Ming treasure voyages

The Yongle Emperor inherited a powerful navy from his predecessor, the Hongwu Emperor.[2][3] He further strengthened and expanded the Ming navy as an instrument for an expansive overseas policy.[2][3] The Taizong Shilu contains 24 short entries for the imperial orders for shipbuilding, with figures pointing to at least 2868 ships, from 1403 to 1419.[4] Over the course of 1403, Fujian, Jiangxi, Zhejiang, and Huguang's provincial governments as well as Nanjing, Suzhou, and other cities' military garrisons were ordered to begin construction of ships.[5]

Under the reign of the Yongle Emperor, Ming China underwent a militaristic expansionism with ventures such as the treasure voyages.[6][7] In 1403, the Yongle Emperor issued an imperial order to start the immense construction project of the treasure fleet.[8] Zheng He was ordered to initiate the construction of the fleet.[9] The treasure fleet was known by its original designation Xiafan Guanjun (下番官軍; lit. "foreign expeditionary armada") in Chinese sources.[10] It came to comprise many trading ships, warships, and support vessels.[8] The Longjiang shipyard was the construction site for many of the fleet's ships,[11][12] including all of the treasure ships.[11][13] It was located on the Qinhuai River near Nanjing, where it flows into the Yangtze River.[11][14] Many trees were cut along the Min River and upper reaches of the Yangtze to supply the necessary resources for the construction of the fleet.[5] The Yongle Emperor placed great trust in Zheng He and appointed him to command the treasure fleet.[5][15] The emperor even gave him blank scrolls with the imperial seal to issue imperial orders at sea.[15]

Modern wax statue of Admiral Zheng He (Quanzhou Maritime Museum)

In the third lunar month (30 March to 28 April) of 1405, a preliminary order was issued for Zheng He and others to take command of 27,000 troops to the Western Ocean.[16] An imperial edict, dated to 11 July 1405, was issued containing the order for the expedition.[17][18][19] It was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and others.[17]

The Yongle Emperor held a banquet for the crew on the evening before the fleet's maiden voyage.[20] Gifts were presented to the officers and the common crew according to their rank.[20] Sacrifices and prayers were offered to Tianfei, the patron goddess of sailors, hoping to ensure a successful journey and a safe passage during the voyage.[20] In the autumn of 1405, the treasure fleet had assembled at Nanjing and was ready to depart from the city.[21] According to the Taizong shilu 11 July 1405 entry about the dispatch of the fleet, Admiral Zheng He and "others" departed for the first expedition "bearing imperial letters to the countries of the Western Ocean and with gifts to their kings of gold brocade, patterned silks, and colored silk gauze, according to their status."[22] The treasure fleet made a stop at Liujiagang.[23][24] There, the fleet was organized in squadrons, while the fleet's crew honored Tianfei with prayers and sacrifices.[23] Afterwards, the fleet sailed down the Chinese coast,[24][25] towards the mouth of the Min River,[25] where they awaited the northeast monsoon at Taiping anchorage in the Changle district.[25] More prayers and sacrifices were conducted for Tianfei by the crew during the wait for the northeast monsoon.[25] Afterwards, the fleet departed via the Wuhumen (lit. "five tiger passage") in Fujian.[25][26]

The treasure fleet sailed to Champa,[24][25][27] Java,[24][27][28] Malacca,[24][27] Aru,[27][28] Semudera,[24][27][28] Lambri,[27][28] Ceylon,[24][27][28] Quilon,[24][27] and Calicut.[24][27][29] From Lambri, the treasure fleet sailed straight through the Indian Ocean rather than follow the Bay of Bengal coastline to Ceylon.[28] Three days after the departure from Lambri, a ship split off and went to the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.[28] The treasure fleet saw the mountains of Ceylon after another six days and arrived at Ceylon's western coast two days thereafter.[28] They were met with a hostile attitude from Alagakkonara, so they left the place.[30] Dreyer (2007) states that it is possible that Admiral Zheng He made port at Quilon—although there is no account confirming this—because the King of Quilon traveled with the fleet to China in 1407.[31] Mills (1970) states that the fleet may have made a four-month stay at Calicut, probably from December to April 1407.[32] Around Cape Comorin at the southern tip of the Indian Subcontinent, the treasure fleet changed direction and began its return journey to China.[31] During the return, the fleet made port at Malacca again.[33]

In 1407, while returning homewards, Admiral Zheng He and his associates engaged Chen Zuyi and his pirate fleet in battle at Palembang.[27][24][33][34] Chen Zuyi was a pirate leader who had seized Palembang on Sumatra.[24][33] He dominated the maritime route of the Malaccan Strait.[24] The battle resulted in the defeat of Chen's pirate fleet by the Chinese treasure fleet.[24][34] Chen Zuyi and his lieutenants were executed on 2 October 1407.[35] The Ming court appointed Shi Jinqing as the Pacification Superintendent of Palembang, thereby establishing an ally at Palembang and securing access to this important port.[36]

The fleet arrived back in Nanjing on 2 October 1407.[18][37][38] After accompanying the treasure fleet during the return journey, the foreign envoys (from Calicut, Quilon, Semudera, Aru, Malacca, and other unspecified nations) visited the Ming court to pay homage and present tribute in their local products.[17][35][39] The Yongle Emperor ordered the Ministry of Rites, whose duties included the protocol concerning foreign ambassadors, to prepare gifts for the foreign kings who had sent envoys to the court.[35]

Painting of the Yongle Emperor, Ming dynasty (National Palace Museum)

The imperial order for the second voyage was issued in October 1407.[lower-alpha 1][24][40] The edict was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian (侯顯).[40] Lang Ying's Qixiuleigao (七修類稿) records that Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian were dispatched in 1407.[41] The Taizong Shilu records that Zheng He and others went as envoys to the countries of Calicut, Malacca, Semudera, Aru, Jiayile, Java, Siam, Champa, Cochin, Abobadan, Quilon, Lambri, and Ganbali.[42]

On 30 October 1407, a grand director was dispatched with a squadron to Champa before Zheng He followed with the main body of the fleet.[43] The fleet departed in the fifth year, late 1407 or possibly early 1408, of the Yongle reign.[18] The fleet traveled from Nanjing to Liujiagang to Changle.[44] They then sailed to Champa; Siam; Java; Malacca; Semudera, Aru, and Lambri on Sumatra; Jiayile, Abobadan, Ganbali, Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut in India.[44] Dreyer (2007) states that it is possible that Siam and Java were visited by the main fleet or by detached squadrons before regrouping at Malacca.[44] During this voyage, Zheng He and his fleet did not land on Ceylon.[44] The fleet was tasked to carry out the formal investiture of Mana Vikraan as the King of Calicut.[29][40][45] A tablet was placed in Calicut to commemorate the relationship between China and India.[29][40]

