Near-close near-back rounded vowel

The near-close back rounded vowel, or near-high back rounded vowel,[1] is a type of vowel sound, used in some vocal languages. The IPA symbol that represents this sound is ⟨ʊ⟩. It is informally called "horseshoe u". Prior to 1989, there was an alternate IPA symbol for this sound, ⟨ɷ⟩, called "closed omega"; use of this symbol is no longer sanctioned by the IPA.[2] In Americanist phonetic notation, the symbol ⟨ᴜ⟩ (a small capital U) is used. Sometimes, especially in broad transcription, this vowel is transcribed with a simpler symbol ⟨u⟩, which technically represents the close back rounded vowel.

Near-close back rounded vowel
ʊ
IPA Number321
Encoding
Entity (decimal)ʊ
Unicode (hex)U+028A
X-SAMPAU
Braille
Audio sample
source · help

Handbook of the International Phonetic Association defines [ʊ] as a mid-centralized (lowered and centralized) close back rounded vowel (transcribed [u̽] or [ü̞]), and the current official IPA name of the vowel transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ is near-close near-back rounded vowel.[3] However, some languages have the close-mid near-back rounded vowel, a vowel that is somewhat lower than the canonical value of [ʊ], though it still fits the definition of a mid-centralized [u]. It occurs in some dialects of English (such as General American and Geordie)[4][5] as well as some other languages (such as Maastrichtian Limburgish).[6] It can be transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ̞⟩ (a lowered ⟨ʊ⟩) in narrow transcription. For the close-mid (near-)back rounded vowel that is not usually transcribed with the symbol ⟨ʊ⟩ (or ⟨u⟩), see close-mid back rounded vowel.

In some other languages (such as Bengali and Luxembourgish)[7][8] as well as some dialects of English (such as Scottish)[9][10] there is a fully back near-close rounded vowel (a sound between cardinal [u] and [o]), which can be transcribed in IPA with ⟨ʊ̠⟩, ⟨u̞⟩ or ⟨o̝⟩.

A few languages also have the near-close back unrounded vowel (which does not have a separate IPA symbol) in their inventory.

Near-close back protruded vowel

The near-close back protruded vowel is typically transcribed in IPA simply as ⟨ʊ⟩, and that is the convention used in this article. As there is no dedicated diacritic for protrusion in the IPA, symbol for the near-close back rounded vowel with an old diacritic for labialization, ⟨  ̫⟩, can be used as an ad hoc symbol ⟨ʊ̫⟩ for the near-close back protruded vowel. Another possible transcription is ⟨ʊʷ⟩ or ⟨ɯ̽ʷ⟩ (a near-close back vowel modified by endolabialization), but this could be misread as a diphthong.

The close-mid near-back protruded vowel can be transcribed ⟨ʊ̞ʷ⟩ or ⟨ʊ̫˕⟩, whereas the fully back near-close protruded vowel can be transcribed ⟨u̞ʷ⟩, ⟨ɯ̞ʷ⟩ or ⟨u̫˕⟩.

Features
  • Its vowel height is near-close, also known as near-high, which means the tongue is not quite so constricted as a close vowel (high vowel).
  • Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • Its roundedness is protruded, which means that the corners of the lips are drawn together, and the inner surfaces exposed.

Occurrence

Because back rounded vowels are assumed to have protrusion, and few descriptions cover the distinction, some of the following may actually have compression.

LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
AfrikaansStandard[11]Botha[ˈbʊ̞ˑta]'Botha'Close-mid. Allophone of /ʊə/ in less stressed words, in stressed syllables of polysyllabic words and word-finally when unstressed. In the second case, it is in free variation with the diphthongal realization [ʊə̯ ~ ʊ̯ə ~ ʊə].[11] See Afrikaans phonology
ArabicHejaziقُلْت‎[gʊlt]'I said'Allophone of /u/ in medial and initial positions. See Hejazi phonology
Assamese[12]পুঁত[pʊ̞t]'to bury'Close-mid;[12] also described as open [ɒ].[13]
Bengali[7]তুমি[ˈt̪u̞ˌmiː]'you'Fully back;[7] typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨u⟩. See Bengali phonology
Burmese[14][mʊʔ]'smooth'Allophone of /u/ in syllables closed by a glottal stop and when nasalized.[14]
ChineseMandarin[15]红 / hóng[xʊŋ˧˥]'red'Fully back; height varies between mid and close depending on the speaker. See Standard Chinese phonology
Shanghainese[16]瓜[kʊ¹]'melon'The height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back compressed vowel.[16]
DanishStandard[17]mave[ˈmɛːʊ]'stomach'Phonetic realization of the sequence /və/.[17] See Danish phonology
DutchStandard Northern[18]oren[ˈʊːrə(n)]'ears'Allophone of /oː/ before /r/. Can be a centering diphthong [ʊə] instead, especially before coda /r/. See Dutch phonology
Randstad[18]
Some speakers[19]hok[ɦʊk]'den'Contrasts with /ɔ/ in certain words, but many speakers have only one vowel /ɔ/.[19] See Dutch phonology
EnglishAustralian[20][21]hook[hʊk]'hook'Also described as close back [u].[22] See Australian English phonology
Irish[23]
Welsh[24][25]In Cardiff, it is advanced and lowered to [ɵ], often also with unrounding to [ɘ].[26]
Cockney[27][ʊʔk]Sometimes fronted to [ʊ̈].[27]
Conservative Received Pronunciation[21][hʊʔk]Often lowered and advanced to [ɵ], or unrounded to [ɘ]. See English phonology
Multicultural London[28]May be front [ʏ] instead.[28]
New Zealand[29]The height varies between near-close and close-mid; it is unrounded and advanced to [ɪ̈ ~ ɘ] in some lexical items.[30] See New Zealand English phonology
Norfolk[31]
Some Estuary speakers[32]Often advanced to [ʊ̈ ~ ʏ], or advanced and lowered to [ɵ ~ ʏ̞].[32]
General American[4][hʊ̞k]Close-mid.[4][5][33]
Geordie[5]
Southern Michigan[33]
Northern England[21][34][ʊk]
Scottish[9][10]go[ɡo̝ː]'go'Fully back.[9][10]
FrenchQuebec[35]foule[fʊl]'crowd'Allophone of /u/ in closed syllables.[35] See Quebec French phonology
GermanStandard[36][37]Stunde[ˈʃtʊndə]'hour'The quality has been variously described as near-close back [ʊ̠][36] and close-mid near-back [ʊ̞].[38] For some speakers, it may be as high as [u].[39] See Standard German phonology
Hindustani[40]गुलाब/گلاب‎[gʊˈläːb]'rose'See Hindustani phonology
Hungarian[41]ujj[ʊjː]'finger'Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨u⟩. See Hungarian phonology
IrishMunster[42]dubh[d̪ˠʊvˠ]'black'Allophone of /ʊ/ between broad consonants.[42] See Irish phonology
ItalianCentral-Southern accents[43]ombra[ˈo̝mbrä]'shade'Fully back; local realization of /o/.[43] See Italian phonology
Kurdish[44][45][46][45] Kurmanji (Northern) gul [gʊl] 'flower' See Kurdish phonology
Sorani (Central) گول
Palewani (Southern)
LatinClassicalpuella[pʊɛlla]'girl'
LimburgishSome dialects[6][46]póp[pʊ̞p]'doll'Close-mid in the Maastrichtian dialect.[6] The example word is from that dialect.
Luxembourgish[8]Sprooch[ʃpʀo̝ːχ]'language'Fully back.[8] Typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨oː⟩. See Luxembourgish phonology
PashayiLower Darai Nur dialect[47]صُر[sʊ̞r]'sun'Close-mid.[47]
PortugueseBrazilian[48]pulo[ˈpulʊ]'leap'Reduction and neutralization of unstressed /u, o, ɔ/; can be voiceless. See Portuguese phonology
Russian[49]сухой[s̪ʊˈxʷo̞j]'dry'Unstressed allophone of /u/.[49] See Russian phonology
Saterland Frisian[50]Roop[ʀo̝ːp]'rope'Phonetic realization of /oː/ and /ʊ/. Near-close back [o̝ː] in the former case, close-mid near-back [ʊ̞] in the latter. Phonetically, the latter is nearly identical to /ɔː/ ([o̟ː]).[50]
ScotsGlenoe dialect[51]go[ɡo̝ː]'go'Fully back.[51]
Rathlin dialect[51]
Sinhalese[52][ɦʊ̜ŋɡak]'much'Only weakly rounded;[53] typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨u⟩.
Slovak[54][55]ruka[ˈru̞kä]'arm'Typically fully back.[54] See Slovak phonology
Sotho[56]potso[pʼʊ̠t͡sʼɔ]'query'Fully back; contrasts close, near-close and close-mid back rounded vowels.[56] See Sotho phonology
SpanishEastern Andalusian[57]tus[t̪ʊ̠ː]'your' (pl.)Fully back. Corresponds to [u] in other dialects, but in these dialects they are distinct. See Spanish phonology
Murcian[57]
Turkish[58]buzlu[buz̪ˈl̠ʊ]'icy'Allophone of /u/ described variously as "word-final"[58] and "occurring in final open syllable of a phrase".[59] See Turkish phonology
Ukrainian[60]Мусій[mʊˈsij]'Musiy' (name)See Ukrainian phonology
Yoruba[61]Near-back or back; typically transcribed in IPA with ⟨ũ⟩. It is nasalized, and may be close [ũ̟ ~ ũ] instead.[61]


