Kashmiri language

Kashmiri
𑆑𑆾𑆯𑆶𑆫,कॉशुर, كأشُر
Pronunciation [kəːʃur]
Native to Jammu and Kashmir,[1] Azad Kashmir
Region Kashmir valley, Chenab valley
Ethnicity Kashmiris
Native speakers
 6.9 million (2011–2012)
Dialects
  • Kashtawari (standard)
  • Poguli
Perso-Arabic script (contemporary),[2]
Devanagari (contemporary),[2]
Sharada script (ancient/liturgical)[2]
Official status
Official language in
  India[3]
Language codes
ISO 639-1 ks
ISO 639-2 kas
ISO 639-3 kas
Glottolog kash1277[4]

Kashmiri (English: /kæʃˈmɪəri/)[5](𑆑𑆾𑆯𑆶𑆫, कॉशुर, کأشُر‬), or Koshur (pronounced kọ̄šur or kạ̄šur[6]) is a language from the Dardic subgroup[7] of Indo-Aryan languages and it is spoken primarily in the Kashmir Valley and Chenab Valley of Jammu and Kashmir.[8][9][10]

There are about 6.8 million speakers of Kashmiri and related dialects in Jammu and Kashmir state of India and amongst the Kashmiri diaspora in other states of India,[11] and about 130,000 in the Neelam and Leepa valleys of Azad Kashmir, Pakistan.[12]

The Kashmiri language is one of the 22 scheduled languages of India,[13] and is a part of the eighth Schedule in the constitution of the Jammu and Kashmir. Along with other regional languages mentioned in the Sixth Schedule, as well as Hindi and Urdu, the Kashmiri language is to be developed in the state.[14] Most Kashmiri speakers use Urdu or English as a second language.[1] Since November 2008, the Kashmiri language has been made a compulsory subject in all government schools in the Valley up to secondary level.[15]

Literature

In 1919 George Abraham Grierson wrote that “Kashmiri is the only one of the Dardic languages that has a literature”. Kashmiri literature dates back to over 750 years, this is, more-or-less, the age of many a modern literature including modern English.

Grammar

Kashmiri is a fusional language[16] with verb-second (V2) word order.[17] Several of Kashmiri’s grammatical features distinguish it from other Indo-Aryan languages.[18]

Nouns

Kashmiri nouns are inflected according to gender, number and case. There are no articles, nor is there any grammatical distinction for definiteness, although there is some optional adverbial marking for indefinite or “generic” noun qualities.[19]

Gender

The Kashmiri gender system is divided into masculine and feminine. Feminine forms are typically generated by the addition of a suffix (or in most cases, a morphophonemic change, or both) to a masculine noun.[20] There is also a relatively small group of feminine nouns that have unique suppletion forms which are totally different from the corresponding masculine forms.[21] The following table illustrates the range of possible gender forms:[22]

ProcessMasculineFeminineMeaning
vowel changesursuɨrchild
consonant changehokhhochdry
vowel/consonant changetottətshot
suppletive formmarɨdzanānman/woman
masculine onlykāv---crow
feminine only---məchfly

Some nouns borrowed from other languages, such as Persian, Arabic, Sanskrit, Hindi or English, follow a slightly different gender system. Notably, many words borrowed from Hindi have different genders in Kashmiri.[23]

Case

There are five cases in Kashmiri: nominative, dative, ergative, ablative and vocative.[24] Case is expressed via suffixation of the noun.

Kashmiri utilizes an ergative-absolutive case structure when the verb is in simple past tense.[25] Thus, in these sentences, the subject of a transitive verb is marked in the ergative case and the object in nominative, which is identical to how the subject of an intransitive verb would be marked.[26][27][28] However, in sentences constructed in any other tense, or in past tense sentences with intransitive verbs, a nominative-dative paradigm is adopted, with objects (whether direct or indirect) generally marked in dative case.[29]

Other case distinctions, such as locative, instrumental, genitive, comitative and allative, are marked by postpositions rather than suffixation.[30]

Noun morphology

The following table illustrates Kashmiri noun declension according to gender, number and case.[31][32]

Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
Nom.-Ø-Ø-Ø-Ø
Erg.-an-av-i-av
Dat.-as-an-i-an
Abl.-i/ɨ-av-i-av
Voc.-ā-av-iy-av

Verbs

Kashmiri verbs are declined according to tense and person, and to a lesser extent, gender. Tense, along with certain distinctions of aspect, is formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem (minus the infinitive ending -un), and in many cases by the addition of various modal auxiliaries.[33] Postpositions fulfill numerous adverbial and semantic roles.[34]

Tense

Present tense in Kashmiri is an auxiliary construction formed by a combination of the copula and the imperfective suffix -ān added to the verb stem. The various copula forms agree with their subject according to gender and number, and are provided below with the verb yun (to come):[35]

Present
MasculineFeminine
1st Person Sing.chus yivānchas yivān
2nd Person Sing.chukh yivānchakh yivān
3rd Person Sing.chu yivāncha yivān
1st Person Pl.chi yivāncha yivān
2nd Person Pl.chiv yivānchavɨ yivān
3rd Person Pl.chi yivāncha yivān

Past tense in Kashmiri is significantly more complex than the other tenses, and is subdivided into three past tense distinctions.[36] The simple (sometimes called proximate) past refers to past actions which have been completed. Remote past refers to actions that lack this in-built perfective aspect. Indefinite past refers to actions performed a long time ago, and is often used in historical narrative or storytelling contexts.[37]

As described above, Kashmiri is a split-ergative language; in all three of these past tense forms, the subjects of transitive verbs are marked in the ergative case and direct objects in the nominative. Intransitive subjects are marked in the nominative.[38] Nominative arguments, whether subjects or objects, dictate gender, number and person marking on the verb.[39][40]

Verbs of the simple past tense are formed via the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, which usually undergoes certain uniform morphophonemic changes. First and third person verbs of this type do not take suffixes and agree with the nominative object in gender and number, but there are second person verb endings. The entire simple past tense paradigm of transitive verbs is illustrated below using the verb parun ("to read"):[41]

Simple Past (Transitive)
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st Personporpər’pərpari
2nd Personporuthpərithpərɨthpar’ath
3rd Personporpər’pərpari

There is a group of "special intransitives", irregular intransitive verbs which take a different set of endings in addition to the morphophonemic changes that affect most past tense verbs.[42]

Simple Past (Special Intransitive)
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st Person-us-’-as-i
2nd Person-kh-vɨ-kh-vɨ
3rd Person-Ø-Ø-ch-i

Intransitive verbs in the simple past are conjugated the same as intransitives in the indefinite past tense form.[43]

Simple Past (Intransitive)
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st Person-yas-yēyi-yēyas-yēyi
2nd Person-yākh-yēyvɨ-yēyakh-yēyvɨ
3rd Person-yōv-yēyi-yēyi-yēyi

In contrast to the simple past, verb stems are unchanged in the indefinite and remote past, although the addition of the tense suffixes does cause some morphophonetic change.[44] Transitive verbs are declined according to the following paradigm:[45]

Indefinite Past (Transitive)
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st/3rd Person-yōv-ēyi-ēyi-ēyi
2nd Person-yōth-ēyath-ēyath-ēyath
Remote Past (Transitive)
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st/3rd Person-ēyōv-ēyāyi-ēyāyi-ēyāyi
2nd Person-ēyōth-ēyēyath-ēyēyath-ēyēyath

As in the simple past, "special intransitive" verbs take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past:[46]

Indefinite Past (Special Intransitive)
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st Person-ās-āyas-āyas-āyi
2nd Person-kh-kh-āyakh-āyivɨ
3rd Person-av-āyi-āyi-āyi
Remote Past (Special Intransitive)
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st Person-āyās-ēyāyi-ēyēyas-ēyēyi
2nd Person-ākh-ēyvɨ-āyakh-āyivɨ
3rd Person-ēyōv-ēyēyi-ēyāyɨ-ēyāyɨ

Regular intransitive verbs also take a different set of endings in the indefinite and remote past, subject to some morphophonetic variation:[47]