In this voyage, the Chinese would forcibly settle the enmity between Ming China and Java.[42] During a civil war on Java between 1401 and 1406, the King of West Java killed 170 members of a Chinese embassy who had come ashore in his rival's territory at East Java.[lower-alpha 2][42] The entry dated to 23 October 1407 in the Ming Shilu states that the Western King of Java had sent an envoy to the Ming court to admit guilt for mistakenly killing 170 Ming troops who had gone ashore to trade.[46] It further states that the Ming court responded by demanding 60,000 liang of gold for compensation and atonement, warning that they would dispatch an army to punish the Javanese ruler for his crime if he failed to comply, and stating that the situation in Annam (referring to Ming China's successful invasion of Vietnam) can serve as an example.[46][42] The Chinese accepted the payment and apology, and restored diplomatic relations.[47] Yan Congjian's Shuyu Zhouzilu notes that the emperor later forgave 50,000 liang of gold that was still owed from this as long as the western ruler was remorseful for his crime.[48] Tan (2005) remarks that Zheng He had submitted the case of the killings to the emperor for a decision, rather than undertake a military invasion in revenge, as the killings were not wilful.[48] The Chinese would use the voyages to keep surveillance over Java.[47]

During the journey, as recorded by Fei Xin, the fleet visited the Pulau Sembilan in the Strait of Malacca in the seventh year of the Yongle reign (1409).[41][44] Dreyer (2007) concludes that the stop was during the return journey of the second voyage as the treasure fleet did not leave the Chinese coast for the third voyage until early 1410.[44] Fei Xin wrote that "In the seventh year of Yongle, Zheng He and his associates sent government troops onto the island to cut incense. They obtained six logs, each eight or nine chi[lower-alpha 3] in diameter and six or seven zhang[lower-alpha 3] in length, whose aroma was pure and far-ranging. The pattern [of the wood] was black, with fine lines. The people of the island opened their eyes wide and stuck out their tongues in astonishment, and were told that 'We are the soldiers of the Heavenly Court, and our awe-inspiring power is like that of the gods.'"[49] The treasure fleet arrived back in Nanjing in the summer of 1409.[24][44]

The confusion of whether Zheng He undertook the second voyage stems from the fact that a Chinese envoy was dispatched before Zheng He had departed with the main body of the fleet.[35] The imperial edict for the third voyage was issued during the period of the second voyage whilst the treasure fleet was still in the Indian Ocean, so either Zheng He was absent when the court issued the imperial order or he had not accompanied the fleet during the second voyage.[50] On 21 January 1409, a grand ceremony was held in the honor of the goddess Tianfei, where she received a new title.[51] Duyvendak (1938) thinks that Zheng He could not have been on the second voyage, because this ceremony was so important that it required Zheng He's attendance.[51] Mills (1970), citing Duyvendak (1938), also states that Zheng He did not accompany the fleet for this voyage.[40] However, Dreyer (2007) states that it is strongly suggested that Zheng He had been on the second voyage, as Fei Xin's account about the 1409 visit to Pulau Sembilan explicitly mentions Zheng He.[52]

The imperial order for the third voyage was issued on the first month of the seventh year of the Yongle reign (16 January to 14 February 1409).[54][55][56] It was addressed to Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and Hou Xian.[54][56]

Admiral Zheng He embarked for this voyage in 1409.[57] The fleet departed from Liujiagang in the ninth month (9 October to 6 November 1409) and arrived at Changle in the following month (7 November to 6 December).[50][56][57] They left Changle in the twelfth month (5 January to 3 February 1410) for the seas.[50][57] They proceeded through the Wuhumen (at the entrance of the Min River in Fujian).[56] The fleet made stops at Champa, Java, Malacca, Semudera, Ceylon, Quilon, Cochin, and Calicut.[24][50][58] They traveled to Champa within 10 days.[50][56] Wang Jinghong and Hou Xian made short stops at Siam, Malacca, Semudera, and Ceylon during detours.[24] Arriving in Ceylon in 1410, the treasure fleet landed at Galle.[50]

During the homeward journey in 1411, the treasure fleet would engage into a military confrontation with King Alakeshvara (Alagakkonara) of Ceylon.[lower-alpha 4][58][59] Alakeshvara posed a threat to the neighboring countries and local waters of Ceylon and southern India.[60] On arrival at Ceylon, the Chinese were overbearing and contemptuous of the Sinhalese, whom they considered rude, disrespectful, and hostile.[61] They also resented that the Sinhalese were committing attacks and piracy towards neighboring countries who had diplomatic relations with Ming China.[61] Admiral Zheng He and a few of his troops traveled overland into Kotte, because Alakeshvara had lured them into his territory.[61] Alakeshvara cut off Admiral Zheng He and his 2000 accompanying troops from the treasure fleet anchored at Colombo.[62] He also planned to launch an attack on the fleet.[24][60] In response, Admiral Zheng He and his troops invaded Kotte, capturing its capital.[60] They took captive Alakeshvara, his family, and principal officials.[56][62] The Sinhalese army hastily returned and surrounded the capital, but they were repeatedly defeated in battle against the invading Chinese troops.[61] The opposing Sinhalese army was said to have over 50,000 troops.[60] The king and his family were taken captive to Nanjing, China.[59]

Admiral Zheng He returned to Nanjing on 6 July 1411.[56][63] He presented the Sinhalese captives to the Yongle Emperor,[56] who decided to free and return them to their country.[56][59][60] The Chinese dethroned Alakeshvara in favor of their ally Parakramabahu VI as the king with the backing of Zheng He and his fleet.[64][65] From then on, the treasure fleet would experience no hostilities during visits to Ceylon on subsequent treasure voyages.[60]

Ming China during the Yongle reign (r. 1402–24)

On 18 December 1412, the Yongle Emperor issued the order for the fourth voyage.[58][66][67] Admiral Zheng He and others were commanded to lead it.[66][67]

The Yongle Emperor attended an archery contest for the Midsummer Festival of 1413 (5th day, 5th month, 11th year).[68] All the Chinese officials and foreign envoys were invited to attend this event.[68] Duyvendak (1939) states that these envoys were so numerous that they most-likely comprised many of those whom Admiral Zheng He would escort back to their countries during the fourth voyage than just those from close neighbors.[68] This expedition would lead the treasure fleet into Muslim countries, so it must have been important for the Chinese to seek out reliable interpreters.[69] The interpreter Ma Huan joined the voyages for the first time.[69] A 1523 inscription at a Muslim mosque in Xi'an records that, on the 4th month of the 11th year, Admiral Zheng He was there to seek reliable interpreters and found a man named Hasan.[69]

Admiral Zheng He's fleet left Nanjing in 1413, probably in the autumn.[67][70][71] They set sail from Fujian in the 12th month of the 11th year in the Yongle reign (23 December 1413 to 21 January 1414).[70][71] Calicut was the westernmost destination during the previous voyages, but now the fleet sailed to lands further away.[72] The Taizong Shilu records Malacca, Java, Champa, Semudera, Aru, Cochin, Calicut, Lambri, Pahang, Kelantan, Jiayile, Ormuz, Bila, Maldives, and Sunla for this voyage.[58]

The fleet sailed to Champa,[70][73] Kelatan,[73] Pahang,[73] Malacca,[70][73] Palembang,[73][74] Java,[72][73] Lambri,[72][73] Lide,[72] Aru,[72] Semudera,[72][73] Ceylon,[72][73] Jiayile (opposite Ceylon),[72] Cochin;[72][73] and Calicut.[72][73] They proceeded to Liushan (Maldive and Laccadive Islands),[73][75] Bila (Bitra Atoll),[75] Sunla (Chetlat Atoll),[75] and Hormuz.[73][75] At Java, the fleet delivered gifts and favors from the Yongle Emperor.[72] In return, a Javanese envoy arrived in China on 29 April 1415, presenting tribute in the form of "western horses" and local products while expressing gratitude.[72]