Near-close back compressed vowel
Near-close back compressed vowel
ʊ͍
ɯ̞ᵝ

Some languages, such as Norwegian, are found with a near-close back vowel that has a distinct type of rounding, called compressed or exolabial.

There is no dedicated diacritic for compression in the IPA. However, the compression of the lips can be shown with the letter ⟨β̞⟩ as ⟨ɯ̽͡β̞⟩ (simultaneous [ɯ̽] and labial compression) or ⟨ɯ̽ᵝ⟩ ([ɯ̽] modified with labial compression). The spread-lip diacritic ⟨  ͍ ⟩ may also be used with a rounded vowel letter ⟨ʊ͍⟩ as an ad hoc symbol, though technically 'spread' means unrounded.

Only the Shanghainese dialect is known to contrast this with the more typical protruded (endolabial) near-close back vowel, although the height of both of these vowels varies from close to close-mid.[16]

The fully back variant of the near-close compressed vowel can be transcribed ⟨ɯ̞͡β̞⟩, ⟨ɯ̞ᵝ⟩ or ⟨u͍˕⟩.

Features
  • Its vowel height is near-close, also known as near-high, which means the tongue is not quite so constricted as a close vowel (high vowel).
  • Its vowel backness is back, which means the tongue is positioned back in the mouth without creating a constriction that would be classified as a consonant.
  • Its roundedness is compressed, which means that the margins of the lips are tense and drawn together in such a way that the inner surfaces are not exposed.

Occurrence
LanguageWordIPAMeaningNotes
ChineseShanghainese[16]都[tɯ̽ᵝ¹]'capital'The height varies between close and close-mid; contrasts with a close to close-mid back protruded vowel.[16]
Norwegian[62][63]ond[ɯ̞ᵝnː]'evil'The example word is from Urban East Norwegian, in which the vowel has been variously described as near-close back [ɯ̞ᵝ][62] and close back [ɯᵝ].[64] See Norwegian phonology
SwedishCentral Standard[65][66]ort[ɯ̽ᵝʈː]'locality'The quality has been variously described as near-close near-back [ɯ̽ᵝ],[65] near-close back [ɯ̞ᵝ][66] and close back [ɯᵝ].[67] See Swedish phonology

