FLOPS

Computer performance
Name Unit Value
kiloFLOPS kFLOPS 103
megaFLOPS MFLOPS 106
gigaFLOPS GFLOPS 109
teraFLOPS TFLOPS 1012
petaFLOPS PFLOPS 1015
exaFLOPS EFLOPS 1018
zettaFLOPS ZFLOPS 1021
yottaFLOPS YFLOPS 1024

In computing, floating point operations per second (FLOPS, flops or flop/s) is a measure of computer performance, useful in fields of scientific computations that require floating-point calculations. For such cases it is a more accurate measure than measuring instructions per second.

The similar term FLOP is often used for floating-point operation, for example as a unit of counting floating-point operations carried out by an algorithm or computer hardware.

Floating-point arithmetic

Floating-point arithmetic is needed for very large or very small real numbers, or computations that require a large dynamic range. Floating-point representation is similar to scientific notation, except everything is carried out in base two, rather than base ten. The encoding scheme stores the sign, the exponent (in base two for Cray and VAX, base two or ten for IEEE floating point formats, and base 16 for IBM Floating Point Architecture) and the Significand (number after the radix point). While several similar formats are in use, the most common is ANSI/IEEE Std. 754-1985. This standard defines the format for 32-bit numbers called single precision, as well as 64-bit numbers called double precision and longer numbers called extended precision (used for intermediate results). Floating-point representations can support a much wider range of values than fixed-point, with the ability to represent very small numbers and very large numbers.[1]

Dynamic range and precision

The exponentiation inherent in floating-point computation assures a much larger dynamic range – the largest and smallest numbers that can be represented – which is especially important when processing data sets which are extremely large or where the range may be unpredictable. As such, floating-point processors are ideally suited for computationally intensive applications.[2]

Computational performance

FLOPS and MIPS are units of measure for the numerical computing performance of a computer. Floating-point operations are typically used in fields such as scientific computational research. The unit MIPS measures integer performance of a computer. Examples of integer operation include data movement (A to B) or value testing (If A = B, then C). MIPS as a performance benchmark is adequate when a computer is used in database queries, word processing, spreadsheets, or to run multiple virtual operating systems.[3][4] Frank H. McMahon, of the Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory, invented the terms FLOPS and MFLOPS (megaFLOPS) so that he could compare the supercomputers of the day by the number of floating-point calculations they performed per second. This was much better than using the prevalent MIPS to compare computers as this statistic usually had little bearing on the arithmetic capability of the machine.

FLOPS can be calculated using this equation:[5]

FLOPs per cycle for various processors

CPU Family Double precision Single precision
Intel Core and Intel Nehalem[6]4 DP FLOPs/cycle: 2-wide SSE2 addition + 2-wide SSE2 multiplication8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide SSE addition + 4-wide SSE multiplication
Intel Sandy Bridge and Intel Ivy Bridge8 DP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide AVX addition + 4-wide AVX multiplication16 SP FLOPs/cycle: 8-wide AVX addition + 8-wide AVX multiplication
Intel Haswell[6], Intel Broadwell and Intel Skylake16 DP FLOPs/cycle: two 4-wide FMA instructions32 SP FLOPs/cycle: two 8-wide FMA instructions
Intel Xeon Skylake (AVX-512)[6]16 or 32 DP FLOPs/cycle: one or two 8-wide FMA instructions (depends on SKU)32 or 64 SP FLOPs/cycle: one or two 16-wide FMA instructions (depends on SKU)
AMD K104 DP FLOPs/cycle: 2-wide SSE2 addition + 2-wide SSE2 multiplication8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide SSE addition + 4-wide SSE multiplication
AMD Bulldozer[6], AMD Piledriver and AMD Steamroller,
per module (two cores)		8 DP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide FMA16 SP FLOPs/cycle: 8-wide FMA
AMD Ryzen (per core)[7][8][9]8 DP FLOPs/cycle: pair 2-wide FMA instructions16 SP FLOPs/cycle: pair 4-wide FMA instructions
Intel Atom (Bonnell, Saltwell, Silvermont and Goldmont)2 DP FLOPs/cycle: scalar SSE2 addition + scalar SSE2 multiplication every other cycle