In 1415, the fleet made a stop at northern Sumatra during the journey homeward from Hormuz.[76] They engaged Sekandar at this point of the voyage.[73] Sekandar had usurped the Semudera throne from Zain al-'Abidin,[67] but the Chinese had formally recognized the latter as the King of Semudera.[76] Even though Sekandar was an autonomous ruler, he was not recognized by the Chinese.[76] Fei Xin describes Sekandar as a false king who robbed, stole, and usurped the throne of Semudera, Ma Huan portrays him as someone who attempted to overthrow the ruler, the Ming Shilu records that Sekandar was the younger brother of the former king and plotted to kill the ruler.[77] Admiral Zheng He had orders to launch a punitive attack against the usurper and restore Zain al-'Abidin as the rightful king.[67] In retaliation, Sekandar led his forces to attack the Ming forces and was defeated.[76][77] He reportedly attacked with "tens of thousands" of soldiers.[77] The Ming forces pursued Sekandar's forces to Lambri where they caught Sekandar, his wife, and his child.[67] King Zain al-'Abidin later dispatched a tribute mission to express his gratefulness.[76] This conflict reaffirmed Chinese power over the foreign states and the maritime route by protecting the local political authority that sheltered the trade.[76] Sekandar was presented to the Yongle Emperor at the palace gate and later executed.[67] It is not known when this execution happened, but Ma Huan states that Sekandar was publicly executed in the capital after the fleet returned.[78]

On 12 August 1415, Admiral Zheng He's fleet returned to Nanjing from this voyage.[58][67][78] The Yongle Emperor was away since 16 March 1413 for his second Mongol campaign and had not returned when the fleet arrived.[70] After the fleet's return, envoys bearing tribute from 18 countries had been sent to the Ming court.[73]

On 14 November 1416, the Yongle Emperor returned to Nanjing.[79] On 19 November, a grand ceremony was held where the Yongle Emperor bestowed gifts to princes, civil officials, military officers, and the ambassadors of 18 countries.[79] On 19 December, the eighteen[lower-alpha 5] ambassadors were received at the Ming court.[80] On 28 December, they visited the Ming court to take their leave and were bestowed robes before their departure.[79] That day, the Yongle Emperor ordered the undertaking of the fifth voyage,[70][80][81] which had the avowed objective to return the 18 ambassadors and to reward their kings.[80][81]

Admiral Zheng He and other unnamed people had received orders to escort the ambassadors back home.[79] They carried imperial letters and many gifts for several kings.[79] The King of Cochin received special treatment, because he had sent tribute since 1411 and later also sent ambassadors to request the patent of investiture and a seal.[79] The Yongle Emperor granted him both requests, conferred to him a long inscription (allegedly composed by the emperor himself), and gave the title "State Protecting Mountain" to a hill in Cochin.[79]

Admiral Zheng He may have left the Chinese coast in the autumn of 1417.[80][82] He first made port at Quanzhou to load up the fleet's cargoholds with porcelain and other goods.[83] Archaeological finds of contemporary Chinese porcelain have been excavated at the East African places visited by Zheng He's fleet.[84] A Ming tablet at Quanzhou commemorates that Admiral Zheng He burned incense for divine protection for this voyage on 31 May 1417.[84][85] The fleet visited Champa, Pahang, Java, Palembang, Malacca, Semudera, Lambri, Ceylon, Cochin, Calicut, Shaliwanni (possibly Cannanore), Liushan (Maladive and Laccadive Islands), Hormuz, Lasa, Aden, Mogadishu, Brava, Zhubu, and Malindi.[86] For Arabia and East Africa, the most-likely route was Hormuz, Lasa, Aden, Mogadishu, Brava, Zhubu, and then Malindi.[87] The Tarih al-Yaman reports that Chinese ships reached the Aden coast in January 1419 and did not leave the Rasulid capital at Ta'izz before 19 March.[88]

On 8 August 1419, the fleet had returned to China.[80][84][89] The Yongle Emperor was in Beijing at the time, but he ordered the Ministry of Rites to give monetary rewards to the fleet's personnel.[90] The accompanied ambassadors were received at the Ming court in the eighth lunar month (21 August to 19 September) of 1419.[80][89] Their tribute included lions, leopards, dromedary camels, ostriches, zebras, rhinoceroses, antelopes, giraffes, and other exotic animals,[73] causing a great sensation among those at the Ming court.[89]

The Taizong Shilu 3 March 1421 entry notes that the envoys of sixteen countries (Hormuz and other countries) were given gifts of paper and coin money, and ceremonial robes and linings before returning to their respective countries under escort of the treasure fleet.[90] The imperial order for the sixth voyage was dated 3 March 1421.[91][92] Admiral Zheng He was dispatched with imperial letters, silk brocade, silk floss, silk gauze, and other gifts for the rulers of these countries.[90]

Gong Zhen's Xiyang Fanguo Zhi records a 10 November 1421 imperial edict instructing Zheng He, Kong He (孔和), Zhu Buhua (朱卜花), and Tang Guanbao (唐觀保) to arrange the provisions for Hong Bao and others for their dispatch to escort foreign envoys home.[92][93] The envoys of the 16 different states were escorted to their homelands by the treasure fleet.[94] It is likely that the first few destinations were Malacca and the three Sumatran states of Lambri, Aru, and Semudera.[94] The fleet was divided in several detached squadrons at Semudera.[91][94][95] All the squadrons proceeded to Ceylon, whereafter they separated for Jiayile, Cochin, Ganbali, or Calicut in southern India.[94] The squadrons traveled from there to their respective destinations at Liushan (Maldive and Laccadive Islands), Hormuz at the Persian Gulf, the three Arabian states of Djofar, Lasa, and Aden, and the two African states of Mogadishu and Brava.[94] The eunuch Zhou (probably Zhou Man) led the detached squadron to Aden.[91][95][96] Ma Huan mentions Zhou Man and Li Xing in connection to the visit of Aden.[97] Their squadron may have also visited Lasa and Djofar.[96] According to the Mingshi, Admiral Zheng He personally visited Ganbali[lower-alpha 6] as an envoy in 1421.[94] Of the twelve visited nations west of Sumatra, this was the only one explicitly reported to have been visited by Zheng He himself.[94] Even though Quilon was not visited, the squadron for Mogadishu probably separated near Quilon as a navigation point while the main fleet continued to Calicut.[96] A large squadron proceeded further from Calicut to Hormuz.[96] They may have traveled via the Laccadives.[96]

On the return, several squadrons regrouped at Calicut and all the squadrons regrouped further at Semudera.[96] Siam was likely visited during the return journey.[94] The fleet returned on 3 September 1422.[92][98] They brought with them envoys from Siam, Semudera, Aden, and other countries, who bore tribute in local products.[98] The foreign envoys, who traveled to China with the fleet, proceeded overland or via the Grand Canal before reaching the imperial court at Beijing in 1423.[99]

The Great Bao'en Temple as depicted in Fischer von Erlach's A Plan of Civil and Historical Architecture (1721)

On 14 May 1421, the Yongle Emperor had ordered the temporary suspension of the voyages.[lower-alpha 7][100] At the expense of the treasure fleet's voyages, the imperial attention and funding was diverted for the third, fourth, and fifth Mongol campaigns.[101] Between 1422 and 1431, the treasure fleet remained in Nanjing to serve in the city's garrison.[102]