Indefinite Past (Intransitive)
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st Person-yas-yēyi-yēyas-yēyi
2nd Person-yākh-yēyvɨ-yēyakh-yēyvɨ
3rd Person-yōv-yēyi-yēyi-yēyi
Remote Past (Intransitive)
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st Person-yēyās-yēyi-yēyās-yēyi
2nd Person-yēyakh-yēyvɨ-yēyakh-yēyvɨ
3rd Person-yēyōv-yēyi-yēyāyɨ-yēyɨ

Future tense intransitive verbs are formed by the addition of suffixes to the verb stem:[48]

Future (Intransitive)
SingularPlural
1st Person-mɨ-mav
2nd Person-akh-yi
3rd Person-yi-an

The future tense of transitive verbs, however, is formed by the addition of suffixes which agree with both the subject and direct object according to number, in a complex fashion:[49]

Future (Transitive)
Singular ObjectPlural Object
1st Person Sing.-an-akh
1st Person Pl.-ɨhōn-ɨhōkh
2nd Person Sing.-ɨhǝn-ɨhǝkh
2nd Person Pl.-ɨhūn-ɨhūkh
3rd Person Sing.-yas-yakh
3rd Person Pl.-ɨnas-ɨnakh

Aspect

There are two main aspectual distinctions in Kashmiri, perfective and imperfective. Both employ a participle formed by the addition of a suffix to the verb stem, as well as the fully conjugated auxiliary āsun (“to be”) which agrees according to gender, number and person with the object (for transitive verbs) or the subject (for intransitive verbs).[50]

Like the auxiliary, the participle suffix used with the perfective aspect (expressing completed or concluded action) agrees in gender and number with the object (for transitive verbs) or subject (for intransitives) as illustrated below:[51]

Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
mut-mɨt’-mɨts-matsɨ

The imperfective (expressing habitual or progressive action) is simpler, taking the participle suffix -ān in all forms, with only the auxiliary showing agreement.[52] A type of iterative aspect can be expressed by reduplicating the imperfective participle.[53]

Pronouns

Pronouns are declined according to person, gender, number and case, although only third person pronouns are overtly gendered. Also in third person, a distinction is made between three degrees of proximity, called proximate, remote I and remote II.[54]

Nominative
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1stbɨǝs’bɨǝs’
2ndtsɨtoh’tsɨtoh’
3rd prox.yiyimyiyim
3rd R Ihuhumhɔhumɨ
3rd R IIsutimsɔtimɨ
Ergative
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1stmeasimeasi
2ndtsetɔhitsetɔhi
3rd prox.yem’yimavyemiyimav
3rd R Ihom’humavhomihumav
3rd R IItǝm’timavtamitimav
Dative
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1stmeasimeasi
2ndtsetɔhitsetɔhi
3rd prox.yemisyimanyemisyiman
3rd R Ihomishumanhomishuman
3rd R IItǝmistimantǝmistiman
Ablative
Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1stmeasimeasi
2ndtsetɔhitsetɔhi
3rd prox.yemiyimavyemiyimav
3rd R Ihomihumavhomihumav
3rd R IItamitimavtamitimav

There is also a dedicated genitive pronoun set, in contrast to the way that the genitive is constructed adverbially elsewhere. As with future tense, these forms agree with both the subject and direct object in person and number.[55]

Masc. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Sing.Fem. Pl.
1st Sing.m’ōnmēn’mēn’m’āni
1st Pl.sōnsǝn’sǝn’sāni
2nd Sing.cōncǝn’cǝn’cāni
2nd Pl.tuhundtuhɨnd’tuhɨnztuhɨnzɨ
3rd Sing. Prox.yem’sundyem’sɨnd’yem’sɨnzyems’sɨnzi
3rd Pl. Prox.yihundyihɨnd’yihɨnzyihanzɨ
3rd Sing. R Ihom’sundhom’sɨnd’hom’sɨnzhom’sɨnzɨ
3rd Pl. R Ihuhundhuhɨnd’huhɨnzhuhɨnzɨ
3rd Sing. R IItǝm’sundtǝm’sɨnd’tǝm’sɨnztǝm’sɨnzɨ
3rd Pl. R IItihundtihɨnd’tihɨnztihɨnzɨ

