Tanzania

The indigenous populations of eastern Africa are thought to be the linguistically isolated Hadza and Sandawe hunter-gatherers of Tanzania.[15]^{:page 17}

The first wave of migration was by Southern Cushitic speakers who moved south from Ethiopia and Somalia into Tanzania. They are ancestral to the Iraqw, Gorowa, and Burunge.[15]^{:page 17} Based on linguistic evidence, there may also have been two movements into Tanzania of Eastern Cushitic people at about 4,000 and 2,000 years ago, originating from north of Lake Turkana.[15]^{:pages 17–18}

Archaeological evidence supports the conclusion that Southern Nilotes, including the Datoog, moved south from the present-day South Sudan / Ethiopia border region into central northern Tanzania between 2,900 and 2,400 years ago.[15]^{:page 18}

These movements took place at approximately the same time as the settlement of the iron-making Mashariki Bantu from West Africa in the Lake Victoria and Lake Tanganyika areas. They brought with them the west African planting tradition and the primary staple of yams. They subsequently migrated out of these regions across the rest of Tanzania between 2,300 and 1,700 years ago.[15][16]

Eastern Nilotic peoples, including the Maasai, represent a more recent migration from present-day South Sudan within the past 500 to 1,500 years.[15][31]

The people of Tanzania have been associated with the production of iron and steel. The Pare people were the main producers of highly demanded iron for peoples who occupied the mountain regions of north-eastern Tanzania.[32] The Haya people on the western shores of Lake Victoria invented a type of high-heat blast furnace, which allowed them to forge carbon steel at temperatures exceeding 1,820 °C (3,310 °F) more than 1,500 years ago.[33]

Travelers and merchants from the Persian Gulf and India have visited the east African coast since early in the first millennium AD.[34] Islam was practised by some on the Swahili Coast as early as the eighth or ninth century A.D.[35]

A 1572 depiction of the city of Kilwa, a UNESCO World Heritage Site

Claiming the coastal strip, Omani Sultan Said bin Sultan moved his capital to Zanzibar City in 1840. During this time, Zanzibar became the centre for the Arab slave trade.[36] Between 65 and 90 percent of the Arab-Swahili population of Zanzibar was enslaved.[37] One of the most infamous slave traders on the East African coast was Tippu Tip, who was the grandson of an enslaved African. The Nyamwezi slave traders operated under the leadership of Msiri and Mirambo.[38] According to Timothy Insoll, "Figures record the exporting of 718,000 slaves from the Swahili coast during the 19th century, and the retention of 769,000 on the coast."[39] In the 1890s, slavery was abolished.[40]

The Maji Maji Rebellion against German colonial rule in 1905

In the late 19th century, Germany conquered the regions that are now Tanzania (minus Zanzibar) and incorporated them into German East Africa (GEA).[41] The Supreme Council of the 1919 Paris Peace Conference awarded all of GEA to Britain on 7 May 1919, over the strenuous objections of Belgium.[42]^:240 The British colonial secretary, Alfred Milner, and Belgium's minister plenipotentiary to the conference, Pierre Orts, then negotiated the Anglo-Belgian agreement of 30 May 1919[43]^:618–9 where Britain ceded the north-western GEA provinces of Ruanda and Urundi to Belgium.[42]^:246 The conference's Commission on Mandates ratified this agreement on 16 July 1919.[42]^:246–7 The Supreme Council accepted the agreement on 7 August 1919.[43]^:612–3 On 12 July 1919, the Commission on Mandates agreed that the small Kionga Triangle south of the Rovuma River would be given to Portuguese Mozambique,[42]^:243 with it eventually becoming part of independent Mozambique. The commission reasoned that Germany had virtually forced Portugal to cede the triangle in 1894.[42]^:243 The Treaty of Versailles was signed on 28 July 1919, although the treaty did not take effect until 10 January 1920. On that date, the GEA was transferred officially to Britain, Belgium, and Portugal. Also on that date, "Tanganyika" became the name of the British territory.

During World War II, about 100,000 people from Tanganyika joined the Allied forces[44] and were among the 375,000 Africans who fought with those forces.[45] Tanganyikans fought in units of the King's African Rifles during the East African Campaign in Somalia and Abyssinia against the Italians, in Madagascar against the Vichy French during the Madagascar Campaign, and in Burma against the Japanese during the Burma Campaign.[45] Tanganyika was an important source of food during this war, and its export income increased greatly compared to the pre-war years of the Great Depression[44] Wartime demand, however, caused increased commodity prices and massive inflation within the colony.[46]

In 1954, Julius Nyerere transformed an organisation into the politically oriented Tanganyika African National Union (TANU). TANU's main objective was to achieve national sovereignty for Tanganyika. A campaign to register new members was launched, and within a year, TANU had become the leading political organisation in the country. Nyerere became Minister of British-administered Tanganyika in 1960 and continued as prime minister when Tanganyika became independent in 1961.[47]

British rule came to an end on 9 December 1961, but for the first year of independence, Tanganyika had a governor general who represented the British monarch.[48]^{:page 6} Tanganyika also joined the British Commonwealth in 1961.[18] On 9 December 1962, Tanganyika became a democratic republic under an executive president.[48]^{:page 6}

After the Zanzibar Revolution overthrew the Arab dynasty in neighbouring Zanzibar,[49] which had become independent in 1963, the archipelago merged with mainland Tanganyika on 26 April 1964.[50] The new country was then named the United Republic of Tanganyika and Zanzibar.[51][52] On 29 October of the same year, the country was renamed the United Republic of Tanzania ("Tan" comes from Tanganyika and "Zan" from Zanzibar).[17] The union of the two hitherto separate regions was controversial among many Zanzibaris (even those sympathetic to the revolution) but was accepted by both the Nyerere government and the Revolutionary Government of Zanzibar owing to shared political values and goals.