In 1424, Admiral Zheng He departed on a diplomatic mission to Palembang.[lower-alpha 8][103][104] Meanwhile, Zhu Gaozhi inherited the throne as the Hongxi Emperor on 7 September 1424 after the death of the Yongle Emperor on 12 August 1424.[105][106] Zheng He's return from Palembang was after this death.[104][107][108]

The Hongxi Emperor was hostile to the undertaking of the treasure voyages.[90][109] On 7 September 1424, he terminated the undertaking of further voyages.[110][111] Nevertheless, he kept the treasure fleet as a part of Nanjing's garrison.[112] The fleet also retained its original designation Xiafan Guanjun (下番官軍; lit. "foreign expeditionary armada").[112] On 24 February 1425, he appointed Admiral Zheng He as the defender of Nanjing and ordered him to continue his command over the treasure fleet for the city's defense.[113]

On 25 March 1428, the Xuande Emperor ordered Zheng He and others to take over the supervision for the rebuilding and repair of the Great Bao'en Temple at Nanjing.[114] He completed the construction of the temple in 1431.[115] It is speculated that the funds for the construction of the Great Bao'en Temple were diverted from those for the treasure voyages.[116]

Route of the seventh voyage

Gong Zhen records that an imperial order was issued on 25 May 1430 for the arrangement of necessary provisions for the dispatch of Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, Li Xing, Zhu Liang, Yang Zhen, Hong Bao, and others on official business to the countries of the Western Ocean.[93] It was addressed to Yang Qing (楊慶), Luo Zhi (羅智), Tang Guanbo (唐觀保), and Yuan Cheng (袁誠).[93] On 29 June 1430, the Xuande Emperor issued his orders for the seventh voyage.[91][99][117] It was addressed to Zheng He and others.[91] The Xuanzong Shilu reports that Zheng He, Wang Jinghong, and others were sent to far-lying foreign lands to bring them into deference and submission.[99] The emperor wished to reinvigorate the tributary relations that had been promoted during the Yongle reign.[118] Before departing for the seventh voyage, Admiral Zheng He and his associates had the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions inscribed.[119]

The Xia Xiyang provides valuable information, as described hereafter, about the dates and itinerary for this voyage.[lower-alpha 9] The fleet embarked from Longwan (lit. "dragon bay") in Nanjing on 19 January 1431.[120][121] On 23 January, the fleet made a stop at Xushan, a currently-unknown island in the Yangtze, where the crew hunted animals.[120][121] On 2 February, the fleet sailed through the Fuzi Passage (present-day Baimaosha Channel) to the estuary Yangtze River before arriving at Liujiagang the following day (3 February).[120][121] On 14 March, the Liujiagang inscription was erected there.[122] On 8 April, the fleet arrived at Changle, where they remained until mid-December.[120][121] The Changle inscription, dated to the 11th month of the 6th year of the Xuande reign, was erected during the end of their stay there.[122] On 16 December 1431, they traveled to the Fu Tou Shan, possibly near Fuzhou.[121] The treasure fleet sailed through the Wuhumen on 12 January 1432.[120][121] On 27 January, the fleet made a call at the capital city Vijaya (near present-day Qui Nhon) of Champa before departing on 12 February.[121][123] On 7 March, the fleet arrived at Java, where they made port at Surabaya.[121][124] The fleet remained in the region before departing on 13 July.[121][124] On 24 July, the fleet arrived at Palembang before departing on 27 July.[124][125] From Palembang, the fleet sailed down the Musi River, through the Banka Strait, passing the Lingga and Riau archipelagos.[126] The Lingga and Riau archipelagos had a considerable pirate population that posed a threat to passing ships, but these pirates posed no threat to the treasure fleet.[126] On 3 August, the treasure fleet arrived at Malacca.[125][126] The fleet departed from Malacca on 2 September.[125][126] They traveled to Semudera and arrived there on 12 September.[125][126] On 2 November, the fleet departed from Semudera.[125][126] On 28 November, the fleet arrived at Beruwala on Ceylon.[125][126] The fleet departed from Beruwala on 2 December.[125][127] They arrived at Calicut on 10 December.[125][127] The fleet departed from Calicut to Hormuz on 14 December 1432.[125][128] They arrived at Hormuz on 17 January 1433.[125][128] The treasure fleet remained in Hormuz for almost two months before traveling homeward on 9 March 1433.[125][128]

Of the eight destinations recorded for the seventh voyage in the Xia Xiyang, Hormuz was the westernmost place.[128] The Mingshi and other sources describe the voyage with at least a total of 17 visited countries (including those already mentioned in the Xia Xiyang).[128][130] The additional destinations reported in the Mingshi are Coimbator (Ganbali), Bengal, Laccadive and Maldive island chains, Djofar, Lasa, Aden, Mecca, Mogadishu, and Brava.[131] Gong Zhen even records a total of 20 visited countries.[130] During the voyage, as Fei Xin mentions, the fleet made a stop at the Andaman and Nicobar island chains.[131][132] He writes that, on 14 November 1432, the fleet arrived at Cuilanxu (probably the Great Nicobar Island) where they anchored for three days due to the unfavorable winds and waves.[127] He further writes that the native men and women came in log boats to trade coconuts.[127] The neighboring Aru, Nagur, Lide, and Lambri were certainly visited by a few ships, according to Dreyer (2007), on the fleet's way to Semudera in northern Sumatra.[131]

Admiral Zheng He is mentioned in the Mingshi in connection to the visits of Ganbali (possibly Coimatore),[128][133] Lasa,[128][133] Djorfar,[128] Magadishu,[128][133] and Brava.[128][133] Dreyer (2007) states that the account is unclear on whether he did go to those places in person, but the wording in the Mingshi could indicate that he did as the account states that he proclaimed imperial instructions to the kings of these countries.[128] Although, this may as well not be the case, because the fleet only made short stops at Calicut (4 days outward and 9 days homeward) that could not have provided enough time to travel overland to Ganbali, unless the location did not refer to Coimatore but elsewhere in southern India.[134] The overland journey may have been undertaken by someone else than Zheng He himself.[131] The Mingshi account about Lasa states that ambassadors from Lasa, Aden, and Brava traveled with Zheng He to China.[131] This means that the ships carrying them had possibly reassembled with the main fleet in Calicut according to Dreyer (2007), depending on whether Zheng He visited these countries in person or remained with the main portion of the fleet.[131] Dreyer (2007) thinks that the detached squadrons had probably already assembled at Calicut for its homeward journey, because the main fleet did not stay there for long.[135]

Hong Bao commanded a squadron for the journey to Bengal.[131] Ma Huan traveled with Hong Bao in this squadron.[136] It is not known when they exactly detached from the treasure fleet for Bengal.[lower-alpha 10] They sailed from Semudera straight to Bengal.[137] At Bengal, they traveled to Chittagong, then to Sonargaon, and finally to the capital Gaur.[138] They then proceeded to sail from Bengal straight to Calicut.[137][138] Admiral Zheng He's fleet had departed from Calicut for Hormuz by the time Hong Bao's squadron arrived in Calicut.[137] Once in Calicut, noticing that local ships were being prepared for Mecca, Hong Bao sent seven Chinese men to accompany a ship[lower-alpha 11] bound for Mecca.[139] It is likely that one of the seven men was Ma Huan.[lower-alpha 12][140][141] After a year, the seven men returned with commodities and valuables that they had purchased, which included giraffes, lions, and ostriches.[139] Dreyer (2007) suggests that Hong Bao may also have been involved with several other destinations, such as Djofar, Lasa, Aden, Mogadishu, and Brava.[142]

