully pressured the Pakistani government to end hostilities.[33][98][99]
  •  China:
    • China had helped Pakistan in various wars with diplomatic support.[15][100][101]
  •  Russia:
    • Russia maintained a non-belligerent policy for both sides. Russia helped negotiate peace in 2001–02 and helped divert the 2008 crisis.[102][103]

These wars have provided source material for both Indian and Pakistani film and television dramatists, who have adapted events of the war for the purposes of drama and to please target audiences in their nations.

Indian films

Pakistani films, miniseries and dramas

See also

References

  1. ↑ Cohen, Stephen P. (2013). Shooting for a Century: The India-Pakistan Conundrum. Brookings Institution Press. p. 129. ISBN 9780815721871. The India-Pakistan wars fall into two categories. The first were probes, to see if one side could gain an advantage by initiating conflict (or to avoid suffering a disadvantage if it did not take the initiative... The first war was purposeful...and its 1999 Kargil gambit. Most of these operations ended in defeat or disaster.
  2. ↑ Perkovich, George (2002). India's Nuclear Bomb: The Impact on Global Proliferation. University of California Press. p. 479. ISBN 978-0-520-23210-5. The Kargil war ended as had previous wars, with an Indian victory.
  3. 1 2 Khan, Yasmin (18 September 2007). The great Partition: the making of India and Pakistan. Yale University Press. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-300-12078-3. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
  4. ↑
    • Ambedkar, Bhimrao Ramji (1945) [first published as Thoughts on Pakistan, 1940], Pakistan or Partition of India, Bombay: Thacker and company, p. 5
  5. ↑ Dixit, Jyotindra Nath (2002). India-Pakistan in War & Peace. Routledge. p. 13. ISBN 978-0-415-30472-6.
  6. ↑ Prasad, S.N.; Dharm Pal (1987). History of Operations in Jammu and Kashmir 1947–1948. New Delhi: History Department, Ministry of Defence, Government of India. (printed at Thomson Press (India) Limited). p. 418.
  7. ↑ Hagerty, Devin (2005). South Asia in World Politics. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 161. ISBN 9780742525870. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
  8. ↑ The Kingfisher History Encyclopedia. Kingfisher. 2004. p. 460. ISBN 9780753457849. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
  9. ↑ New Zealand Defence Quarterly, Issues 24-29. New Zealand. Ministry of Defence. 1999. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
  10. ↑ Thomas, Raju (1992). Perspectives on Kashmir: the roots of conflict in South Asia. Westview Press. p. 25. ISBN 9780813383439. Retrieved 2016-03-06.
  11. ↑ David R. Higgins 2016.
  12. ↑ Rachna Bisht 2015.
  13. 1 2 3 4 Lyon, Peter (2008). Conflict between India and Pakistan: an encyclopedia. ABC-CLIO. p. 82. ISBN 978-1-57607-712-2. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
  14. ↑ Dijink, Gertjan (2002). National Identity and Geopolitical Visions: Maps of Pride and Pain. Routledge. ISBN 9781134771295. The superior Indian forces, however, won a decisive victory and the army could have even marched on into Pakistani territory had external pressure not forced both combatants to cease their war efforts.
  15. 1 2 "Pakistan :: The Indo-Pakistani War of 1965". Library of Congress Country Studies, United States of America. April 1994. Retrieved 2 October 2010. Quote: Losses were relatively heavy--on the Pakistani side, twenty aircraft, 200 tanks, and 3,800 troops. Pakistan's army had been able to withstand Indian pressure, but a continuation of the fighting would only have led to further losses and ultimate defeat for Pakistan.
  16. ↑ Hagerty, Devin. South Asia in world politics. Rowman & Littlefield, 2005. p. 26. ISBN 0-7425-2587-2. Quote: The invading Indian forces outfought their Pakistani counterparts and halted their attack on the outskirts of Lahore, Pakistan's second-largest city. By the time United Nations intervened on 22 September, Pakistan had suffered a clear defeat.