Following Tanganyika's independence and unification with Zanzibar leading to the state of Tanzania, President Nyerere emphasised a need to construct a national identity for the citizens of the new country. To achieve this, Nyerere provided what is regarded as one of the most successful cases of ethnic repression and identity transformation in Africa.[53] With over 130 languages spoken within its territory, Tanzania is one of the most ethnically diverse countries in Africa. Despite this obstacle, ethnic divisions remained rare in Tanzania when compared to the rest of the continent, notably its immediate neighbour, Kenya. Furthermore, since its independence, Tanzania has displayed more political stability than most African countries, particularly due to Nyerere's ethnic repression methods.[54]

The Arusha Declaration Monument

In 1967, Nyerere's first presidency took a turn to the left after the Arusha Declaration, which codified a commitment to socialism as well as Pan-Africanism. After the declaration, banks and many large industries were nationalised.

Tanzania was also aligned with China, which from 1970 to 1975 financed and helped build the 1,860-kilometre-long (1,160 mi) TAZARA Railway from Dar es Salaam to Zambia.[55] Nonetheless, from the late 1970s, Tanzania's economy took a turn for the worse, in the context of an international economic crisis affecting both developed and developing economies.

From the mid-1980s, the regime financed itself by borrowing from the International Monetary Fund and underwent some reforms. Since then, Tanzania's gross domestic product per capita has grown and poverty has been reduced, according to a report by the World Bank.[56]

In 1992, the Constitution of Tanzania was amended to allow multiple political parties.[57] In Tanzania's first multi-party elections, held in 1995, the ruling Chama Cha Mapinduzi won 186 of the 232 elected seats in the National Assembly, and Benjamin Mkapa was elected as president.[58]

Tanzania map of Köppen climate classification

Climate varies greatly within Tanzania. In the highlands, temperatures range between 10 and 20 °C (50 and 68 °F) during cold and hot seasons respectively. The rest of the country has temperatures rarely falling lower than 20 °C (68 °F). The hottest period extends between November and February (25–31 °C or 77.0–87.8 °F) while the coldest period occurs between May and August (15–20 °C or 59–68 °F). Annual temperature is 20 °C (68.0 °F). The climate is cool in high mountainous regions.

Tanzania has two major rainfall periods: one is uni-modal (October–April) and the other is bi-modal (October–December and March–May).[62] The former is experienced in southern, central, and western parts of the country, and the latter is found in the north from Lake Victoria extending east to the coast.[62] The bi-modal rainfall is caused by the seasonal migration of the Intertropical Convergence Zone.[62]

A tower of giraffes at Arusha National Park. The giraffe is the national animal.

Approximately 38 percent of Tanzania's land area is set aside in protected areas for conservation.[63] Tanzania has 16 national parks,[64] plus a variety of game and forest reserves, including the Ngorongoro Conservation Area. In western Tanzania, Gombe Stream National Park is the site of Jane Goodall's ongoing study of chimpanzee behaviour, which started in 1960.[65][66]

Tanzania is highly biodiverse and contains a wide variety of animal habitats.[67] On Tanzania's Serengeti plain, white-bearded wildebeest (Connochaetes taurinus mearnsi), other bovids and zebra [68] participate in a large-scale annual migration. Tanzania is home to about 130 amphibian and over 275 reptile species, many of them strictly endemic and included in the International Union for Conservation of Nature's Red Lists of countries.[69]

Tanzania is a one party dominant state with the Chama Cha Mapinduzi (CCM) party in power. From its formation until 1992, it was the only legally permitted party in the country. This changed on 1 July 1992, when the constitution was amended.[70]^{:§ 3}

John Magufuli won the October 2015 presidential election and secured a two-thirds majority in parliament.[71] The other party or main opposition party in Tanzania is called Chama cha Demokrasia na Maendeleo (Chadema) (Swahili for "Party for Democracy and Progress"). In Zanzibar, the Civil United Front (CUF) is considered a main opposition political party.

President John Magufuli

Prime Minister Kassim Majaliwa

The president of Tanzania and the members of the National Assembly are elected concurrently by direct popular vote for five-year terms.[70]^{:§ 42(2)} The vice-president is elected for a five-year term at the same time as the president and on the same ticket.[70]^{:§§ 47(2), 50(1)} Neither the president nor the vice-president may be a member of the National Assembly.[70]^{:§ 66(2)} The president appoints a prime minister, subject to confirmation by the assembly, to serve as the government's leader in the assembly.[70]^{:§§ 51(1)-(2), 52(2)} The president selects his or her cabinet from assembly members.[70]^{:§ 55}

All legislative power relating to mainland Tanzania and union matters is vested in the National Assembly,[70]^{:§ 64(1)} which is unicameral and has a maximum of 357 members.[72] These include members elected to represent constituencies, the attorney general, five members elected by the Zanzibar house of representatives from among its own members, the special women's seats that constitute at least 30% of the seats that any party has in the assembly, the speaker of the assembly (if not otherwise a member of the assembly), and the persons (not more than ten) appointed by the president.[70]^{:§ 66(1)} The Tanzania Electoral Commission demarcates the mainland into constituencies in the number determined by the commission with the consent of the president.[70]^{:§ 75}