Dreyer (2007) states that the following countries may also have been visited by a few of the ships when the fleet passed by them: Siam; the northern Sumatran states of Aru, Nagur, Lide, and Lambri (when sailing to Semudera); Quilon and Cochin (when sailing to Calicut).[131] Mills (1970) concludes that Zheng He's associates and not Admiral Zheng He himself had visited Siam, Aru, Nagur, Lide, Lambri, Nicobar Islands, Bengal, Quilon, Cochi, Coimbatore, Maldive Islands, Dhufar, Lasa, Aden, Mecca, Mogadishu, and Brava.[132] Pelliot (1933) suggests that the squadrons detached from the fleet at Hormuz to travel to Aden, the East African ports and perhaps Lasa.[140]

The Xia Xiyang also provided the dates and itinerary, as described hereafter, for the return route of the seventh voyage.[lower-alpha 9] The fleet at Hormuz departed on 9 March 1433 and arrived at Calicut on 31 March.[135][143] On 9 April, the fleet departed from Calicut.[135][143] They sailed straight through the open ocean.[135][143] On 25 April, the fleet arrived at Semudera.[135][143] On 1 May, the fleet departed from Semudera.[135][143] On 9 May, the fleet arrived at Malacca.[135][143] The fleet arrived at the Kunlun Ocean[lower-alpha 13] on 28 May.[lower-alpha 14][143] On 13 June, the fleet arrived at Vijaya (present-day Qiu Nhon).[143][144] The fleet departed from Vijaya on 17 June.[143][144] The Xia Xiyang notes several geographical sightings[lower-alpha 15] from now until the fleet entered Taicang.[144] The fleet arrived at Taicang on 7 July.[143][144] The Xia Xiyang notes that it had not recorded the journey from Taicang to the capital.[143] On 22 July 1433, they arrived in the capital Beijing.[143][145] On 27 July, the Xuande Emperor bestowed ceremonial robes and paper money to the fleet's personnel.[143][145]

Dreyer (2007) states that they did not make port at Ceylon or southern India, because they were sailing under favorable conditions and were running before the southwest monsoon.[135] Ma Huan records that the various detached ships reassembled in Malacca to wait for favorable winds before continuing their return.[140]

Admiral Zheng He came back with envoys from 11 countries, including one from Mecca.[146] On 14 September 1433, as recorded in the Xuanzong Shilu, the following envoys came to court to present tribute: King Zain al-Abidin of Semudera sent his younger brother Halizhi Han and others, King Bilima of Calicut sent his ambassador Gebumanduluya and others, King Keyili of Cochin sent his ambassador Jiabubilima and others, King Parakramabahu VI of Ceylon sent his ambassador Mennidenai and others, King Ali of Djofar sent his ambassador Hajji Hussein and others, King Al-Malik az-Zahir Yahya b. Isma'il of Aden sent his ambassador Puba and others, King Devaraja of Coimbatore sent his ambassador Duansilijian and others, King Sa'if-ud-Din of Hormuz sent the foreigner Malazu, the King of "Old Kayal" (Jiayile) sent his ambassador Abd-ur-Rahman and others, and the King of Mecca sent the headman (toumu) Shaxian and others.[145]

Admiral Zheng He's empty tomb at Nanjing

During the course of the voyages, Ming China had become the pre-eminent naval power of the early 15th century.[147] The Yongle Emperor had extended imperial control over foreign lands during the span of the voyages.[148] However, in 1433, the voyages ceased and Ming China turned away from the seas.[149]

The trade was still flourishing long after the voyages had ceased.[150] Chinese ships continued to control the Eastern Asian maritime trade.[146][151][152] They also continued trading around India and East Africa.[151] However, the imperial tributary system over the foreign regions and state monopoly over the foreign trade gradually broke down as time progressed,[153] while private trade supplanted the centralized tributary trade.[152] The foreign commerce shifted to the domain of local authorities, which further undermined the authority of the central government.[153] The Ming treasure voyages had been a means to establish direct links between the Ming court and foreign tribute states, which had effectively outflanked both private channels of trade and local civil officials who were sabotaging the prohibitions against overseas exchange.[148]

The nobility and military were an important part of the ruling elite during the Hongwu and Yongle reigns.[154] Over time, the political power gradually shifted away from both the nobility and military to the civil officials.[154] As a consequence, the eunuch faction was unable to gather enough support to initiate projects opposed by the civil government.[154] Civil officials remained wary of future attempts by the eunuchs to reinitiate the treasure voyages.[154] Moreover, no later emperor would seriously consider undertaking new expeditions.[155] The withdrawal of Ming China's treasure fleet left an enormous void in the dominance over the Indian Ocean.[156]

It is not exactly known why the voyages completely ended in 1433.[157] Duyvendak (1939) suggests that the cessation of the expeditions was partly due to the considerable expenses,[158] but Ray (1987), Finlay (1992), and Dreyer (2007) note that the costs for undertaking the voyages had not overburdened the Ming treasury.[159][160][161] Ray (1987) adds that the Ming treasure voyages were a profitable enterprise, rejecting the notion that the voyages were terminated because they were wasteful, costly, or uneconomic.[159]

Even though civil officials did have ill feelings towards eunuchs for their overbearing nature and interference in state affairs, much of the hostility that came to characterize the relationship between the officials and eunuchs manifested at a time, long after the termination of the voyages, when eunuchs wielded their power to enrich themselves through extortion and persecute their critics.[162][163] As such, according to Lo (1958) and Ray (1987), the hostility between these factions can not explain the cessation of the voyages.[162][163] Furthermore, Lo (1958) notes that Admiral Zheng He was on friendly terms with many high officials and was respected by them,[162] while Ray (1987) mentions that eunuchs such as Zheng He and Hou Xian were held in high esteem by the court.[163] The voyages were also favorably depicted in contemporary records.[162][163]

Ray (1987) states that the cessation of the Ming treasure voyages primarily happened as traders and bureaucrats, for reasons of economic self-interest and through their connections in Beijing, gradually collapsed the framework supporting both the state-controlled maritime enterprise and the strict regulation of the private commerce that was subjected to prohibitive policies.[164] Similarly, Lo (1958) states that rich and influential individuals used their connections in Beijing to undermine efforts to restore the trade to official channels and possibly revive the voyages, because they tried to safeguard their interests and were antagonistic to the government's monopoly of foreign trade.[152]

The voyages were diplomatic, militaristic, and commercial in nature.[19][165] They were conducted to establish imperial control over the maritime trade,[6][147] to bring the maritime trade into the tributary system,[166] and to force foreign countries into compliance within the tributary system.[147][166][167] The diplomatic aspect comprised the announcement of the Yongle Emperor's accession to the throne, the establishment of hegemony over the foreign countries, and providing safe passage to foreign envoys who came bearing tribute.[168]