  17. ↑ Wolpert, Stanley (2005). India (3rd ed. with a new preface. ed.). Berkeley: University of California Press. p. 235. ISBN 0520246969. Quote: India, however, was in a position to inflict grave damage to, if not capture, Pakistan's capital of the Punjab when the cease-fire was called, and controlled Kashmir's strategic Uri-Poonch bulge, much to Ayub's chagrin.
  18. ↑ Kux, Dennis (1992). India and the United States : Estranged democracies, 1941-1991. Washington, DC: National Defense University Press. p. 238. ISBN 0788102796. Quote: India had the better of the war.
  19. ↑ "Asia: Silent Guns, Wary Combatants". Time. 1 October 1965. Retrieved 30 August 2013. Quote: India, by contrast, is still the big gainer in the war. Alternate link:
  20. ↑ Dennis Kux's "India and the United States estranged democracies", 1941–1991, ISBN 1-4289-8189-6, DIANE Publishing, Pg 238
  21. ↑ Dijkink, Gertjan. National identity and geopolitical visions: maps of pride and pain. Routledge, 1996. ISBN 0-415-13934-1.
  22. ↑ Praagh, David. The greater game: India's race with destiny and China. McGill-Queen's Press – MQUP, 2003. ISBN 0-7735-2639-0.
  23. ↑ Till, Geoffrey (2004). Seapower: a guide for the twenty-first century. Great Britain: Frank Cass Publishers. p. 179. ISBN 0-7146-8436-8. Retrieved 2010-05-28.
  24. ↑ Christophe Jaffrelot, Gillian Beaumont. A History of Pakistan and Its Origins. Anthem Press, 2004. ISBN 1-84331-149-6. ISBN 9781843311492.
  25. ↑ Times Staff and Wire Reports (30 March 2002). "Gen. Tikka Khan, 87; 'Butcher of Bengal' Led Pakistani Army". Los Angeles Times. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
  26. ↑ Syed Badrul Ahsan (15 July 2011). "A Lamp Glows for Indira Gandhi". Volume 10, Issue 27. The Daily Star. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
  27. ↑ Nawaz, Shuja (2008). Crossed Swords: Pakistan, Its Army, and the Wars Within. Oxford University Press. p. 329. ISBN 978-0-19-547697-2.
  28. ↑ Chitkara, M. G (1996). Benazir, a Profile – M. G. Chitkara. ISBN 9788170247524. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  29. ↑ Schofield, Victoria (18 January 2003). Kashmir in Conflict: India, Pakistan and the Unending War – Victoria Schofield. ISBN 9781860648984. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
  30. ↑ Leonard, Thomas (2006). Encyclopedia of the developing world. Taylor & Francis. ISBN 978-0-415-97662-6.
  31. ↑ Unspecified author. "The 1971 war". India – Pakistan:Troubled relations. BBC. Retrieved 30 October 2011.
  32. ↑ Ali, Tariq (1997). Can Pakistan Survive? The Death of a State. Verso Books. ISBN 0-86091-949-8. ISBN 9780860919490.
  33. 1 2 3 Wolpert, Stanley (14 Aug 2010). "Recent Attempts to Resolve the Conflict". India and Pakistan: Continued Conflict or Cooperation?. University of California Press. p. 73. ISBN 9780520271401.
  34. ↑ Ali, Tariq. "Bitter Chill of Winter". London Review of Books=. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
  35. ↑ Colonel Ravi Nanda (1999). Kargil: A Wake Up Call. Vedams Books. ISBN 81-7095-074-0. Online summary of the Book Archived 28 September 2007 at the Wayback Machine.
  36. ↑ Kargil: where defence met diplomacy Archived 16 December 2012 at the Wayback Machine. - India's then Chief of Army Staff VP Malik, expressing his views on Operation Vijay. Hosted on Daily Times; The Fate of Kashmir By Vikas Kapur and Vipin Narang Stanford Journal of International Relations; Book review of "The Indian Army: A Brief History by Maj Gen Ian Cardozo" Archived 8 January 2009 at the Wayback Machine. - Hosted on IPCS
  37. 1 2 R. Dettman, Paul (2001). "Kargil War Operations". India Changes Course: Golden Jubilee to Millennium. Greenwood Publishing Group. pp. 119–120. ISBN 9780275973087.
  38. ↑ Samina Ahmed. "Diplomatic Fiasco: Pakistan's Failure on the Diplomatic Front Nullifies its Gains on the Battlefield" (Belfer Center for International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government)
  39. ↑ Daryl Lindsey and Alicia Montgomery. "Coup d'itat: Pakistan gets a new sheriff". salon.com. Archived from the original on 20 December 2009. Retrieved 19 June 2015.
  40. ↑ "War in Kargil - The CCC's summary on the war" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 21 February 2004. Retrieved 20 May 2009.