Notes
  1. While the International Phonetic Association prefers the terms "close" and "open" for vowel height, many linguists use "high" and "low".
  2. International Phonetic Association (1999), p. 169.
  3. International Phonetic Association (1999), pp. 13, 170, 180.
  4. Wells (1982), p. 486.
  5. Watt & Allen (2003), p. 268.
  6. Gussenhoven & Aarts (1999), pp. 158–159.
  7. Khan (2010), p. 222.
  8. Gilles & Trouvain (2013), p. 70.
  9. Scobbie, Gordeeva & Matthews (2006), p. 7.
  10. Lindsey (2012b).
  11. Lass (1987), p. 119.
  12. Mahanta (2012), p. 220.
  13. Ladefoged & Maddieson (1996), pp. 293–294.
  14. Watkins (2001), p. 293.
  15. Lee & Zee (2003), p. 111.
  16. Chen & Gussenhoven (2015), pp. 328–329.
  17. Basbøll (2005), p. 58.
  18. Collins & Mees (2003), pp. 134, 200–201.
  19. van Oostendorp (2013), section 29.
  20. Mannell, Cox & Harrington (2009).
  21. Lindsey (2012a).
  22. Cox & Palethorpe (2007), p. 344.
  23. Wells (1982), pp. 421–422.
  24. Connolly (1990), p. 125.
  25. Tench (1990), p. 135.
  26. Collins & Mees (1990), pp. 92–93.
  27. Mott (2011), p. 75.
  28. Gimson (2014), p. 91.
  29. Bauer et al. (2007), p. 98.
  30. Bauer et al. (2007), pp. 98, 100–101.
  31. Lodge (2009), p. 168.
  32. Altendorf & Watt (2004), p. 188.
  33. Hillenbrand (2003), p. 122.
  34. Lodge (2009), p. 163.
  35. Walker (1984), pp. 51–60.
  36. Kohler (1999), p. 87.
  37. Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), pp. 34, 64.
  38. Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 34.
  39. Dudenredaktion, Kleiner & Knöbl (2015), p. 64.
  40. Ohala (1999), p. 102.
  41. Szende (1994), p. 92.
  42. Ó Sé (2000), p. ?.
  43. Bertinetto & Loporcaro (2005), p. 137.
  44. Thackston (2006a), p. 1.
  45. Khan & Lescot (1970), pp. 8-16.
  46. Heijmans & Gussenhoven (1998), p. 110.
  47. Lamuwal & Baker (2013), p. 245.
  48. Barbosa & Albano (2004), p. 229.
  49. Jones & Ward (1969), p. 69.
  50. Peters (2017), p. ?.
  51. Gregg (1953).
  52. Perera & Jones (1919), pp. 5, 10.
  53. Perera & Jones (1919), p. 10.
  54. Pavlík (2004), pp. 93, 95.
  55. Hanulíková & Hamann (2010), p. 375.
  56. Doke & Mofokeng (1974), p. ?.
  57. Zamora Vicente (1967), p. ?.
  58. Göksel & Kerslake (2005), p. 10.
  59. Zimmer & Organ (1999), p. 155.
  60. Danyenko & Vakulenko (1995), p. 4.
  61. Bamgboṣe (1969), p. 166.
  62. Vanvik (1979), pp. 13, 18.
  63. While Vanvik (1979) does not describe the exact type of rounding of this vowel, some other sources (e.g. Haugen (1974:40) and Kristoffersen (2000:16)) state explicitly that it is compressed.
  64. Kvifte & Gude-Husken (2005), p. 2.
  65. Rosenqvist (2007), p. 9.
  66. Engstrand (1999), p. 140.
  67. Dahlstedt (1967), p. 16.