8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide SSE addition + 4-wide SSE multiplication every other cycle

AMD Bobcat2 DP FLOPs/cycle: scalar SSE2 addition + scalar SSE2 multiplication every other cycle4 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide SSE addition every other cycle + 4-wide SSE multiplication every other cycle
AMD Jaguar4 DP FLOPs/cycle: 2-wide SSE2 addition + 2-wide SSE2 multiplication8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 8-wide AVX addition every other cycle + 8-wide AVX multiplication every other cycle
ARM Cortex-A71 FLOPs/cycle: scalar addition + scalar multiplication every other cycle8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEON addition every other cycle + 4-wide NEON multiplication every other cycle
ARM Cortex-A91 FLOPs/cycle: scalar addition + scalar multiplication every other cycle8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEON addition every other cycle + 4-wide NEON multiplication every other cycle
ARM Cortex-A151 DP FLOPs/cycle: scalar FMA or scalar multiply-add8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEONv2 FMA or 4-wide NEON multiply-add
ARM Cortex-A322 DP FLOPs/cycle: scalar FMA or scalar multiply-add8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEONv2 FMA or 4-wide NEON multiply-add
ARM Cortex-A352 DP FLOPs/cycle: scalar FMA or scalar multiply-add8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEONv2 FMA or 4-wide NEON multiply-add
ARM Cortex-A532 DP FLOPs/cycle: scalar FMA or scalar multiply-add8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEONv2 FMA or 4-wide NEON multiply-add
ARM Cortex-A57[6]4 DP FLOPs/cycle: two scalar FMA or one 2-wide FMA8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEONv2 FMA or 4-wide NEON multiply-add
ARM Cortex-A722 DP FLOPs/cycle: scalar FMA or scalar multiply-add8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEONv2 FMA or 4-wide NEON multiply-add
Qualcomm Krait1 DP FLOPs/cycle: scalar FMA or scalar multiply-add8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEONv2 FMA or 4-wide NEON multiply-add
Qualcomm Kryo2 DP FLOPs/cycle: scalar FMA or scalar multiply-add8 SP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide NEONv2 FMA or 4-wide NEON multiply-add
IBM PowerPC A2 (Blue Gene/Q), per core8 DP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide QPX FMA every cycle (SP elements are extended to DP and processed on the same units)
IBM PowerPC A2 (Blue Gene/Q), per thread4 DP FLOPs/cycle: 4-wide QPX FMA every other cycle (SP elements are extended to DP and processed on the same units)
Intel Xeon Phi (Knights Corner), per core16 DP FLOPs/cycle: 8-wide FMA every cycle32 SP FLOPs/cycle: 16-wide FMA every cycle
Intel Xeon Phi (Knights Corner), per thread (two per core)8 DP FLOPs/cycle: 8-wide FMA every other cycle16 SP FLOPs/cycle: 16-wide FMA every other cycle
Intel Xeon Phi (Knights Landing)[6]32 DP FLOPs/cycle: two 8-wide FMA instructions64 SP FLOPs/cycle: two 16-wide FMA instructions
Standard GPUDifferent2 SP FLOPs/cycle

Performance records

Single computer records

In June 1997, Intel's ASCI Red was the world's first computer to achieve one teraFLOPS and beyond. Sandia director Bill Camp said that ASCI Red had the best reliability of any supercomputer ever built, and "was supercomputing's high-water mark in longevity, price, and performance".[10]

NEC's SX-9 supercomputer was the world's first vector processor to exceed 100 gigaFLOPS per single core.

For comparison, a handheld calculator performs relatively few FLOPS. A computer response time below 0.1 second in a calculation context is usually perceived as instantaneous by a human operator,[11] so a simple calculator needs only about 10 FLOPS to be considered functional.