Adjectives

There are two kinds of adjectives in Kashmiri, those which agree with their referent noun (according to case, gender and number) and those which are not declined at all.[56] Most adjectives are declined, and generally take the same endings and gender-specific stem changes as nouns.[57] The declinable adjective endings are provided in the table below, using the adjective wozul (“red”):[58][59]

Masc. Sing.Fem. Sing.Masc. Pl.Fem. Pl.
Nom.wozulwozajwozalwozaji
Erg.wozalwozajiwozalavwozalan
Dat.wozaliswozajiwozalanwozalan
Abl.wozaliswozajiwozalavwozalav
Voc.wozaliāwozajwozalavwozalav

Among those adjectives which are not declined are adjectives ending in -lad or -a, adjectives borrowed from other languages, and a few isolated irregulars.[60]

The comparative and superlative forms of adjectives are formed with the words tsor (“more”) and sitha (“most”), respectively.[61]

Vocabulary

There are minor differences between the Kashmiri spoken by Hindus and Muslims.[62] For 'fire', a traditional Hindu will use the word agun while a Muslim more often will use the Arabic word nar.[63]

Preservation of old Indo-Aryan vocabulary

Kashmiri retains several features of Old Indo-Aryan that have been lost in other modern Indo-Aryan languages such as Hindi-Urdu, Punjabi and Sindhi.[64] Some vocabulary features that Kashmiri preserves clearly date from the Vedic Sanskrit era and had already been lost even in Classical Sanskrit. This includes the word-form yodvai (meaning if), which is mainly found in Vedic Sanskrit texts. Classical Sanskrit and modern Indo-Aryan use instead the word yadi.[64]

First person pronoun

Both the Indo-Aryan and Iranian branches of the Indo-Iranian family have demonstrated a strong tendency to eliminate the distinctive first person pronoun ("I") used in the nominative (subject) case. The Indo-European root for this is reconstructed as *eǵHom, which is preserved in Sanskrit as aham and in Avestan Persian as azam. This contrasts with the m- form ("me", "my") that is used for the accusative, genitive, dative, ablative cases. Sanskrit and Avestan both used forms such as ma(-m). However, in languages such as Modern Persian, Baluchi, Hindi and Punjabi, the distinct nominative form has been entirely lost and replaced with m- in words such as ma-n and mai. However, Kashmiri belongs to a relatively small set that preserves the distinction. 'I' is ba/bi/bo in various Kashmiri dialects, distinct from the other me terms. 'Mine' is myoon in Kashmiri. Other Indo-Aryan languages that preserve this feature include Dogri (aun vs me-), Gujarati (hu-n vs ma-ri), Konkani (hā̃v vs mhazo), and Braj (hau-M vs mai-M). The Iranian Pashto preserves it too (za vs. maa).[65]

Phonology

Kashmiri has the following vowel phonemes:[66]

Vowels

  Front Central Back
High i iː ɨ ɨː u uː
Mid e eːə əː o oː
Low a aːɔ ɔː

Consonants

Bilabial Dental Alveolar Retroflex Alveolo
-palatal		 Velar Glottal
Nasal m n
Stop /
Affricate		 plain p b t d ts ʈ ɖ tʃ dʒ k ɡ
aspirated pʰ tʰ tsʰ ʈʰ tʃʰ kʰ
Fricative s z ʃ h
Approximant l j w
Trill r

Archaisms

Kashmiri, as also the other Dardic languages, shows important divergences from the Indo-Aryan mainstream. One is the partial maintenance of the three sibilant consonants s ṣ ś of the Old Indo-Aryan period. For another example, the prefixing form of the number 'two', which is found in Sanskrit as dvi-, has developed into ba-/bi- in most other Indo-Aryan languages, but du- in Kashmiri (preserving the original dental stop d). Seventy-two is dusatath in Kashmiri, bahattar in Hindi-Urdu and Punjabi, and dvisaptati in Sanskrit.[64]

Certain features in Kashmiri even appear to stem from Indo-Aryan even predating the Vedic period. For instance, there was an /s/ > /h/ consonant shift in some words that had already occurred with Vedic Sanskrit (this tendency is even stronger in the Iranian branch of Indo-Iranian), yet is lacking in Kashmiri equivalents. The word rahit in Vedic Sanskrit and modern Hindi-Urdu (meaning 'excluding' or 'without') corresponds to rost in Kashmiri. Similarly, sahit (meaning 'including' or 'with') corresponds to sost in Kashmiri.[64]