Tanzania's legal system is based on English common law.[73]

Tanzania has a four-level judiciary.[73] The lowest-level courts on the Tanzanian mainland are the Primary Courts.[73] In Zanzibar, the lowest-level courts are the Kadhi's Courts for Islamic family matters and the Primary Courts for all other cases.[73] On the mainland, appeal is to either the District Courts or the Resident Magistrates Courts.[73] In Zanzibar, appeal is to the Kadhi's Appeal Courts for Islamic family matters and the Magistrates Courts for all other cases.[73] From there, appeal is to the High Court of Mainland Tanzania or Zanzibar.[73] No appeal regarding Islamic family matters can be made from the High Court of Zanzibar.[73][74]^{:§ 99(1)} Otherwise, the final appeal is to the Court of Appeal of Tanzania.[73]

The High Court of mainland Tanzania has three divisions – commercial, labour, and land[73] – and 15 geographic zones.[75] The High Court of Zanzibar has an industrial division, which hears only labour disputes.[76]

Mainland and union judges are appointed by the Chief Justice of Tanzania,[77] except for those of the Court of Appeal and the High Court, who are appointed by the president of Tanzania.[70]^{: §§ 109(1), 118(2)–(3)}

Tanzania is a party to the Rome Statute of the International Criminal Court.[78]

Throughout Tanzania, sex acts between men are illegal and carry a maximum penalty of life imprisonment.[79] According to a 2007 Pew Research Centre survey, 95 percent of Tanzanians believed that homosexuality should not be accepted by society.[80]

People with albinism living in Tanzania are often attacked, killed or mutilated because of superstitions related to the black-magical practice known as muti that say body parts of albinos have magical properties.[81]

Tanzania has the highest occurrence of this human rights violation among 27 African countries where muti is known to be practised.[82]

In December 2019, Amnesty International reported that the Tanzanian government annulled the right of NGOs as well as individuals to directly file any case against it at the Arusha-based African Court for Human and Peoples' Rights.[83]

The semi-autonomous Zanzibar Archipelago

The legislative authority in Zanzibar over all non-union matters is vested in the House of Representatives (per the Tanzania constitution)[70]^{:§ 106(3)} or the Legislative Council (per the Zanzibar constitution).

The Legislative Council has two parts: the president of Zanzibar and the House of Representatives.[70]^{:§ 107(1)-(2)}[74]^{:§ 63(1)} The president is Zanzibar's head of government and the chairman of the Revolutionary Council, in which the executive authority of Zanzibar is invested.[74]^{:§§ 5A(2), 26(1)} Zanzibar has two vice-presidents, with the first being from the main opposition party in the house.[84][85] The second is from the party in power and is the leader of government business in the House.[85]

The president and the members of the House of Representatives have five-year terms and can be elected for a second term.[74]^{:§ 28(2)}

The president selects ministers from members of the House of Representatives,[74]^{:§ 42(2)} with the ministers allocated according to the number of House seats won by political parties.[84] The Revolutionary Council consists of the president, both vice-presidents, all ministers, the attorney general of Zanzibar, and other house members deemed fit by the president.[84]

The House of Representatives is composed of elected members, ten members appointed by the president, all the regional commissioners of Zanzibar, the attorney general, and appointed female members whose number must be equal to 30 percent of the elected members.[74]^{:§§ 55(3), 64, 67(1)} The House determines the number of its elected members[74]^{:§ 120(2)} with the Zanzibar Electoral Commission determining the boundaries of each election constituency.[74]^{:§ 120(1)} In 2013, the House had 81 members: fifty elected members, five regional commissioners, the attorney general, ten members appointed by the president, and fifteen appointed female members.[72]

Regions of Tanzania

In 1972, local government on the mainland was abolished and replaced with direct rule from the central government. Local government, however, was reintroduced in the beginning of the 1980s, when the rural councils and rural authorities were re-established. Local government elections took place in 1983, and functioning councils started in 1984. In 1999, a Local Government Reform Programme was enacted by the National Assembly, setting "a comprehensive and ambitious agenda ... [covering] four areas: political decentralization, financial decentralization, administrative decentralization and changed central-local relations, with the mainland government having overriding powers within the framework of the Constitution."[86]

As of 2016, Tanzania is divided into thirty-one regions. regions (mkoa),[87][88] twenty-six on the mainland and five in Zanzibar (three on Unguja, two on Pemba).[89] In 2012, the thirty former regions were divided into 169 districts (wilaya), also known as local government authorities. Of those districts, 34 were urban units, which were further classified as three city councils (Arusha, Mbeya, and Mwanza), nineteen municipal councils, and twelve town councils.[8]

The urban units have an autonomous city, municipal, or town council and are subdivided into wards and mtaa. The non-urban units have an autonomous district council but are subdivided into village councils or township authorities (first level) and then into vitongoji.[86]

The city of Dar es Salaam is unique because it has a city council whose areal jurisdiction overlaps three municipal councils. The mayor of the city council is elected by that council. The twenty-member city council is composed of eleven persons elected by the municipal councils, seven members of the National Assembly, and "Nominated members of parliament under 'Special Seats' for women". Each municipal council also has a mayor. "The City Council performs a coordinating role and attends to issues cutting across the three municipalities", including security and emergency services.[90][91] The city of Mwanza has a city council whose areal jurisdiction overlaps two municipal councils.