In June 2006, a new computer was announced by Japanese research institute RIKEN, the MDGRAPE-3. The computer's performance tops out at one petaFLOPS, almost two times faster than the Blue Gene/L, but MDGRAPE-3 is not a general purpose computer, which is why it does not appear in the Top500.org list. It has special-purpose pipelines for simulating molecular dynamics.

By 2007, Intel Corporation unveiled the experimental multi-core POLARIS chip, which achieves 1 teraFLOPS at 3.13 GHz. The 80-core chip can raise this result to 2 teraFLOPS at 6.26 GHz, although the thermal dissipation at this frequency exceeds 190 watts.[12]

On June 26, 2007, IBM announced the second generation of its top supercomputer, dubbed Blue Gene/P and designed to continuously operate at speeds exceeding one petaFLOPS. When configured to do so, it can reach speeds in excess of three petaFLOPS.[13]

In June 2007, Top500.org reported the fastest computer in the world to be the IBM Blue Gene/L supercomputer, measuring a peak of 596 teraFLOPS.[14] The Cray XT4 hit second place with 101.7 teraFLOPS.

On October 25, 2007, NEC Corporation of Japan issued a press release announcing its SX series model SX-9,[15] claiming it to be the world's fastest vector supercomputer. The SX-9 features the first CPU capable of a peak vector performance of 102.4 gigaFLOPS per single core.

On February 4, 2008, the NSF and the University of Texas at Austin opened full scale research runs on an AMD, Sun supercomputer named Ranger,[16] the most powerful supercomputing system in the world for open science research, which operates at sustained speed of 0.5 petaFLOPS.

On May 25, 2008, an American supercomputer built by IBM, named 'Roadrunner', reached the computing milestone of one petaFLOPS. It headed the June 2008 and November 2008 TOP500 list of the most powerful supercomputers (excluding grid computers).[17][18] The computer is located at Los Alamos National Laboratory in New Mexico. The computer's name refers to the New Mexico state bird, the greater roadrunner (Geococcyx californianus).[19]

In June 2008, AMD released ATI Radeon HD 4800 series, which are reported to be the first GPUs to achieve one teraFLOPS. On August 12, 2008, AMD released the ATI Radeon HD 4870X2 graphics card with two Radeon R770 GPUs totaling 2.4 teraFLOPS.

In November 2008, an upgrade to the Cray XT Jaguar supercomputer at the Department of Energy's (DOE's) Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL) raised the system's computing power to a peak 1.64 petaFLOPS, making Jaguar the world's first petaFLOPS system dedicated to open research. In early 2009 the supercomputer was named after a mythical creature, Kraken. Kraken was declared the world's fastest university-managed supercomputer and sixth fastest overall in the 2009 TOP500 list. In 2010 Kraken was upgraded and can operate faster and is more powerful.

In 2009, the Cray Jaguar performed at 1.75 petaFLOPS, beating the IBM Roadrunner for the number one spot on the TOP500 list.[20]

In October 2010, China unveiled the Tianhe-1, a supercomputer that operates at a peak computing rate of 2.5 petaFLOPS.[21][22]

As of 2010 the fastest six-core PC processor reaches 109 gigaFLOPS (Intel Core i7 980 XE)[23] in double precision calculations. GPUs are considerably more powerful. For example, Nvidia Tesla C2050 GPU computing processors perform around 515 gigaFLOPS[24] in double precision calculations, and the AMD FireStream 9270 peaks at 240 gigaFLOPS.[25] In single precision performance, Nvidia Tesla C2050 computing processors perform around 1.03 teraFLOPS and the AMD FireStream 9270 cards peak at 1.2 teraFLOPS. Both Nvidia and AMD's consumer gaming GPUs may reach higher FLOPS. For example, AMD's HemlockXT 5970[26] reaches 928 gigaFLOPS in double precision calculations with two GPUs on board and the Nvidia GTX 480 reaches 672 gigaFLOPS[27] with one GPU on board.