Writing system

There are three orthographical systems used to write the Kashmiri language: the Sharada script, the Devanagari script and the Perso-Arabic script. The Roman script is also sometimes informally used to write Kashmiri, especially online.[2]

The Kashmiri language is traditionally written in the Sharada script after the 8th Century A.D.[67] This script however, is not in common use today, except for religious ceremonies of the Kashmiri Pandits.[68]

Today it is written in Perso-Arabic and Devanagari scripts (with some modifications).[69] Among languages written in the Perso-Arabic script, Kashmiri is one of the very few which regularly indicates all vowel sounds.[70] The Kashmiri Perso-Arabic script has come to be associated with Kashmiri Muslims, while the Kashmiri Devanagari script has come to be associated with the Kashmiri Hindu community.[71][72]

Perso-Arabic alphabet

Consonants

Name Transliteration IPA Isolated glyph
بے‬ be b /b/ ب‬
پے‬ pe p /p/ پ‬
تے‬ te t /t̪/ ت‬
ٹے‬ ṭe ṭ /ʈ/ ٹ‬
ثے‬ se s /s/ ث‬
جیم‬ jīm j /d͡ʒ/ ج‬
چے‬ če č /t͡ʃ/ چ‬
بڑی حے‬ baṛī he h /h/ ح‬
خے‬ khe kh /kʰ/ خ‬
دال‬ dāl d /d̪/ د‬
ڈال‬ ḍāl ḍ /ɖ/ ڈ‬
ذال‬ zāl z /z/ ذ‬
رے‬ re r /r/ ر‬
ڑے‬ ṛe ṛ /ɽ/ ڑ‬
زے‬ ze z /z/ ز‬
ژے‬ ce c /t͡s/ ژ‬
سین‬ sīn s /s/ س‬
شین‬ šīn š /ʃ/ ش‬
صواد‬ swād s /s/ ص‬
ضواد‬ zwād z /z/ ض‬
طوئے‬ toʾe t /t̪/ ط‬
ظوئے‬ zoʾe z /z/ ظ‬
عین‬ ain ’, – /ʔ, ∅/ ع‬
غین‬ gain g /g/ غ‬
فے‬ fe f /f, pʰ/ ف‬
بڑی قاف‬ baṛī kāf k /k/ ق‬
كاف‬ kāf k /k/ ک‬
گاف‬ gāf g /ɡ/ گ‬
لام‬ lām l /l/ ل‬
میم‬ mīm m /m/ م‬
نون‬ nūn n, ̃ /n, ̃/ ن‬
واؤ‬ wāʾo -v /-w/ و‬
هے‬ he h /h/ ھ‬
بڑی یے‬ baṛī ye y /j/ ے‬
چھوٹی یے‬ choṭī ye -y- /ʲ/ ؠ‬

The digraphs of Aspirated consonant are as follow.

Digraph Transcription IPA
پھ‬ ph [pʰ]
تھ‬ th [t̪ʰ]
ٹھ‬ ṭh [ʈʰ]
چھ‬ čh [t͡ʃʰ]
ژھ‬ ch [t͡sʰ]
کھ‬ kh [kʰ]

Vowels

Transliteration IPA Initial & combined glyph
a /a/ اَ,بَ‬
ā /aː/ آ,با‬
ạ (ö) /ə/ أ,بٔ‬
ạ̄ (ȫ) /əː/ ٲ,بٲ‬
i /i/ اِ,بِ‬
ī /iː/ ايٖ,بيٖ‬
u',ü /ɨ/ إ,بٕ‬
ū',ǖ /ɨː/ ٳ,بٳ‬
u /u/ اُ,بُ‬
ū /uː/ اوٗ,بوٗ‬
o /o/ اۆ,بۆ‬
ō /oː/ او,بو‬
ọ /ɔ/ اۄ,بۄ‬
ọ̄ /ɔː/ اۄآ,بۄآ‬
e /e/ اێ,بێ‬
ē /eː/ اي,بي‬