Embassy of Tanzania in Moscow, Russia

Tanzanian Embassy in West End, Washington, D.C., USA

Apart from its border dispute with Malawi, Tanzania had cordial relations with its neighbours in 2012.[92]

Relations between Tanzania and Malawi have been tense because of a dispute over the countries' Lake Nyasa (Lake Malawi) border. An unsuccessful mediation regarding this issue took place in March 2014.[61]^{:page 1250}[92][93] The two countries agreed in 2013 to ask the International Court of Justice (ICJ) to resolve the dispute should mediation be unsuccessful.[94] Malawi, but not Tanzania, has accepted the compulsory jurisdiction of the ICJ.[95]

Relations between Tanzania and Rwanda deteriorated in 2013 when Tanzanian President Jakaya Kikwete said that if the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC) could negotiate with some of its enemies, Rwanda should be able to do the same.[96] Rwandan President Paul Kagame then expressed "contempt" for Kikwete's statement.[97] The tension was renewed in May 2014 when, in a speech to the Tanzanian National Assembly, Foreign Affairs Minister Bernard Membe renewed his claim that Rwandans were causing instability in the DRC. Rwandan Foreign Affairs Minister Louise Mushikiwabo responded, "As for Tanzania's foreign minister whose anti-Rwanda rant in parliament I heard, he would benefit from a lesson in the history of the region."[98]

Tanzania has maintained strong relations with the United Kingdom since its independence; Britain remains the largest non-African importer of Tanzanian tea[99] and other raw materials are exchanged. Britain remains a high contributor of tourists to Tanzania. Both are members of the Commonwealth of Nations and engage in strategic union in defence, security and ceremonial affairs; the Tanzanian High Commission is in London and the British have a High Commission in Dar es Salaam.

Tanzania–China relations have strengthened in recent years as trade between the two countries and Chinese investment in Tanzanian infrastructure have increased rapidly.[61]^{:page 1250}[100]

Relations with the United States are warm, with President Barack Obama visiting Tanzania in 2013.[101][102]

Tanzania's relations with other donor countries, including Japan and members of the European Union, are generally good, though donors are concerned about Tanzania's commitment to reducing government corruption.[61]^{:page 1250}[92]

Tanzania is a member of the East African Community (EAC), along with Uganda, Kenya, Rwanda, and Burundi.[103] According to the East African Common Market Protocol of 2010, the free trade and free movement of people is guaranteed, including the right to reside in another member country for purposes of employment.[61]^:1250[104][105] This protocol, however, has not been implemented because of work permit and other bureaucratic, legal, and financial obstacles.[106]

Tanzania is also a member of the Southern African Development Community (SADC).[107] The EAC, the SADC, and the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa agreed in June 2011 to negotiate the creation of a Tripartite Free Trade Area spanning 26 African countries, with a goal to complete the first phase of negotiations within 36 months.[108]

As of 31 October 2014, Tanzania was contributing 2,253 soldiers and other personnel to various United Nations peacekeeping operations.[109] The Tanzanian military is participating along with South African and Malawian militaries in the United Nations Force Intervention Brigade (MONUSCO) in the Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). The United Nations Security Council authorised the force on 28 March 2013 to conduct targeted offensive operations to neutralise groups that threaten peace in the DRC.[110] Tanzania was also participating in peacekeeping missions in the Darfur Region of Sudan (UNAMID); Abyei, control of which is contested between South Sudan and Sudan (UNISFA); the Central African Republic (MINUSCA); Lebanon (UNIFIL); and South Sudan (UNMISS).[111]

In 2019, Tanzania signed the UN treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons.[112]

The Tanzania People’s Defence Force (TPDF) (Kiswahili: Jeshi la Wananchi wa Tanzania (JWTZ)) is the armed forces of Tanzania, operating as a people’s force under civilian control. It is composed of three branches or commands: Land Force (army), Air Force, Naval Command. Tanzanian citizens are able to volunteer for military service from 15 years of age, and 18 years of age for compulsory military service upon graduation from secondary school. Conscript service obligation was 2 years as of 2004.

Tanzania has made some progress towards reducing extreme hunger and malnutrition. The Global Hunger Index ranked the situation as “alarming” with a score of 42 in the year 2000, since then the GHI has declined to 29.5.[118] Children in rural areas suffer substantially higher rates of malnutrition and chronic hunger, although urban-rural disparities have narrowed as regards both stunting and underweight.[119] Low rural sector productivity arises mainly from inadequate infrastructure investment; limited access to farm inputs, extension services and credit; limited technology as well as trade and marketing support; and heavy dependence on rain-fed agriculture and natural resources.[119]

Approximately 68 percent of Tanzania's 44.9 million citizens live below the poverty line of $1.25 a day. 32 percent of the population are malnourished.[118] The most prominent challenges Tanzania faces in poverty reduction are unsustainable harvesting of its natural resources, unchecked cultivation, climate change and water- source encroachment, according to the United Nations Development Programme (UNDP).[120]

There are very few resources for Tanzanians in terms of credit services, infrastructure or availability to improved agricultural technologies, which further exacerbates hunger and poverty in the country according to the UNDP.[120] Tanzania ranks 159 out of 187 countries in poverty according to the United Nation's Human Development Index (2014).[120]

Tea fields in Tukuyu

The Tanzanian economy is heavily based on agriculture, which in 2013 accounted for 24.5 percent of gross domestic product,[48]^{:page 37} provides 85% of exports,[17] and accounted for half of the employed workforce;[48]^{:page 56} The agricultural sector grew 4.3 percent in 2012, less than half of the Millennium Development Goal target of 10.8%.[121] 16.4 percent of the land is arable,[122] with 2.4 percent of the land planted with permanent crops.[123] Tanzania's economy relies on farming, but climate change has impacted their farming.