References
  • Altendorf, Ulrike; Watt, Dominik (2004), "The dialects in the South of England: phonology", in Schneider, Edgar W.; Burridge, Kate; Kortmann, Bernd; Mesthrie, Rajend; Upton, Clive (eds.), A handbook of varieties of English, 1: Phonology, Mouton de Gruyter, pp. 181–196, ISBN 3-11-017532-0
  • Bamgboṣe, Ayọ (1966), A Grammar of Yoruba, [West African Languages Survey / Institute of African Studies], Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
  • Barbosa, Plínio A.; Albano, Eleonora C. (2004), "Brazilian Portuguese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 34 (2): 227–232, doi:10.1017/S0025100304001756
  • Basbøll, Hans (2005), The Phonology of Danish, ISBN 0-203-97876-5
  • Bauer, Laurie; Warren, Paul; Bardsley, Dianne; Kennedy, Marianna; Major, George (2007), "New Zealand English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (1): 97–102, doi:10.1017/S0025100306002830
  • Bertinetto, Marco; Loporcaro, Michele (2005), "The sound pattern of Standard Italian, as compared with the varieties spoken in Florence, Milan and Rome" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 35 (2): 131–151, doi:10.1017/S0025100305002148
  • Chen, Yiya; Gussenhoven, Carlos (2015), "Shanghai Chinese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 45 (3): 321–327, doi:10.1017/S0025100315000043
  • Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (1990), "The Phonetics of Cardiff English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 87–103, ISBN 1-85359-032-0
  • Collins, Beverley; Mees, Inger M. (2003) [First published 1981], The Phonetics of English and Dutch (PDF) (5th ed.), Leiden: Brill Publishers, ISBN 9004103406, archived from the original (PDF) on 2016-12-28, retrieved 2018-08-22
  • Connolly, John H. (1990), "Port Talbot English", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 121–129, ISBN 1-85359-032-0
  • Cox, Felicity; Palethorpe, Sallyanne (2007), "Australian English" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 37 (3): 341–350, doi:10.1017/S0025100307003192
  • Dahlstedt, Karl-Hampus (1967), Svårigheter i svenskans uttal, Modersmålslärarnas förening
  • Danyenko, Andrii; Vakulenko, Serhii (1995), Ukrainian, Lincom Europa, ISBN 9783929075083
  • Doke, Clement Martyn; Mofokeng, S. Machabe (1974), Textbook of Southern Sotho Grammar (3rd ed.), Cape Town: Longman Southern Africa, ISBN 0-582-61700-6
  • Dudenredaktion; Kleiner, Stefan; Knöbl, Ralf (2015) [First published 1962], Das Aussprachewörterbuch (in German) (7th ed.), Berlin: Dudenverlag, ISBN 978-3-411-04067-4
  • Engstrand, Olle (1999), "Swedish", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 140–142, ISBN 0-521-63751-1
  • Gilles, Peter; Trouvain, Jürgen (2013), "Luxembourgish" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (1): 67–74, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000278
  • Gimson, Alfred Charles (2014), Cruttenden, Alan (ed.), Gimson's Pronunciation of English (8th ed.), Routledge, ISBN 9781444183092
  • Gregg, Robert J. (1953). Smyth, Anne; Montgomery, Michael; Robinson, Philip (eds.). Phonology of an East Antrim Dialect. The Academic Study of Ulster Scots (Thesis).CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Göksel, Asli; Kerslake, Celia (2005), Turkish: a comprehensive grammar (PDF), Routledge, ISBN 978-0415114943, archived from the original (PDF) on 26 November 2014
  • Gussenhoven, Carlos; Aarts, Flor (1999), "The dialect of Maastricht" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 29 (2): 155–166, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006526
  • Hanulíková, Adriana; Hamann, Silke (2010), "Slovak" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (3): 373–378, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000162
  • Haugen, Einar (1974) [1965], Norwegian-English Dictionary, The University of Wisconsin Press, ISBN 0-299-03874-2
  • Heijmans, Linda; Gussenhoven, Carlos (1998), "The Dutch dialect of Weert" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 28 (1–2): 107–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100300006307
  • Hillenbrand, James M. (2003), "American English: Southern Michigan", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 121–126, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001221
  • International Phonetic Association (1999), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
  • Jones, Daniel; Ward, Dennis (1969), The Phonetics of Russian, Cambridge University Press
  • Khan, Sameer ud Dowla (2010), "Bengali (Bangladeshi Standard)" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 40 (2): 221–225, doi:10.1017/S0025100310000071
  • Kohler, Klaus J. (1999), "German", Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 86–89, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