  41. ↑ Samina Ahmed. "A Friend for all Seasons." (Belfer Center for International Affairs, Kennedy School of Government)
  42. ↑ "Rediff On The NeT: Pakistan refuses to take even officers' bodies". rediff.com. Retrieved 19 June 2015.
  43. ↑ "press release issued in New Delhi regarding bodies of two Pakistan Army Officers" Archived 15 June 2010 at the Wayback Machine.
  44. ↑ Second-Class Citizens by M. Ilyas Khan, The Herald (Pakistan), July 2000. Online scanned version of the article(PDF)
  45. ↑ Musharraf and the truth about Kargil - The Hindu 25 September 2006
  46. ↑ "Over 4000 soldier's killed in Kargil: Sharif". The Hindu. Retrieved 2009-05-20.
  47. ↑ Kapur, S. Paul (2007). Dangerous Deterrent: Nuclear Weapons Proliferation and Conflict in South Asia (23rd ed.). Stanford University Press. p. 227. ISBN 978-0804755498.
  48. ↑ MacDonald, Myra (2017). Defeat is an Orphan: How Pakistan Lost the Great South Asian War. Oxford University Press. pp. 27, 53, 64, 66. ISBN 978-1-84904-858-3. p. 27: It was not so much that India won the Great South Asian War but that Pakistan lost it.
    p. 53: The story of the Kargil War—Pakistan's biggest defeat by India since 1971 —is one that goes to the heart of why it lost the Great South Asian War.
    p. 64: Afterwards, Musharraf and his supporters would claim that Pakistan won the war militarily and lost it diplomatically. In reality, the military and diplomatic tides turned against Pakistan in tandem.
    p. 66: For all its bravado, Pakistan had failed to secure even one inch of land.
    Less than a year after declaring itself a nuclear-armed power, Pakistan had been humiliated diplomatically and militarily.
  49. ↑ Lavoy, Peter René, ed. (2009). Asymmetric Warfare in South Asia: The Causes and Consequences of the Kargil Conflict. Cambridge University Press. p. 180. ISBN 978-0-521-76721-7. The false optimism of the architects of the Kargil intrusion, colored by the illusion of a cheap victory, was not only the main driver of the operation, and hence the crisis, it also was the cause of Pakistan's most damaging military defeat since the loss of East Pakistan in December 1971.
  50. ↑ Wirsing, Robert (15 February 1998). India, Pakistan, and the Kashmir dispute: on regional conflict and its resolution. Palgrave Macmillan. p. 77. ISBN 978-0-312-17562-7. Retrieved 31 October 2011.
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  53. 1 2 "India to stop fishermen from straying into Pakistan". In.reuters.com. 7 April 2008. Retrieved 27 July 2012.
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  96. ↑ 1971 War: How the US tried to corner India. Rediff.com. Retrieved on 2011-04-14.
  97. ↑ Burne, Lester H. (2003). Chronological History of U.S. Foreign Relations: 1932–1988. Routledge. ISBN 0-415-93916-X. ISBN 9780415939164.
  98. ↑ "BBC News - South Asia - Kashmir: Dialogue call amid fresh fighting". news.bbc.co.uk.
  99. ↑ Bill Clinton (2004). My Life. Random House. ISBN 0-375-41457-6. , Pg 865
  100. ↑ Pakistan and India Play With Nuclear Fire By Jonathan Power Archived 13 March 2012 at the Wayback Machine. The Transnational Foundation for Peace and Future Research
  101. ↑ "India and Pakistan: Over the Edge". Time Magazine. 13 December 1971. Retrieved 17 August 2011.
  102. ↑ Naqvi, Javed (29 December 2001). "Pressure mounts to stall war rhetoric". Dawn archives. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
  103. ↑ Agencies (4 October 2012). "Pakistan, Russia renewing ties". Dawn Newspapers. Retrieved 24 December 2012.
  104. ↑ "Param Vir Chakra (1995)". IMDB. Retrieved 26 November 2011.
  105. 1 2 APP 25 November 2011 (25 November 2011). "Prominent writer, actor, Rauf Khalid dies in road accident | Entertainment". Dawn.Com. Retrieved 15 January 2012.

Bibliography

  • David R. Higgins (20 January 2016), M48 Patton vs Centurion: Indo-Pakistan War 1965, Osprey Publishing, p. 103, ISBN 978-14-7281-094-6
  • Rachna Bisht (15 August 2015), 1965: Stories from the Second Indo-Pakistan War, Penguin UK, p. 60, ISBN 978-93-5214-129-6
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