Maize was the largest food crop on the Tanzania mainland in 2013 (5.17 million tonnes), followed by cassava (1.94 million tonnes), sweet potatoes (1.88 million tonnes), beans (1.64 million tonnes), bananas (1.31 million tonnes), rice (1.31 million tonnes), and millet (1.04 million tonnes).[48]^{:page 58} Sugar was the largest cash crop on the mainland in 2013 (296,679 tonnes), followed by cotton (241,198 tonnes), cashew nuts (126,000 tonnes), tobacco (86,877 tonnes), coffee (48,000 tonnes), sisal (37,368 tonnes), and tea (32,422 tonnes).[48]^{:page 58} Beef was the largest meat product on the mainland in 2013 (299,581 tonnes), followed by lamb/mutton (115,652 tonnes), chicken (87,408 tonnes), and pork (50,814 tonnes).[48]^{:page 60}

According to the 2002 National Irrigation Master Plan, 29.4 million hectares in Tanzania are suitable for irrigation farming; however, only 310,745 hectares were actually being irrigated in June 2011.[124]

Williamson diamond mine

Songo Songo Gas Plant

Industry and construction is a major and growing component of the Tanzanian economy, contributing 22.2 percent of GDP in 2013.[48]^{:page 37} This component includes mining and quarrying, manufacturing, electricity and natural gas, water supply, and construction.[48]^{:page 37} Mining contributed 3.3 percent of GDP in 2013.[48]^{:page 33} The vast majority of the country's mineral export revenue comes from gold, accounting for 89 percent of the value of those exports in 2013.[48]^{:page 71} It also exports sizeable quantities of gemstones, including diamonds and tanzanite.[61]^{:page 1251} All of Tanzania's coal production, which totalled 106,000 short tons in 2012, is used domestically.[125]

Only 15 percent of Tanzanians had access to electric power in 2011.[126] The government-owned Tanzania Electric Supply Company Limited (TANESCO) dominates the electric supply industry in Tanzania.[127] The country generated 6.013 billion kilowatt hours (kWh) of electricity in 2013, a 4.2 percent increase over the 5.771 billion kWh generated in 2012.[128]^{:page 4} Generation increased by 63 percent between 2005 and 2012;[129][130] Almost 18 percent of the electricity generated in 2012 was lost because of theft and transmission and distribution problems.[129] The electrical supply varies, particularly when droughts disrupt hydropower electric generation; rolling blackouts are implemented as necessary.[61]^{:page 1251}[127] The unreliability of the electrical supply has hindered the development of Tanzanian industry.[61]^{:page 1251} In 2013, 49.7 percent of Tanzania's electricity generation came from natural gas, 28.9 percent from hydroelectric sources, 20.4 percent from thermal sources, and 1.0 percent from outside the country.[128]^{:page 5} The government has built a 532 kilometres (331 mi) gas pipeline from Mnazi Bay to Dar es Salaam.[131] This pipeline was expected to allow the country to double its electricity generation capacity to 3,000 megawatts by 2016.[132] The government's goal is to increase capacity to at least 10,000 megawatts by 2025.[133]

Nyerere Bridge in Kigamboni, Dar es Salaam, is Tanzania's (and East Africa's) only suspension bridge.

According to PFC Energy, 25 to 30 trillion cubic feet of recoverable natural gas resources have been discovered in Tanzania since 2010,[125] bringing the total reserves to over 43 trillion cubic feet by the end of 2013.[134] The value of natural gas actually produced in 2013 was US$52.2 million, a 42.7 percent increase over 2012.[48]^{:page 73}

Commercial production of gas from the Songo Songo Island field in the Indian Ocean commenced in 2004, thirty years after it was discovered there.[135][136] Over 35 billion cubic feet of gas was produced from this field in 2013,[48]^{:page 72} with proven, probable, and possible reserves totalling 1.1 trillion cubic feet.[136] The gas is transported by pipeline to Dar es Salaam.[135] As of 27 August 2014, TANESCO owed the operator of this field, Orca Exploration Group Inc.[137]

A newer natural gas field in Mnazi Bay in 2013 produced about one-seventh of the amount produced near Songo Songo Island[48]^{:page 73} but has proven, probable, and possible reserves of 2.2 trillion cubic feet.[136] Virtually all of that gas is being used for electricity generation in Mtwara.[135]

The Ruvuma and Nyuna regions of Tanzania have been explored mostly by the discovery company that holds a 75 percent interest, Aminex, and has shown to hold in excess of 3.5 trillion cubic feet of natural gas. A pipeline connecting offshore natural gas fields to Tanzania's commercial capital Dar es Salaam was completed at the end of April 2015.[138]