Devanagari

Consonants

Letter कखगचछजच़छ़ज़टठडतथदनपफबमयलवशसह
IPA [k][kʰ][g][t͡ʃ][t͡ʃʰ][d͡ʒ][t͡s][t͡sʰ][z][ʈ][ʈʰ][ɖ][t][tʰ][d][n][p][pʰ][b][m][j][l][w][ʃ][s][h]
Transliteration kkhgččhjcchzṭṭhḍtthdnpphbmylwšsh

Vowels

There have been two Unicode proposals (L2/09-369 and L2/08-250) for Devanagari Kashmiri vowels with different vowel characters, ordering and vowel mark characters. The latest proposal (L2/09-369) is tabulated below.

Letter अआअॅऑए'एअ'आ'इईउ'ऊ'उऊओ'ओँ
IPA [a][aː][ɔ][ɔː][e][eː][ə][əː][i][iː][ɨ][ɨː][u][uː][o][oː][◌̃]
Transliteration[73] aāọọ̄eēöȫiīüǖuūoō ̃
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k क का कॅ कॉ कॆ के कऺ कऻ कि की कॖ कॗ कु कू कॊ को कं

The earlier proposal (L2/08-250) is tabulated below.

Letter अआअॅऑ ॶ ॷइईउऊऎए ऐऒओऔ-वँ
IPA [a][aː][ə][əː] [ɨ] [ɨː][i][iː][u][uː][e][eː] [əi][o][oː][əu][ɔ][◌̃]
Transliteration aāöȫ ü ǖiīuūeē aioō auọ ̃
Vowel mark indicated on consonant k क का कॅ कॉ कॖ कॗ कि की कु कू कॆ के कै कॊ को कौ क्व or कव कं

See also

References

[74]