The Chinese did not seek territorial control, as they were primarily motivated by the political and economic control across space entailing a domination over a vast network with its ports and shipping lanes.[169] Finlay (2008) underscores the goal of controlling maritime commerce in which the Ming treasure voyages are regarded as an attempt to reconcile China's need for maritime commerce with the government's suppression of the private aspects, representing "a deployment of state power to bring into line the reality of seaborne commerce with an expansive conception of Chinese hegemony."[148] The trading centers along the maritime routes were kept open to other foreign people, rather than occupied, in a joint effort to further promote this international trade.[170] Neither the pursuit for exclusive access nor the forceful integration of foreign countries' wealth (through exclusive exploitation by removal of natural or human resources) was a feature of the expeditions.[171]

The voyages changed the organization of a maritime network, utilizing and creating nodes and conduits in its wake, thereby restructuring international and cross-cultural relationships and exchanges.[172] It was especially impactful as no other polity had exerted naval dominance over all sectors of the Indian Ocean prior to the these voyages.[173] The Ming promoted alternative nodes as a strategy to establish control over the network.[174] For instance, due to crucial Chinese involvement, ports such as Malacca (in Southeast Asia), Cochin (on the Malabar Coast), and Malindi (on the Swahili Coast) grew as key contenders to other important and established ports.[lower-alpha 16][175] Through the voyages, Ming China intervened with the local affairs of foreign states and asserted itself in foreign lands.[172] The Chinese had installed or supported friendly local regimes, captured or executed rivals of local authorities, and threatened hostile local rulers into compliance.[176] The appearance of the Ming treasure fleet generated and intensified competition among contending polities and rivals, each seeking an alliance with the Ming.[176]

The voyages brought about the Western Ocean's regional integration and the increase in international circulation of people, ideas, and goods.[172] It provided a platform for cosmopolitan discourses, which took place in locations such as the ships of the Ming treasure fleet, the Ming capitals of Nanjing as well as Beijing, and the banquet receptions organized by the Ming court for foreign representatives.[172] Diverse groups of people from across the maritime countries congregated, interacted, and traveled together as the Ming treasure fleet sailed from and to Ming China.[172] For the first time in its history, as Sen (2016) emhasizes, the maritime region from China to Africa was under the dominance of a single imperial power and thereby allowed for the creation of a cosmopolitan space.[177]

Another purpose of the Chinese expeditions was the maintenance of a political-ideological control across the region.[171] In this regard, foreigners needed to acknowledge that China was the supraordinate power in the region, not cause disturbances towards neighboring territories, and accept the tributary system out of their own interest.[171] Foreign rulers were compelled to acknowledge the inherent moral and cultural superiority of China, an obligation expressed by paying homage and presenting tribute before the Ming court.[178] The Chinese had the intention to civilize the many foreign peoples by bringing them into formal submission within Ming China's greater world order.[178] During the course of the voyages, the Yongle Emperor reasserted the political and cultural hegemony of Ming China over all others.[6] The cultural aspect of the voyages appears in the Liujiagang inscription, stating that "those among the foreigners who were resisting the transforming influence (genghua) of Chinese culture and were disrespectful, we captured alive, and brigands who indulged in violence and plunder, we ex-terminated. Consequently the sea-route was purified and tranquillised and the natives were enabled quietly to pursue their avocations."[179]

The treasure fleet was, as Mills (1970) characterizes, "an instrument of aggression and political dominance."[6] It brought forth the manifestation of China's power and wealth to awe foreign lands under Chinese hegemony.[180][181] This was actualized by showing the Ming flag and establishing a military presence along the maritime trade routes.[182] Diplomatic relationships were based on a mutually beneficial maritime commerce and a visible presence of a Chinese militaristic naval force in foreign waters.[183] The Ming Chinese naval superiority was a crucial factor in this interaction, namely because it was inadvisable to risk punitive action from the Chinese fleet.[169] In addition, the worthwhile and profitable nature of the Ming treasure voyages for foreign countries was a persuading factor to comply.[183]

There is a theory, considered very unlikely, suggesting that the voyages were initiated to search for the dethroned Jianwen Emperor.[9][19][184] This search is mentioned as a reason for the voyages in the later Mingshi.[19][185] As the Yongle Emperor had usurped the throne, he may have actually sought to legitimize his reign by forcing the foreign countries to recognize their tributary status within Ming China's greater world order.[183][186][187] To this end, according to Wang (1998), the announced intention of the Yongle Emperor to find the deposed Jianwen Emperor may have served no more than a public justification for the voyages in face of the prohibitive policies for military actions overseas from the Hongwu reign.[183] Another theory, also considered very unlikely, explains that the voyages were triggered in response to another power across Asia, the Timurid state of Tamerlane, an enemy of Ming China.[9] However, Ming China was left unchallenged by the Timurid after Tamerlane's death in 1405, because the new Timurid ruler Shahrukh (r. 1405–1447) normalized diplomatic relations with China and was preoccupied with holding his state together.[9] There is no evidence for both theories in contemporary historical sources, so they lack the support and conformation to be accepted.[9]

Painting of the Xuande Emperor, Ming dynasty (National Palace Museum)

Zheng He served as the Grand Director in the Directorate of Palace Servants, a eunuch-dominated department, before his appointment to command the expeditions.[188] Construction projects were usually the domain of eunuchs, who were often assigned to supervise them.[188] The treasure fleet's construction was not different in that eunuchs were assigned to supervise it, while the military were assigned to carry it out.[5] Civil officials criticized the state expenses brought by the fleet's construction, but the emperor was set to continue his grand plans.[5]

In the Ming court, the civil officials were the faction who opposed the voyages.[160][186][189] In contrast, the eunuch establishment stood at the head of the fleet and the expeditions.[149][157][186][189] The civil officials condemned the expeditions as extravagant and wasteful,[189][190] but the Yongle Emperor was unconcerned about the costs of the voyages and was determined to undertake it.[191] Traditionally, the civil officials were political opponents of the eunuch faction,[149][186][189] but also to the military who crewed the fleet.[186] This political and institutional disadvantage within the state system contributed to the inherent opposition of the civil officials against the voyages.[186][189][192] On cultural grounds, the civil officials were hostile to the voyages, because the trade and acquisition of strange foreign goods was in conflict with their Confucian ideologies.[189][190][193][194] The undertaking of these expeditions only remained possible as long as the eunuchs maintained imperial favor.[157][195]

The Hongwu Emperor was wary of the political and social consequences that maritime commerce could bring,[196][197] so he sought to restrain it by outlawing private maritime trade.[198][199] This policy continued well into the Yongle Emperor's reign.[198][199] In addition, the Yongle Emperor aimed at consolidating imperial control over maritime commerce, stopping the coastal criminality and disorder, providing employment for mariners and entrepreneurs, exporting Chinese products to foreign markets, importing desired goods for Chinese consumers, extending the tributary system, and displaying imperial majesty to the seas.[200] The voyages functioned as trade commissions in the government's attempts to regulate maritime commerce by establishing an imperial monopoly over it and incorporating it into the tributary system.[148] There was seemingly an idea about a foreign policy comprising an extended foreign trade supported by a heavy military naval presence and a cultivation of shared interests with local allies.[180]

