Scuba diving tourism

[3]

The motivations of scuba divers to travel have been attributed to adventure, learning, escape, social interaction, stature, challenge and excitement, and while these are probably valid for most novice divers and some long term divers, the motivation of long term enthusiasts may be more complex. The development of a recreational diver from novice to experienced diver is usually associated with acquisition and improvement of skills, and is often accompanied by a shift in motivations to dive. Similarly, expectations of the diving experience, satisfaction with the experience available at different dive sites, and attitudes towards the underwater environment will change in divers who continue to dive over the longer term and relatively frequently. The desire to improve and learn for personal growth and the long term satisfaction and fulfilment derived from this learning is common in such divers. This could be an important factor informing the planning and management of diving tourism.[4][5]

Three main classes of recreational diving tourism destinations exist. These are tropical reefs, shipwrecks, and cave systems. Each caters to a different dlientele, though there is some overlap. Temperate reefs are less popular as tourist attractions, but can have their own enthusiasts, including short range tourism and incidental dive tourism associated with general tourism in the region. Any exceptional dive site may be visited by expeditionary dive tourists once the attractions are known, though these destinations are generally not serviced by mainstream tourism service providers.

Tropical coral reefs

NASA image showing locations of significant coral reefs, which are often sought out by divers for their abundant, diverse life forms.

See also: Coral reef and Environmental impact of recreational diving

Tropical coral reefs are popular recreational diving tourism destinations, as they are generally both pleasant and colorful to dive, relatively low in serious hazards, and the water is at a comfortable temperature, so they attract divers of all levels of competence. They are more easily damaged by poor diving skills than some temperate reefs, where the environment is more robust due to rougher sea conditions and fewer fragile, slow-growing organisms. The same pleasant sea conditions that allow development of relatively delicate and highly diverse ecologies also attract the greatest number of tourists, including divers who dive infrequently, exclusively on vacation and never fully develop the skills to dive in an environmentally friendly way.[1] Low impact diving training has been shown to be effective in reducing diver contact.[6]

Regions include:

• The Great Barrier Reef of eastern Australia
• Indonesia
• The Philippines
• The Caribbean Sea
• Indian Ocean islands such as
  • Seychelles
  • Maldives
  • Mauritius
• The Red Sea
• Indochina
• Tropical east Africa
  • Mozambique
  • Kenya
  • Tanzania
  • Madagascar
  • Sodwana Bay in northeastern South Africa

Shipwrecks

See also: Wreck diving and Sinking ships for wreck diving sites

Diver at the wreck of the Hilma Hooker, Netherlands Antilles.

Wreck diving is recreational diving where the wreckage of ships, aircraft and other artificial structures are explored. Although most wreck dive sites are at shipwrecks, there is an increasing trend to scuttle retired ships to create artificial reef sites. Diving to crashed aircraft can also be considered wreck diving.[7] The recreation of wreck diving makes no distinction as to how the vessel ended up on the bottom. Some wreck diving involves penetration of the wreckage, making a direct ascent to the surface impossible for a part of the dive.

Wreck diving may be divided into three categories of differing hazard and skill and certification requirement:[8]

• Non-penetration diving (i.e. swimming over the wreck)
• Limited penetration diving, within the "light zone"
• Full penetration diving, beyond the "light zone"

The inherent hazards of wreck diving may be aggravated local circumstances like depth, layout and condition of the wreck, and silting hazard, and general sea conditions such as visibility, illumination, surge and currents, and water temperature. Training for wreck diving may be marketed as an associated service.

The scuba diving tourism industry provides both tangible and intangible goods and services. The tangible component includes provision of equipment for rental and for sale, while intangibles include education and skill development, dive charter services and guide services on dives.[1]

During the 20th century recreational scuba diving was considered to have generally low environmental impact, and was consequently one of the activities permitted in most marine protected areas. Since the 1970s diving has changed from an elite activity to a more accessible recreation, marketed to a very wide demographic. To some extent better equipment has been substituted for more rigorous training, and the reduction in perceived risk has shortened minimum training requirements by several training agencies. Training has concentrated on an acceptable risk to the diver, and paid less attention to the environment. The increase in the popularity of diving and in tourist access to sensitive ecological systems has led to the recognition that the activity can have significant environmental consequences.[6]

Scuba diving has grown in popularity during the 21st century, as is shown by the number of certifications issued worldwide, which has increased to about 23 million by 2016 at about one million per year.[9] Scuba diving tourism is a growth industry, and it is necessary to consider environmental sustainability, as the expanding impact of divers can adversely affect the marine environment in several ways, and the impact also depends on the specific environment. Tropical coral reefs are more easily damaged by poor diving skills than some temperate reefs, where the environment is more robust due to rougher sea conditions and fewer fragile, slow-growing organisms. The same pleasant sea conditions that allow development of relatively delicate and highly diverse ecologies also attract the greatest number of tourists, including divers who dive infrequently, exclusively on vacation and never fully develop the skills to dive in an environmentally friendly way.[1] Several studies have found the main reason for contact by inexperienced divers to be poor buoyancy control,[6] and that damage to reefs by divers can be minimized by modifying the behavior of those divers.[10]

Diver impact on subtropical, and particularly temperate reefs is less researched than tropical reefs. The perception is that these reefs are less vulnerable than tropical reefs and the sessile species are less vulnerable to diver impact.[6] Diver contact with the bottom is also prevalent on temperate reefs – one of the main forms mentioned is fin contact with the bottom sediment, raising particulate material into the water column and degrading visibility.[11]

The impact of recreational scuba diving on recreational dive values and the cultural heritage of shipwrecks has been found to comprise four basic types:[12]

• The removal of artifacts and associated disturbance to wreck sites,
• Direct contact with wrecks and the benthic biota living on them by divers and their equipment,
• Exhaled air bubbles trapped insie the wreckage,
• Impact damage by anchors of dive boats, considered by some researchers to be the most damaging form of impact associated with recreational wreck diving.