  1. 1 2 "Kashmiri: A language of India". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  2. 1 2 3 4 Sociolinguistics. Mouton de Gruyter. Retrieved 2009-08-30.
  3. ↑ "Kashmiri: A language of India". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  4. ↑ Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Kashmiri". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  5. ↑ Laurie Bauer, 2007, The Linguistics Student's Handbook, Edinburgh
  6. ↑ "Kashmiri". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-02-26.
  7. ↑ "Kashmiri language". Encyclopædia Britannica. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  8. ↑ "Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri". Kashmir News Network: Language Section (koshur.org). Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  9. ↑ "Kashmiri Literature". Kashmir Sabha, Kolkata. Archived from the original on 29 September 2007. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  10. ↑ S. S. Toshkhani. "Kashmiri Language: Roots, Evolution and Affinity". Kashmiri Overseas Association, Inc. (KOA). Archived from the original on 21 April 2007. Retrieved 2 June 2007.
  11. ↑ "Abstract of speakers' strength of languages and mother tongues - 2011" (PDF). Retrieved 2 July 2018. The precise figures from the 2011 census are 6,554,36 for Kashmiri as a "mother tongue" and 6,797,587 for Kashmiri as a "language" (which includes closely related smaller dialects/languages).
  12. ↑ Shakil, Mohsin (2012). "Languages of Erstwhile State of Jammu Kashmir (A Preliminary Study)".
  13. ↑ "Scheduled Languages of India". Central Institute of Indian Languages. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  14. ↑ "The Constitution of Jammu and Kashmir (India)" (PDF). General Administrative Department of the Government of Jammu & Kashmir (India). Archived from the original (PDF) on 7 May 2012. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  15. ↑ "Kashmiri made compulsory subject in schools". One India. Retrieved 2016-01-01.
  16. ↑ Koul, Omkar N and Kashi Wali (2006). Modern Kashmiri Grammar Dunwoody Press. pp.25.
  17. ↑ Koshur: An Introduction to Spoken Kashmiri (2002). Kashmir News Network, pp.80.
  18. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.ii.
  19. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.25.
  20. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.25.
  21. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.28.
  22. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.26-28.
  23. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.28.
  24. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.31.
  25. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.31.
  26. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.31.
  27. ↑ Wade, TR (1888). A Grammar of the Kashmiri Language, SPCK. pp.16.
  28. ↑ Bhatt, Rajesh (2007)."Ergativity in Indo-Aryan Languages", MIT Ergativity Seminar, pp.6.
  29. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.32.
  30. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.39.
  31. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.32.
  32. ↑ Wade 1888, pp.10-15.
  33. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.83-84.
  34. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.119.
  35. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.84.
  36. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.86.
  37. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.87.
  38. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.87.
  39. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.87.
  40. ↑ Zakharyin, Boris (2015). "Indo-Aryan Ergativity and its Analogues in Languages of Central and Western Eurasia", The Poznań Society for the Advancement of Arts and Sciences, PL ISSN 0079-4740, pp.66.
  41. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.89-90.
  42. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.91-92.
  43. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.93.
  44. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.94.
  45. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.94-95.
  46. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.96-97.
  47. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.96-99.
  48. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.100-101.
  49. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.103.
  50. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.105.
  51. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.105.
  52. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.107.
  53. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.108.
  54. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.53.
  55. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.52.
  56. ↑ Koshur 2002, pp.79.
  57. ↑ Wade 1888, pp.19.
  58. ↑ Wade 1888, pp.20.
  59. ↑ Koul and Wali 2006, pp.59.
  60. ↑ Wade 1888, pp.20.
  61. ↑ Wade 1888, pp.21.
  62. ↑ Keith Brown, Sarah Ogilvie, Concise encyclopedia of languages of the world, Elsevier, 2008, ISBN 978-0-08-087774-7, ... Kashmiri occupies a special position in the Dardic group, being probably the only dardic language that has a written literature dating back to the early 13th century ...
  63. ↑ Krishna, Gopi (1967). Kundalini: The Evolutionary Energy in Man. Boston: Shambhala. p. 212. ISBN 978-1-57062-280-9.
  64. 1 2 3 4 K.L. Kalla, The Literary Heritage of Kashmir, Mittal Publications, ... Kashmiri alone of all the modern Indian languages preserves the dvi (Kashmiri du) of Sanskrit, in numbers such as dusatath (Sanskrit dvisaptati), dunamat (Sanskrit dvanavatih) ... the latter (Yodvai) is archaic and is to be come across mainly in the Vedas ...
  65. ↑ John D. Bengtson, Harold Crane Fleming, In hot pursuit of language in prehistory: essays in the four fields of anthropology, John Benjamins Publishing Company, 2008, ISBN 978-90-272-3252-6, ... However, Gujarati as well as a Dardic language like Kashmiri still preserve the root alternation between subject and non-subject forms (but they replaced the derivative of the Sanskrit subject form ahám by new forms) ...
  66. ↑ "Koshur: Spoken Kashmiri: A Language Course: Transcription". Retrieved 21 May 2014.
  67. ↑ "Sarada". Lawrence. Retrieved 2007-06-02.
  68. ↑ "The Sharada Script: Origin and Development". Kashmiri Overseas Association. Archived from the original on 7 January 2010. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
  69. ↑ "Kashmiri (कॉशुर / كٲشُر)". Omniglot. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
  70. ↑ Daniels & Bright (1996). The World's Writing Systems. pp. 753–754.
  71. ↑ "Valley divide impacts Kashmiri, Pandit youth switch to Devnagari". Indian Express. Retrieved 2009-07-07.
  72. ↑ "Devnagari Script for Kashmiri: A Study in its Necessity, Feasibility and Practicality". Kashmiri Overseas Association. Archived from the original on 3 January 2009. Retrieved 7 July 2009.
  73. ↑ The central vowels are typically transcribed ⟨ạ⟩ and ⟨u’⟩ when transliterating Arabic script, ⟨ö⟩ and ⟨ü⟩ when transliterating Nagari.
  74. ↑ KASHMIRI LANGUAGE

Further reading

  • Chapter on Indo-Persian Literature in Kashmir in "The Rise, Growth And Decline Of Indo-Persian Literature" by R. M. Chopra, 2012, published by Iran Culture House, New Delhi. 2nd Edition 2013.
  • Koul, Omkar N & Kashi Wali Modern Kashmiri Grammar Hyattsville, Dunwoody Press, 2006.
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