The emperor's interest in the voyages was the highest during the period spanning the first three voyages, but he became more occupied with his offensive military campaigns against the Mongols after establishing the capital at Beijing.[201] By the fourth voyage, the emperor showed interest in the expansion of trade and diplomatic activity to West Asia.[202] The Chinese therefore sought and employed interpreters of Persian or Arabic, such as Ma Huan and Guo Chongli, to accompany the fleet.[202] After the transfer of the capital from Nanjing to Beijing, the south and the seas were given less and less attention from emperors and officials alike.[70] The Hongxi Emperor wished to revert his predecessor's relocation of the capital, but he died on 29 May 1425 and thus this never took place.[113][203] He was succeeded by the Xuande Emperor who remained in Beijing.[204] In contrast to the Hongxi Emperor who relied on civil officials during his reign, the Xuande Emperor relied on eunuchs during his reign.[205] Dreyer (2007) states that the prospects for the voyages would have been better if the capital was relocated back to Nanjing, because the court would have been near the Longjiang shipyards where most of the ships were built and the places where the voyages commenced.[154]

Minister of Finance Xia Yuanji (夏原吉) was a vocal opponent to the treasure voyages.[106][206][207] The Hongxi Emperor was also fiercely against the treasure voyages throughout his reign.[90] After the advice of Xia Yuanji, the emperor ordered the cessation of the treasure voyages on 7 September 1424, the day of his accession to the throne.[106] When the Xuande Emperor ordered the seventh voyage, he went against the general court opinion.[118]

After 1433, the civil officials succeeded in halting subsequent maritime expeditions.[192] The ships were left to rot and their lumber was sold for fuel in Nanjing.[192] The mariners were reassigned to load grain on barges of the Grand Canal and to build the emperor's mausoleum.[192] After the voyages, subsequent Ming emperors would reject the Yongle Emperor's policy of bringing the maritime trade into the structure of the tributary system.[149]

Model of a treasure ship (Hong Kong Science Museum)

The Chinese fleet comprised an array of ships that each fulfilled specialized functions.[208][209] Each treasure ship was crewed by about 500 men according to Mills (1970)[210] or at least 600 men according to Finlay (1992).[211] The high-ranking officers—Admiral Zheng He and his associates—were from the eunuch establishment.[212] The crew was predominantly from the Ming military[212] and was mostly recruited from Fujian.[184][213]

There were seven Grand Directors (taijian)—who served as the ambassadors and commanders of the fleet—followed by 10 Junior Directors (shaojian).[214][215] These directors were all eunuchs.[215] Admiral Zheng He was one of the Grand Directors.[214] In total, there was 70 eunuchs in command of the treasure fleet.[214] This was followed by 2 brigadiers (du zhihuishi), 93 captains (zhihuishi), 104 lieutenants (qianhu), and 103 sub-lieutenants (bohu).[lower-alpha 17][214][215] There were 180 medical personnel, a Ministry of Finance bureau director,[lower-alpha 18] two secretaries, two Court of State Ceremonial protocol officers,[lower-alpha 19] an astrological officer, and four astrologers.[215][216] The personnel also had guard judges (wei zhenfu) and battalion judges (suo zhenfu).[214] The remaining personnel included petty officers (qixiao or quanxiao), brave corps (yongshi), power corps (lishi),[lower-alpha 20] military soldiers (referred as guanjun, "official soldiers", or qijun, "flag soldiers"), supernumeraries (yuding), boatsman (minshao), buyers (maiban), and clerks (shushou).[216][217]

Zhu Yunming's Xia Xiyang records the following personnel: officers and petty officers (guanxiao), soldiers (qijun), mess leaders (huozhang), helmsman (tuogong), anchormen (bandingshou), interpreters (tongshi), business managers (banshi), accountants (susuanshi), doctors (yishi), anchor mechanics (tiemiao), caulkers (munian), sailmakers (dacai), sailors (shuishou), and boatmen (minshaoren).[216][217]

The Liujiagang inscriptions records Zheng He (鄭和) and Wang Jinghong (王景弘) as the principal envoys.[218] It also records Zhu Liang (朱良), Zhou Man (周滿), Hong Bao (洪保), Yang Zhen (楊真), and Zhang Da (張達) as deputy envoys.[218] The Changle inscription repeats this, but adds Li Xing (李興) and Wu Zhong (吳忠) as deputy envoys.[218] All the envoys are recorded to have carried the rank of Grand Director in both inscriptions, except Zhang Da who was reported with the rank of Senior Assistant Director in the Liujiagang inscription and the rank of Grand Director in the Changle inscription.[218] Additionally, the Changle inscription mentions Zhu Zhen (朱真) and Wang Heng (王衡) as the brigadiers.[213][218] These people and unnamed "others" are mentioned on the respective inscriptions as those who have composed it.[218] The Changle inscription also mentions that the Daoist priest Yang Yichu (楊一初) begged to erect the respective stele.[218]

For the first voyage, the fleet had a personnel of 27,800[22] or 27,870 men.[17][24] The treasure fleet comprised a total of 317 ships,[15][17][24] which included 62 treasure ships.[17][22] It is possible that there were 63 treasure ships.[32] The Mingshi states that the fleet had 62 treasure ships and a crew of 27,800 for the first voyage.[32] Tan Qian's (談遷) Guoque (國確) records 63 treasure ships and a crew of 27,870 for the first voyage.[32] The Zuiweilu records a personnel of 37,000, but this is probably an error.[32] Yan Congjian's (嚴從簡) Shuyu Zhouzilu records an imperial order for the construction of 250 ships specifically for the voyages to the Western Ocean.[32] This actually refers to two separate imperial orders—as recorded in the Taizong Shilu—both to the Nanjing's capital guards for 200 ships (海運船 haiyunchuan; lit. "seagoing transport ships") on 4 September 1403 and for 50 ships (海船 haichuan; lit. "seagoing ships") on 1 March 1404.[219] However, the Taizong Shilu did not record the purpose for which these 250 ships were constructed.[220] It also records a 2 March 1404 imperial order for Fujian to construct five ships (haichuan) to be used in the voyages to the Western Ocean.[32] These 255 ships plus the 62 treasure ships adds up to the total of 317 ships.[lower-alpha 21][32]

For the second voyage, it is thought that the treasure fleet comprised 249 ships.[40][198] On 5 October 1407, as the Taizong Shilu records, Wang Hao was ordered to supervise the conversion of 249 ships in preparation for embassies to the countries at the Western Ocean.[221] This was close to the date when the second voyage was ordered, thus the fleet likely comprised these 249 ships for the second voyage.[220] The number of treasure ships[42] or personnel[40][42] is not known.