The snowcapped Uhuru Peak

Travel and tourism contributed 17.5 percent of Tanzania's gross domestic product in 2016[139] and employed 11.0 percent of the country's labour force (1,189,300 jobs) in 2013.[140] Overall receipts rose from US$1.74 billion in 2004 to US$4.48 billion in 2013,[140] and receipts from international tourists rose from US$1.255 billion in 2010 to US$2 billion in 2016.[139][141] In 2016, 1,284,279 tourists arrived at Tanzania's borders compared to 590,000 in 2005.[115] The vast majority of tourists visit Zanzibar or a "northern circuit" of Serengeti National Park, the Ngorongoro Conservation Area, Tarangire National Park, Lake Manyara National Park, and Mount Kilimanjaro.[61]^{:page 1252} In 2013, the most visited national park was Serengeti (452,485 tourists), followed by Manyara (187,773) and Tarangire (165,949).[48]^{:page xx}

The Bank of Tanzania is the central bank of Tanzania and is primarily responsible for maintaining price stability, with a subsidiary responsibility for issuing Tanzanian shilling notes and coins.[142] At the end of 2013, the total assets of the Tanzanian banking industry were 19.5 trillion Tanzanian shillings, a 15 percent increase over 2012.[143]

One of the main trunk roads

Most transport in Tanzania is by road, with road transport constituting over 75 percent of the country's freight traffic and 80 percent of its passenger traffic.[61]^{:page 1252} The 86,500 kilometres (53,700 mi) road system is in generally poor condition.[61]^{:page 1252} Tanzania has two railway companies: TAZARA, which provides service between Dar es Salaam and Kapiri Mposhi (in a copper-mining district in Zambia), and Tanzania Railways Limited, which connects Dar es Salaam with central and northern Tanzania.[61]^{:page 1252} Rail travel in Tanzania often entails slow journeys with frequent cancellations or delays, and the railways have a deficient safety record.[61]^{:page 1252}

In Dar es Salaam, there is a huge project of rapid buses, Dar Rapid Transit (DART) which connects suburbs of Dar es Salaam city. The development of the DART system consists of six phases and is funded by the African Development Bank, the World Bank and the Government of Tanzania. The first phase began in April 2012, and it was completed in December 2015 and launched operations in May 2016.[144]

Tanzania has four international airports, along with over 100 small airports or landing strips. Airport infrastructure tends to be in poor condition.[61]^{:page 1253} Airlines in Tanzania include Air Tanzania, Precision Air, Fastjet, Coastal Aviation, and ZanAir.[61]^{:page 1253}

In 2013, the communications sector was the fastest growing in Tanzania, expanding 22.8 percent; however, the sector accounted for only 2.4 percent of gross domestic product that year.[128]^{:page 2}

As of 2011, Tanzania had 56 mobile telephone subscribers per 100 inhabitants, a rate slightly above the sub-Saharan average.[61]^{:page 1253} Very few Tanzanians have fixed-line telephones.[61]^{:page 1253} Approximately 12 percent of Tanzanians used the internet as of 2011, though this number is growing rapidly.[61]^{:page 1253} The country has a fibre-optic cable network that replaced unreliable satellite service, but internet bandwidth remains very low.[61]^{:page 1253}

Domestic expenditure on research in Southern Africa as a percentage of GDP, 2012 or closest year. Source: UNESCO Science Report: towards 2030 (2015), Figure 20.3

Water supply and sanitation in Tanzania has been characterised by decreasing access to improved water sources in the 2000s (especially in urban areas), steady access to some form of sanitation (around 93 percent since the 1990s), intermittent water supplies, and generally low quality of service.[145] Many utilities are barely able to cover their operation and maintenance costs through revenues because of low tariffs and poor efficiency. There are significant regional differences, with the best performing utilities being Arusha, Moshi, and Tanga.[146]

The government of Tanzania has embarked on a major sector reform process since 2002. An ambitious National Water Sector Development Strategy that promotes integrated water resources management and the development of urban and rural water supply was adopted in 2006. Decentralisation has meant that responsibility for water and sanitation service provision has shifted to local government authorities and is carried out by 20 urban utilities and about 100 district utilities, as well as by Community Owned Water Supply Organisations in rural areas.[145]

These reforms have been backed by a significant increase of the budget starting in 2006, when the water sector was included among the priority sectors of the National Strategy for Growth and Reduction of Poverty . The Tanzanian water sector remains heavily dependent on external donors, with 88 percent of the available funds being provided by external donor organisations.[147] Results have been mixed. For example, a report by Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit noted that "despite heavy investments brought in by the World Bank and the European Union, (the utility serving Dar es Salaam) has remained one of the worst performing water entities in Tanzania."[148]

USAID programmes focussing on nutrition operate within the Morogoro, Dodoma, Iringa, Mbeya, Manyara, Songwe and Zanzibar regions of Tanzania. These "Feed the Future" programmes heavily invest in nutrition, infrastructure, policy, capacity of institutions and agriculture which is identified by the organisation as a key area of economic growth in the country.[149] A Tanzanian government led initiative "Kilimo Kwanza" or "Agriculture First" aims to encourage investment into agriculture within the private sector and hopes to improve agricultural processes and development within the country by seeking the knowledge of young people and the innovation that they can potentially provide.[156] During the 1990s, around 25% of Tanzania's population were provided access to iodized oil aimed to target iodine deficiency within expecting mothers, as result of studies showing the negative effects of in-utero iodine deficiency on cognitive development in children. Research showed that children of mothers with access to the supplement achieved on average greater than a third of a year more education than those who did not.[156]