Several methodologies have been developed with the intention of minimising the environmental impact of divers on coral reefs

• Carrying capacity approach.[6] where the number of divers is restricted.[13] This also limits tourism income from the region. Sustainable diver carrying capacity is influenced by factors which vary between sites.
• Limits of acceptable change. This model uses quantitative limits on change defined in specific management objectives for a site using an established baseline.[6]
• Percentile approach, where capacity is limited by comparison with damage at non-dived control sites[6]
• Restricting recreational divers to delimited locations, which usually concentrates divers and damage along diving trails.[13] This creates paths of degraded reef through the more pristine areas, and will cause dissatisfaction as the trail degrades further.
• Regulating the type of diving equipment allowed, generally accessories which are thought to increase reef contacts, such as gloves and cameras. These restrictions are understandably unpopular with photographers, and may be applied to both divers who manage to avoid contact and those who do not.[13]
• Changing the methods by which the industry provides services. Closer supervision and intervention by dive guides can reduce diver contact rates where the divers are sufficiently skilled to modify their behaviour during the dive. A pre-dive briefing on responsible behaviour, regulations and environmental values can reduce the rate of diver impacts where the divers are sufficiently competent to avoid contact. More effective interventions occur when the number of divers per guide is low. [13]
• Encouraging or enforcing competence of divers in low impact diving as a precondition for diving in sensitive areas. This has been identified as an effective way of reducing diver contavt.[6]

Scuba diving is an equipment intensive activity. Significant capital outlay is required to establish a retail outlet with the expected range of equipment and filling facilities. Dive boats are a large to very large capital expense, and running costs and crew salaries can be considerable. There are also health and safety aspects to be considered, both for the operator and the customer, as high pressure filling equipment is used to provide breathing air which will be used in a hostile environment. Adequate quality control is necessary to avoid providing a harmful product. The cost of qualifying as a diving instructor is significant in time and money, and annual registration fees are a required.[1]

Recreational diving tourists appear to be male-dominated, with an average age in the mid thirties, a college education, and higher than average income, which is in keeping with the relatively high costs of equipment, training and travel[4][15]

The general population of American scuba diving participants are on average wealthier and better educated than the general population,an have a higher participation than average in individual and team sports, and extreme sports. Nearly 46% participate in running or jogging, and 36% swim for fitness. The DAN medical emergency line and fatality and injury monitoring program have reported that some divers get injured as a consequence of inadequate physical fitness.[16]

A study to identify differences between local scuba divers and visitors in Florida showed that visitors had less certification and experience but spent more on scuba, compared to local resident divers. Cluster analysis identified four groups of scuba divers:[15]

• Fun-seeking belongers: Divers with a strong affiliation fo group belonging, looking for fun and excitement, enjoy diving in varied locations, enjoyed stimulating encounters and pconsidered bonding with other divers important. They self-identified as belonging to the scuba community and sought to associate with other divers with similar attitudes. They tended to have more diving experience and spent more on scuba activities. Mostly males, and the majority unmarried.
• Actualizers: Divers focused on challenge, self-recognition, and self-esteem values, likely to consider certification important and consider that overcoming the challenges is important to their self-image. Represented by more females than other groups, and lower income and expenditure on scuba activities.
• Inner-circles: People who perceived diving as an opportunity to make new friends, and spend time with family and friends. Image as a diver relatively unimportant, and not driven to be part of the scuba diving community. Mostly married, male, well-educated, with less diving experience than average.
• Moderates:

Participation in recreational diving implies acceptance of the inherent risks of the activity [17] Diver training includes training in procedures known to reduce these risks to a level considered acceptable by the certification agency, and issue of certification implies that the agency accepts that the instructor has assessed the diver to be sufficiently competent in these skills at the time of assessment and to be competent to accept the associated risks. Certification relates to a set of skills and knowledge defined by the associated training standard, which also specifies the limitations on the scope of diving activities for which the diver is deemed competent. These limitations involve depth, environment and equipment that the diver has been trained to use.

Waivers and release

The waiver is intended as a legal defense against lawsuits claiming ordinary negligence by the operator. The diver acknowledges understanding and acceptance of the risks inherent to scuba diving. The waiver may also require the diver to follow recognized safe diving practices. By signing the waiver the diver agrees not to sue the operator for injuries and damage due to ordinary negligence relating to the diving activity. It will generally not be enforceable for gross negligence and events beyond the normal scope of diving. [18]

Medical statement

The medical statement is intended to draw the diver's attention to the range of medical conditions that may increase the risk of injury during a dive. Failure to disclose a known medical condition which is then the cause of an injury will usually disqualify the diver from legal compensation, and may also void an insurance claim. It also transfers responsibility for establishing fitness to dive from the operator to the diver.[18]