On December 2, 2010, the US Air Force unveiled a defense supercomputer made up of 1,760 PlayStation 3 consoles that can run 500 teraFLOPS.[28]

In November 2011, it was announced that Japan had achieved 10.51 petaFLOPS with its K computer.[29] It is still under development and software performance tuning is currently underway. It has 88,128 SPARC64 VIIIfx processors in 864 racks, with theoretical performance of 11.28 petaFLOPS. It is named after the Japanese word "kei", which stands for 10 quadrillion,[30] corresponding to the target speed of 10 petaFLOPS.

On November 15, 2011, Intel demonstrated a single x86-based processor, code-named "Knights Corner", sustaining more than a teraFLOPS on a wide range of DGEMM operations. Intel emphasized during the demonstration that this was a sustained teraFLOPS (not "raw teraFLOPS" used by others to get higher but less meaningful numbers), and that it was the first general purpose processor to ever cross a teraFLOPS.[31][32]

On June 18, 2012, IBM's Sequoia supercomputer system, based at the U.S. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL), reached 16 petaFLOPS, setting the world record and claiming first place in the latest TOP500 list.[33]

On November 12, 2012, the TOP500 list certified Titan as the world's fastest supercomputer per the LINPACK benchmark, at 17.59 petaFLOPS.[34][35] It was developed by Cray Inc. at the Oak Ridge National Laboratory and combines AMD Opteron processors with "Kepler" NVIDIA Tesla graphic processing unit (GPU) technologies.[36][37]

On June 10, 2013, China's Tianhe-2 was ranked the world's fastest with 33.86 petaFLOPS.[38]

On June 20, 2016, China's Sunway TaihuLight was ranked the world's fastest with 93 petaFLOPS on the LINPACK benchmark (out of 125 peak petaFLOPS). The system, which is almost exclusively based on technology developed in China, is installed at the National Supercomputing Center in Wuxi, and represents more performance than the next five most powerful systems on the TOP500 list combined.[39]

In June 2018, Summit, an IBM-built supercomputer now running at the Department of Energy’s (DOE) Oak Ridge National Laboratory (ORNL), captured the number one spot with a performance of 122.3 petaflops on High Performance Linpack (HPL), the benchmark used to rank the TOP500 list. Summit has 4,356 nodes, each one equipped with two 22-core Power9 CPUs, and six NVIDIA Tesla V100 GPUs.[40]

Distributed computing records

Distributed computing uses the Internet to link personal computers to achieve more FLOPS:

  • As of October 2016, the Folding@home network has over 100 petaFLOPS of total computing power.[41][42] It was the first computing project of any kind to cross the 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5 native petaFLOPS milestones. This level of performance is primarily enabled by the cumulative effort of a vast array of powerful GPU and CPU units.[43]

Future developments

In 2008, James Bamford's book The Shadow Factory reported that NSA told the Pentagon it would need an exaflop computer by 2018.[49]

Given the current speed of progress, supercomputers are projected to reach 1 exaFLOPS (EFLOPS) in 2018.[50] Cray, Inc. announced in December 2009 a plan to build a 1 EFLOPS supercomputer before 2020.[51] Erik P. DeBenedictis of Sandia National Laboratories theorizes that a zettaFLOPS (ZFLOPS) computer is required to accomplish full weather modeling of two week time span.[52] Such systems might be built around 2030.[53]