Example of a World Food Programme parcel

Programmes led by the World Food Programme operate within Tanzania. The Supplementary Feeding Programme (SFP) aims to target acute malnutrition by supplying blended food fortified with vitamins to pregnant women and mothers to children under 5 on a monthly basis.[157] Pregnant women and mothers to children under 2 have access to the Mother and Child Health and Nutrition Programme's "Super Cereal" which is supplied with the intent of reducing stunting in children.[157] World Food Programme supplementation remains the main food source for Tanzania's refugees. Super Cereal, Vegetable Oil, Pulses and Salt are supplied as part of the Protracted Relief and Recovery Operation in order to meet the average persons minimum daily caloric requirement of 2,100 kcal.[157] UNICEF state that continued investment in nutrition within Tanzania is of the utmost importance: Estimates predict that Tanzania stands to lose $20 billion by 2025 if nutrition within the country remains at its current level, however improvements in nutrition could produce a gain of around $4.7 billion[150]

Save the Children, with the help of UNICEF and Irish Aid funding created the Partnership for Nutrition in Tanzania (PANITA), in 2011. PANITA aims to utilise civil society organisations to target nutrition within the country. Alongside this, various sectors associated with nutrition are targeted such as agriculture, water, sanitation, education, economic development and social progress. PANITA is responsible for ensuring significant attention is given to nutrition in development plans and budgets created on national and regional levels within Tanzania. Since its conception, PANITA has grown from 94 to 306 participating civil society organisations nationwide.[158] Agriculture within Tanzania is targeted by the Irish Aid led initiative Harnessing Agriculture for Nutrition Outcomes (HANO), which aims to merge nutrition initiatives with agriculture in the Lindi District of the country. The project aims to reduce stunting by 10% in children aged 0 to 23 months.[158]

Azania Front Lutheran Church, built by German missionaries in 1898

Gaddafi Mosque in the capital Dodoma is the second-largest mosque in East Africa.

Official statistics on religion are unavailable because religious surveys were eliminated from government census reports after 1967.[175] Tanzania's religious field is dominated by Christianity and Islam as well as of different African Traditional Religions connected to ethnic customs. The word for religion in Swahili, dini, generally apply to the world religions of Christianity and Islam meaning that followers of African Traditional Religions are consider to be of "no religion". Religious belonging is often ambiguous, with some people adhering to multiple religious identities at the same time (for instance being Christian but also following African Traditional rituals) something which point to that religious boundaries are flexible and contextual.[176]

According to a 2014 estimate by the CIA World Factbook, 61.4 percent of the population was Christian, 35.2 percent was Muslim, 1.8 percent practised traditional African religions, 1.4 percent were unaffiliated with any religion, and 0.2 followed other religions. Nearly the entire population of Zanzibar is Muslim.[17] Of Muslims, 16 percent are Ahmadiyya (although they are often not considered Muslims), 20 percent are non-denominational Muslims, 40 percent are Sunni, 20 percent are Shia, and 4% are Sufi.[177]

Within the Christian community the Roman Catholic Church is the largest denomination (51 percent of all Christians).[178] Among the Protestants, the large number of Lutherans and Moravians points to the German colonial and missionary past of the country, while the number of Anglicans point to the British colonial and missionary history of Tanganyika. A growing Pentecostals and Adventists are also present large because of external missionary activities from the Nordic region and the US in the first part of the 20th century.[179] All of them have had some influence in varying degrees from the Walokole movement (East African Revival), which has also been fertile ground for the spread of charismatic and Pentecostal groups.[180]

There are also active communities of other religious groups, primarily on the mainland, such as Buddhists, Hindus, and Bahá'ís.[181]

A carved door with Arabic calligraphy in Zanzibar

More than 100 languages are spoken in Tanzania, making it the most linguistically diverse country in East Africa.[24] Among the languages spoken are all four of Africa's language families: Bantu, Cushitic, Nilotic, and Khoisan.[24] There are no de jure official languages in Tanzania.[26]

Swahili is used in parliamentary debate, in the lower courts, and as a medium of instruction in primary school. English is used in foreign trade, in diplomacy, in higher courts, and as a medium of instruction in secondary and higher education,[24] The Tanzanian government, however, has plans to discontinue English as a language of instruction.[27] In connection with his Ujamaa social policies, President Nyerere encouraged the use of Swahili to help unify the country's many ethnic groups.[182] Approximately 10 percent of Tanzanians speak Swahili as a first language, and up to 90 percent speak it as a second language.[24] Many educated Tanzanians are trilingual, also speaking English.[183][184][185] The widespread use and promotion of Swahili is contributing to the decline of smaller languages in the country.[24][186] Young children increasingly speak Swahili as a first language, particularly in urban areas.[187] Ethnic community languages (ECL) other than Kiswahili are not allowed as a language of instruction. Nor are they taught as a subject, though they might be used unofficially in some cases in initial education. Television and radio programmes in an ECL are prohibited, and it is nearly impossible to get permission to publish a newspaper in an ECL. There is no department of local or regional African Languages and Literatures at the University of Dar es Salaam.[188]

Arabic is co-official in Zanzibar.