  • Kristoffersen, Gjert (2000), The Phonology of Norwegian, Oxford University Press, ISBN 978-0-19-823765-5
  • Kvifte, Bjørn; Gude-Husken, Verena (2005) [First published 1997], Praktische Grammatik der norwegischen Sprache (3rd ed.), Gottfried Egert Verlag, ISBN 3-926972-54-8
  • Ladefoged, Peter; Maddieson, Ian (1996), The Sounds of the World's Languages, Oxford: Blackwell, ISBN 978-0-631-19815-4
  • Lamuwal, Abd-El-Malek; Baker, Adam (2013), "Southeastern Pashayi", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 43 (2): 243–246, doi:10.1017/S0025100313000133
  • Lass, Roger (1987), "Intradiphthongal Dependencies", in Anderson, John; Durand, Jacques (eds.), Explorations in Dependency Phonology, Dordrecht: Foris Publications Holland, pp. 109–131, ISBN 9067652970
  • Lee, Wai-Sum; Zee, Eric (2003), "Standard Chinese (Beijing)", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (1): 109–112, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001208
  • Lindsey, Geoff (2012a). "The British English vowel system". English Speech Services.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Lindsey, Geoff (2012b). "Morgen – a suitable case for treatment". English Speech Services.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  • Lodge, Ken (2009), A Critical Introduction to Phonetics, Continuum International Publishing Group, ISBN 978-0-8264-8873-2
  • Mahanta, Shakuntala (2012), "Assamese", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 42 (2): 217–224, doi:10.1017/S0025100312000096
  • Mannell, R.; Cox, F.; Harrington, J. (2009), An Introduction to Phonetics and Phonology, Macquarie University
  • Mott, Brian (2011), "Traditional Cockney and Popular London Speech" (PDF), Dialectologia, 9: 69–94, ISSN 2013-2247
  • Ó Sé, Diarmuid (2000), Gaeilge Chorca Dhuibhne (in Irish), Dublin: Institiúid Teangeolaíochta Éireann, ISBN 0-946452-97-0
  • Ohala, Manjari (1999), "Hindi", in International Phonetic Association (ed.), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association, Cambridge University Press, pp. 100–103, ISBN 978-0-521-63751-0
  • Pavlík, Radoslav (2004), "Slovenské hlásky a medzinárodná fonetická abeceda" (PDF), Jazykovedný časopis, 55: 87–109
  • Peters, Jörg (2017), "Saterland Frisian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 49 (2): 223–230, doi:10.1017/S0025100317000226
  • Perera, H.S.; Jones, D. (1919), A colloquial Sinhalese reader in phonetic transcription, Manchester: Longmans, Green & Co
  • Popperwell, Ronald G. (2010) [First published 1963], Pronunciation of Norwegian, Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-15742-1
  • Rosenqvist, Håkan (2007), Uttalsboken: svenskt uttal i praktik och teori, Stockholm: Natur & Kultur, ISBN 978-91-27-40645-2
  • Scobbie, James M.; Gordeeva, Olga B.; Matthews, Benjamin (2006), Acquisition of Scottish English Phonology: an overview, Edinburgh: QMU Speech Science Research Centre Working Papers
  • Strandskogen, Åse-Berit (1979), Norsk fonetikk for utlendinger, Oslo: Gyldendal, ISBN 82-05-10107-8
  • Szende, Tamás (1994), "Illustrations of the IPA: Hungarian", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 24 (2): 91–94, doi:10.1017/S0025100300005090
  • Tench, Paul (1990), "The Pronunciation of English in Abercrave", in Coupland, Nikolas; Thomas, Alan Richard (eds.), English in Wales: Diversity, Conflict, and Change, Multilingual Matters Ltd., pp. 130–141, ISBN 1-85359-032-0
  • van Oostendorp, Mark (2013), Klankencyclopedie van het Nederlands, Neder-L
  • Vanvik, Arne (1979), Norsk fonetikk, Oslo: Universitetet i Oslo, ISBN 82-990584-0-6
  • Walker, Douglas (1984), The Pronunciation of Canadian French (PDF), Ottawa: University of Ottawa Press, ISBN 0-7766-4500-5
  • Watkins, Justin W. (2001), "Illustrations of the IPA: Burmese" (PDF), Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 31 (2): 291–295, doi:10.1017/S0025100301002122
  • Watt, Dominic; Allen, William (2003), "Tyneside English", Journal of the International Phonetic Association, 33 (2): 267–271, doi:10.1017/S0025100303001397
  • Wells, John C. (1982), Accents of English, Volume 2: The British Isles (pp. i–xx, 279–466), Volume 3: Beyond the British Isles (pp. i–xx, 467–674), Cambridge University Press, ISBN 0-52128540-2, 0-52128541-0
  • Zamora Vicente, Alonso (1967), Dialectología española (2nd ed.), Biblioteca Romanica Hispanica, Editorial Gredos
  • Zimmer, Karl; Orgun, Orhan (1999), "Turkish" (PDF), Handbook of the International Phonetic Association: A guide to the use of the International Phonetic Alphabet, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, pp. 154–158, ISBN 0-521-65236-7
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.