Cost of computing

Hardware costs

Date Approximate cost per GFLOPS Approximate cost per GFLOPS (2017 US dollars)[54] Approximate cost per TFLOPS (2017 US dollars) Platform providing the lowest cost per GFLOPS Comments
1961 $18.7 billion $153.1 billion $153.1 trillion About 2400 IBM 7030 Stretch supercomputers costing $7.78 million each The IBM 7030 Stretch performs one floating-point multiply every 2.4 microseconds.[55]
1984 $18,750,000 $44,170,000 $44.2 billion Cray X-MP/48 $15,000,000 / 0.8 GFLOPS
1997 $30,000 $46,000 $46,000,000 Two 16-processor Beowulf clusters with Pentium Pro microprocessors[56]
April 2000 $1,000 $1,440 $1,440,000 Bunyip Beowulf cluster Bunyip was the first sub-US$1/MFLOPS computing technology. It won the Gordon Bell Prize in 2000.
May 2000 $640 $922 $922,000 KLAT2 KLAT2 was the first computing technology which scaled to large applications while staying under US-$1/MFLOPS.[57]
August 2003 $82 $109 $109,000 KASY0 KASY0 was the first sub-US$100/GFLOPS computing technology.[58]
August 2007 $48 $57 $57,000 Microwulf As of August 2007, this 26.25 GFLOPS "personal" Beowulf cluster can be built for $1256.[59]
March 2011 $1.80 $1.98 $1,980 HPU4Science This $30,000 cluster was built using only commercially available "gamer" grade hardware.[60]
August 2012 $0.75 $0.80 $800 Quad AMD Radeon 7970 GHz System A quad AMD Radeon 7970 desktop computer reaching 16 TFLOPS of single-precision, 4 TFLOPS of double-precision computing performance. Total system cost was $3000; Built using only commercially available hardware.[61]
June 2013 $0.22 $0.23 $230 Sony PlayStation 4 The Sony PlayStation 4 is listed as having a peak performance of 1.84 TFLOPS, at a price of $400[62]
November 2013 $0.16 $0.17 $170 AMD Sempron 145 & GeForce GTX 760 System Built using commercially available parts, a system using one AMD Sempron 145 and three Nvidia GeForce GTX 760 reaches a total of 6.771 TFLOPS for a total cost of $1090.66.[63]
December 2013 $0.12 $0.13 $130 Pentium G550 & Radeon R9 290 System Built using commercially available parts. Intel Pentium G550 and AMD Radeon R9 290 tops out at 4.848 TFLOPS grand total of US$681.84.[64]
January 2015 $0.08 $0.08 $80 Celeron G1830 & Radeon R9 295X2 System Built using commercially available parts. Intel Celeron G1830 and AMD Radeon R9 295X2 tops out at over 11.5 TFLOPS at a grand total of US$902.57.[65][66]
June 2017 $0.06 $0.06 $60 AMD Ryzen 7 1700 & AMD Radeon Vega Frontier Edition Built using commercially available parts. AMD Ryzen 7 1700 CPU combined with AMD Radeon Vega FE cards in CrossFire tops out at over 50 TFLOPS at just under US$3,000 for the complete system.[67]
October 2017 $0.03 $0.03 $30 Intel Celeron G3930 & AMD RX Vega 64 Built using commercially available parts. Three AMD RX Vega 64 graphics cards provide just over 75 TFLOPS half precision (38 TFLOPS SP or 2.6 TFLOPS DP when combined with the CPU) at ~$2,050 for the complete system.[68]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Floating Point Retrieved on December 25, 2009.
  2. ↑ Summary: Fixed-point (integer) vs floating-point Retrieved on December 25, 2009.
  3. ↑ Fixed versus floating point. Retrieved on December 25, 2009.
  4. ↑ Data manipulation and math calculation. Retrieved on December 25, 2009.
  5. ↑ "Nodes, Sockets, Cores and FLOPS, Oh, My" by Dr. Mark R. Fernandez, Ph.D.
  6. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Dolbeau, Romain (2017). "Theoretical Peak FLOPS per instruction set: a tutorial". Journal of Supercomputing. 74 (3): 1341–1377. doi:10.1007/s11227-017-2177-5. Retrieved 2018-04-05.
  7. ↑ http://www.agner.org/optimize/blog/read.php?i=838
  8. ↑ https://arstechnica.com/gadgets/2017/03/amds-moment-of-zen-finally-an-architecture-that-can-compete/2/ "each core now has a pair of 128-bit FMA units of its own"