The Sandawe people speak a language that may be related to the Khoe languages of Botswana and Namibia, while the language of the Hadzabe people, although it has similar click consonants, is arguably a language isolate.[189] The language of the Iraqw people is Cushitic.[190]

Nkrumah Hall at the University of Dar es Salaam

In 2012, the literacy rate in Tanzania for persons aged 15 and over was estimated to be 67.8 percent.[191] Education is compulsory until children reach age 15.[192] In 2010, 74.1 percent of children age 5 to 14 years were attending school.[192] The primary school completion rate was 80.8 percent in 2012.[192]

As of 2012, life expectancy at birth was 61 years.[193] The under-five mortality rate in 2012 was 54 per 1,000 live births.[193] The maternal mortality rate in 2013 was estimated at 410 per 100,000 live births.[193] Prematurity and malaria were tied in 2010 as the leading cause of death in children under 5 years old.[194] The other leading causes of death for these children were, in decreasing order, malaria, diarrhoea, HIV, and measles.[194]

Malaria in Tanzania causes death and disease and has a "huge economic impact".[195]^{:page 13} There were approximately 11.5 million cases of clinical malaria in 2008.[195]^{:page 12} In 2007–08, malaria prevalence among children aged 6 months to 5 years was highest in the Kagera Region (41.1 percent) on the western shore of Lake Victoria and lowest in the Arusha Region (0.1 percent).[195]^{:page 12}

According to the 2010 Tanzania Demographic and Health Survey 2010, 15 percent of Tanzanian women had undergone female genital mutilation (FGM)[174]^{:page 295} and 72 percent of Tanzanian men had been circumcised.[174]^{:page 230} FGM is most common in the Manyara, Dodoma, Arusha, and Singida regions and nonexistent in Zanzibar.[174]^{:page 296} The prevalence of male circumcision was above 90 percent in the eastern ([ref>"Albino teen attacked for her body parts – CNN Video".[Dar es Salaam Region|Dar es Salaam]], Pwani, and Morogoro regions), northern (Kilimanjaro, Tanga, Arusha, and Manyara regions), and central areas (Dodoma and Singida regions) and below 50 percent only in the southern highlands zone (Mbeya, Iringa, and Rukwa regions).[174]^{:pages 6, 230}

2012 data showed that 53 percent of the population used improved drinking water sources (defined as a source that "by nature of its construction and design, is likely to protect the source from outside contamination, in particular from faecal matter") and 12 percent used improved sanitation facilities (defined as facilities that "likely hygienically separates human excreta from human contact" but not including facilities shared with other households or open to public use).[196]

Women and men have equality before the law.[197] The government signed the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women (CEDAW) in 1985.[197] Nearly 3 out of ten females reported having experienced sexual violence before the age of 18. [197] The prevalence of female genital mutilation has decreased.[197] School girls are reinstated back to school after delivery.[197] The Police Force administration strives to separate the Gender Desks from normal police operations to enhance confidentiality of the processing of women victims of abuse.[197] Most of the abuses and violence against women and children occurs at the family level.[197] The Constitution of Tanzania requires that women to constitute at least 30% of all elected members of National Assembly.[197] The gender differences in education and training have implications later in life of these women and girls.[197] Unemployment is higher for females than for males.[197] The right of a female employee to maternity leave is guaranteed in labour law.[197]

Tanzania's literary culture is primarily oral.[165]^{:page 68} Major oral literary forms include folktales, poems, riddles, proverbs, and songs.[165]^{:page 69} The greatest part of Tanzania's recorded oral literature is in Swahili, even though each of the country's languages has its own oral tradition.[165]^{:pages 68–9} The country's oral literature has been declining because of the breakdown of the multigenerational social structure, making transmission of oral literature more difficult, and because increasing modernisation has been accompanied by the devaluation of oral literature.[165]^{:page 69}

Books in Tanzania are often expensive and hard to come by.[165]^{:page 75}[198]^{:page 16} Most Tanzanian literature is in Swahili or English.[165]^{:page 75} Major figures in Tanzanian written literature include Shaaban Robert (considered the father of Swahili literature), Muhammed Saley Farsy, Faraji Katalambulla, Adam Shafi Adam, Muhammed Said Abdalla, Said Ahmed Mohammed Khamis, Mohamed Suleiman Mohamed, Euphrase Kezilahabi, Gabriel Ruhumbika, Ebrahim Hussein, May Materru Balisidya, Fadhy Mtanga, Abdulrazak Gurnah, and Penina O. Mlama.[165]^{:pages 76–8}

A Tingatinga painting

Two Tanzanian art styles have achieved international recognition.[198]^{:p. 17} The Tingatinga school of painting, founded by Edward Said Tingatinga, consists of brightly coloured enamel paintings on canvas, generally depicting people, animals, or daily life.[165]^{:p. 113}[198]^{:p. 17} After Tingatinga's death in 1972, other artists adopted and developed his style, with the genre now being the most important tourist-oriented style in East Africa.[165]^{:p. 113}[198]^{:p. 17}

Historically, there were limited opportunities for formal European art training in Tanzania and many aspiring Tanzanian artists left the country to pursue their vocation.[198]^{:p. 17}

Football is very popular throughout the country.[199] The most popular professional football clubs in Dar es Salaam are the Young Africans F.C. and Simba S.C.[200] The Tanzania Football Federation is the governing body for football in the country.

Other popular sports include basketball, netball, boxing, volleyball, athletics, and rugby.[199][201] The National Sports Council also known as Baraza la Michezo la Taifa is the governing body for sports in the country under the Ministry of Information, Youth, Sports and Culture[202]

Tanzania has a popular film industry known as "Bongo Movie". The music industry is known as "Bongo Flava" which is in itself also a niche genre of music in Tanzania.