  9. ↑ Mike Clark (August 23, 2016). A New x86 Core Architecture for the Next Generation of Computing (PDF). HotChips 28. AMD. page 7
  10. ↑ "Sandia's ASCI Red, world's first teraflop supercomputer, is decommissioned" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on November 5, 2010. Retrieved November 17, 2011.
  11. ↑ "Response Times: The Three Important Limits". Jakob Nielsen. Retrieved June 11, 2008.
  12. ↑ Richard Swinburne (April 30, 2007). "The Arrival of TeraFLOP Computing". bit-tech.net. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  13. ↑ "June 2008". TOP500. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
  14. ↑ "29th TOP500 List of World's Fastest Supercomputers Released". Top500.org. June 23, 2007. Archived from the original on May 9, 2008. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
  15. ↑ "NEC Launches World's Fastest Vector Supercomputer, SX-9". NEC. October 25, 2007. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
  16. ↑ "University of Texas at Austin, Texas Advanced Computing Center". Archived from the original on August 1, 2009. Retrieved September 13, 2010. Any researcher at a U.S. institution can submit a proposal to request an allocation of cycles on the system.
  17. ↑ Sharon Gaudin (June 9, 2008). "IBM's Roadrunner smashes 4-minute mile of supercomputing". Computerworld. Archived from the original on December 24, 2008. Retrieved June 10, 2008.
  18. ↑ "Austin ISC08". Top500.org. November 14, 2008. Archived from the original on February 22, 2012. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  19. ↑ Fildes, Jonathan (June 9, 2008). "Supercomputer sets petaflop pace". BBC News. Retrieved July 8, 2008.
  20. ↑ Greenberg, Andy (November 16, 2009). "Cray Dethrones IBM In Supercomputing". Forbes.
  21. ↑ "China claims supercomputer crown". BBC News. October 28, 2010.
  22. ↑ Dillow, Clay (October 28, 2010). "China Unveils 2507 Petaflop Supercomputer, the World's Fastest". Popsci.com. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  23. ↑ "Intel's Core i7-980X Extreme Edition – Ready for Sick Scores?: Mathematics: Sandra Arithmetic, Crypto, Microsoft Excel". Techgage. March 10, 2010. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  24. ↑ "NVIDIA Tesla Personal Supercomputer". Nvidia.com. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  25. ↑ "AMD FireStream 9270 GPU Compute Accelerator". Amd.com. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  26. ↑ https://www.amd.com/us/products/desktop/graphics/ati-radeon-hd-5000/hd-5970/Pages/ati-radeon-hd-5970-specifications.aspx
  27. ↑ "GeForce GTX 480". Nvidia.com. July 20, 2010. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  28. ↑ Dillow, Clay. "Air Force Unveils Fastest Defense Supercomputer, Made of 1760 PlayStation 3". Popsci.com. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  29. ↑ "'K computer' Achieves Goal of 10 Petaflops". Fujitsu.com. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  30. ↑ See Japanese numbers
  31. ↑ "Intel's Knights Corner: 50+ Core 22nm Co-processor". Retrieved November 16, 2011.
  32. ↑ "Intel unveils 1 TFLOP/s Knight's Corner". Retrieved November 16, 2011.
  33. ↑ Clark, Don (June 18, 2012). "IBM Computer Sets Speed Record". The Wall Street Journal. Retrieved June 18, 2012.
  34. ↑ "BBC News – US Titan supercomputer clocked as world's fastest". Bbc.co.uk. November 12, 2012. Retrieved February 28, 2013.
  35. ↑ "Oak Ridge Claims No. 1 Position on Latest TOP500 List with Titan | TOP500 Supercomputer Sites". Top500.org. November 12, 2012. Retrieved February 28, 2013.
  36. ↑ Montalbano, Elizabeth (October 11, 2011). "Oak Ridge Labs Builds Fastest Supercomputer". Informationweek. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  37. ↑ Tibken, Shara (October 29, 2012). "Titan supercomputer debuts for open scientific research | Cutting Edge – CNET News". News.cnet.com. Retrieved February 28, 2013.
  38. ↑ "Chinese Supercomputer Is Now The World's Fastest – By A Lot". Forbes Magazine. June 17, 2013. Retrieved June 17, 2013.
  39. ↑ Feldman, Michael. "China Races Ahead in TOP500 Supercomputer List, Ending US Supremacy". TOP500.org. Retrieved 31 December 2016.
  40. ↑ "June 2018 | TOP500 Supercomputer Sites". www.top500.org. Retrieved 2018-07-17.
  41. ↑ "Closing in on 100 Petaflops". Folding@Home. May 11, 2016. Retrieved July 17, 2016.
  42. ↑ "Folding@home team stats pages". Folding@Home. Retrieved October 14, 2016.
  43. ↑ "Sony Computer Entertainment's Support for Folding@home Project on PlayStation™3 Receives This Year's "Good Design Gold Award"" (Press release). Sony Computer Entertainment Inc. November 6, 2008. Archived from the original on January 31, 2009. Retrieved December 11, 2008.
  44. ↑ "Computering Power". BOINC. Retrieved June 15, 2018.
  45. ↑ "SETI@Home Credit overview". BOINC. Retrieved June 15, 2018.
  46. ↑ "Einstein@Home Credit overview". BOINC. Retrieved June 15, 2018.
  47. ↑ "MilkyWay@Home Credit overview". BOINC. Retrieved June 15, 2018.
  48. ↑ "Internet PrimeNet Server Distributed Computing Technology for the Great Internet Mersenne Prime Search". GIMPS. Retrieved June 15, 2018.
  49. ↑ James Bamford (2008). The Shadow Factory. Doubleday. p. 339. ISBN 0-385-52132-4.
  50. ↑ http://singularityhub.com/2012/11/01/the-race-to-a-billion-billion-operations-per-second-an-exaflop-by-2018/
  51. ↑ "Cray studies exascale computing in Europe". Eetimes.com. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  52. ↑ DeBenedictis, Erik P. (2005). "Reversible logic for supercomputing". Proceedings of the 2nd conference on Computing frontiers. New York, NY: ACM Press. pp. 391–402. ISBN 1-59593-019-1.
  53. ↑ "IDF: Intel says Moore's Law holds until 2029". Heise Online. April 4, 2008. Archived from the original on December 8, 2013.
  54. ↑ Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis Community Development Project. "Consumer Price Index (estimate) 1800–". Federal Reserve Bank of Minneapolis. Retrieved January 2, 2018.
  55. ↑ "The IBM 7030 (STRETCH)". Norman Hardy. Retrieved February 24, 2017.
  56. ↑ "Loki and Hyglac". Loki-www.lanl.gov. July 13, 1997. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  57. ↑ "Kentucky Linux Athlon Testbed 2 (KLAT2)". The Aggregate. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  58. ↑ "KASY0". The Aggregate. August 22, 2003. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  59. ↑ "Microwulf: A Personal, Portable Beowulf Cluster". Archived from the original on September 12, 2007. Retrieved February 9, 2012.
  60. ↑ Adam Stevenson, Yann Le Du, and Mariem El Afrit. "High-performance computing on gamer PCs." Ars Technica. March 31, 2011.
  61. ↑ Tom Logan (January 9, 2012). "HD7970 Quadfire Eyefinity Review". OC3D.net.
  62. ↑ "Sony Sparks Price War With PS4 Priced at $399." CNBC. June 11, 2013.
  63. ↑ http://www.freezepage.com/1384601420XCIGYKCBKJ
  64. ↑ http://www.freezepage.com/1387480124PSLSILVCMJ
  65. ↑ http://www.freezepage.com/1420850340WGSMHXRBLE
  66. ↑ http://www.tomshardware.com/reviews/radeon-r9-295x2-review-benchmark-performance,3799.html
  67. ↑ Perez, Carol E. (July 13, 2017). "Building a 50 Teraflops AMD Vega Deep Learning Box for Under $3K". Intuition Machine. Retrieved July 26, 2017.
  68. ↑ "lowest_$/fp16 - mattebaughman's Saved Part List - Celeron G3930 2.9GHz Dual-Core, Radeon RX VEGA 64 8GB (3-Way CrossFire), XON-350_BK ATX Mid Tower - PCPartPicker". pcpartpicker.com. Retrieved 2017-09-13.
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