For the third voyage, Fei Xin's Xingcha Shenglan records that the fleet had 48 haibo (海舶; lit. "ocean traders") and a crew of over 27,000.[222] Dreyer (2007) states that Fei Xin was probably referring to the treasure ships with haibo.[223] Yan Congjian's Shuyu Zhouzilu and Lu Rong's Shuyuan Zaji use the term "treasure ship" instead when they mention the 48 ships for this voyage.[222] Coincidently, the Taizong Shilu records the 14 February 1408 imperial order for the construction of 48 treasure ships to the Ministry of Works at Nanjing.[222] These were possibly the 48 treasure ships for the third voyage.[222] Dreyer (2007) states that the treasure fleet likely had an undisclosed array of support ships besides the 48 treasure ships.[222]

Ma Huan's Yingya Shenglan records 63 treasure ships for the fourth voyage.[224] These were probably accompanied by support ships.[224] The fleet was crewed by 28,560[67][70] or 27,670 men.[73] Fei Xin records a personnel of 27,670 for this voyage, but another source records 28,560.[224]

There is no record for the number of ships or personnel for the fifth voyage.[80][224]

On 2 October 1419, an order was issued for the construction of 41 treasure ships from an undisclosed shipbuilder.[225] It is possible that Admiral Zheng He made use of these ships for the sixth voyage.[94] Most scholars conclude that these were likely used for the sixth voyage,[224] but many other treasure ships had already been constructed or were in construction by that time.[226] There is no specific figure for the ships or personnel of the sixth voyage.[224] The treasure fleet probably made use of several dozen of the treasure ships each accompanied by half a dozen support vessels.[94]

For the seventh voyage, the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions speak of over a hundred large ships (巨舶 jubo; lit. "great trading vessels").[224] Dreyer (2007) suggests that this probably included most of the remaining treasure ships.[224] The treasure ships were likely accompanied by support ships.[224] Zhu Yunming in his Xia Xiyang gives the names of several ships—Qinghe (清和; "pure harmony"), Huikang (惠康; "kind repose"), Changning (長寧; "lasting tranquility"), Anji (安濟; "peaceful crossing"), and Qingyuan (清遠; "pure distance")—and remarks that there were also ships designated by a series number.[130] The fleet had 27,550 men as personnel for the voyage.[121][224]

Before the voyages, there was turmoil around the seas near the Chinese coast and distant Southeast Asian maritime regions, characterized by piracy, banditry, slave trade, or other illicit activities.[227] The treasure fleet had a large number of warships to protect their precious cargo and to secure the maritime routes.[227] They established a substantial Chinese military presence around the South China Sea and trading cities in southern India.[44] Especially the early stages of the voyages were characterized by highly militaristic objectives, as the Chinese stabilized the sea passages from hostile entities as well strengthened their own position and maintained their status in the region.[228] Even though Admiral Zheng He sailed through the oceans with a military force larger and stronger than any local power, there is no written evidence in historical sources that there was any attempt that they forcibly tried to control the maritime trade—rather than through exploration and promotion of trade—in the regions of the South China Sea and Indian Ocean.[54] Nevertheless, Dreyer (2007) adds that it must have been a "terrifying apparition" when the large Chinese fleet came within visible reach before the coastline of a foreign country, bringing any state into submission by the sole sight of it alone.[229] From the fourth voyage onwards, the treasure fleet ventured further than their usual end-destination of Calicut to lands beyond where there would be less direct hostilities.[230]

The fleet engaged and defeated Chen Zuyi's pirate fleet in Palembang, Alakeshvara's forces in Ceylon, and Sekandar's forces in Semudera, bringing security and stability of the maritime routes via Chinese control.[231] These actors were viewed as hostile threats in their regions.[182] The battles served as a reminder of the tremendous power of Ming China to the countries along the maritime routes.[182]

On the Malabar coast, Calicut and Cochin were in an intense rivalry, so the Ming decided to intervene by granting special status to Cochin and its ruler Keyili (可亦里).[232] For the fifth voyage, Zheng He was instructed to confer a seal upon Keyili of Cochin and enfeoff a mountain in his kingdom as the Zhenguo Zhi Shan (鎮國之山, Mountain Which Protects the Country).[232] He delivered a stone tablet, inscribed with a proclamation composed by the Yongle Emperor, to Cochin.[232] As long as Cochin remained under the protection of Ming China, the Zamorin of Calicut was unable to invade Cochin and a military conflict was averted.[232] The cessation of the Ming treasure voyages consequently had a negative outcome for Cochin, because the Zamorin would eventually launch an invasion against Cochin.[232]

In Malacca, the Chinese actively sought to develop a commercial hub and a base of operation for the voyages into the Indian Ocean.[174] Malacca had been a relatively insignificant region, not even qualifying as a polity prior to the voyages according to both Ma Huan and Fei Xin, and was a vassal region of Siam.[174] In 1405, the Ming court dispatched Zheng He with a stone tablet enfeoffing the Western Mountain of Malacca as well as an imperial order elevating the status of the port to a country.[174] The Chinese also established a government depot (官廠) as a fortified cantonment for their soldiers.[174] It served as a storage facility as the fleet traveled and assembled from other destinations within the maritime region.[170] Ma Huan reports that Siam did not dare to invade Malacca thereafter.[174] The rulers of Malacca, such as King Paramesvara in 1411, would pay tribute to the Chinese emperor in person.[174] In 1431, when a Malaccan representative complained that Siam was obstructing tribute missions to the Ming court, the Xuande Emperor dispatched Zheng He carrying a threatening message for the Siamese king saying "You, king should respect my orders, develop good relations with your neighbours, examine and instruct your subordinates and not act recklessly or aggressively."[174]

Porcelain wares, similar to these Yongle-era porcelain flasks, were often presented as trade goods during the expeditions (British Museum)

The treasure ships had an enormous cargo comprising various products.[233] The commodities that the fleet's ships carried included three major categories: gifts to be bestowed on rulers, items for exchange of goods or payment of goods with fixed prices at low rates (e.g. gold, silver, copper coins, and paper money), and items in which China had the monopoly (e.g. musks, ceramics, and silks).[234] It was said that there were sometimes so many Chinese goods unloaded into an Indian port that it could take months to price everything.[13][235] In turn, Admiral Zheng He returned to China with many kinds of tribute goods, such as silver, spices, sandalwood, precious stones, ivory, ebony, camphor, tin, deer hides, coral, kingfisher feathers, tortoise shells, gums and resin, rhinoceros horn, sapanwood and safflower (for dyes and drugs), Indian cotton cloth, and ambergris (for perfume).[233] They even brought back exotic animals, such as ostriches, elephants, and giraffes.[233] The imports from the voyages provided large quantities of economic goods that fueled China's own industries.[235] For instance, there was so much cobalt oxide from Persia that the porcelain industry at Jingdezhen had a plentiful supply for decades after the voyages.[233] The fleet also returned with such a large amount of black pepper that the once-costly luxury became a common commodity in Chinese society.[233][236]

The treasure voyages resulted in a flourishing Ming economy,[237] while boosting the lucrative maritime commerce significantly.[238][239] The expeditions developed into a maritime trade enterprise in which the Chinese themselves began trading and supplying the commodities that were non-Chinese in origin and earlier entirely in the hands of the Indians, Arabs, and other foreigners.[234] This highlighted the commercial character of the voyages, in which the Chinese further expanded upon the already large profits from their trade.[234] The impact of the expeditions on commerce was on multiple levels: it established imperial control over local private commercial networks, expanded tributary relations and thereby brought commerce under state supervision, established court-supervised transactions at foreign ports and thereby generate substantial revenue for both parties, and increased production and circulation of commodities across the region.[240] The voyages induced a sudden supply shock in the Eurasian market, where the Chinese maritime exploits in Asia led to disruptions of European imports with sudden price spikes in the early 15th century.[241]

Imperial proclamations were issued to foreign kings, meaning that they could either submit and be bestowed with rewards or refuse and be pacified under the threat of an overwhelming military force.[141][242] Foreign kings had to reaffirm their recognition of the Chinese emperor's superior status by presenting tribute.[243] Those rulers who submitted received political protection and material rewards.[210][244] Many countries were enrolled as tributaries.[157] The treasure fleet conducted the transport of the many foreign envoys to China and back, but some envoys traveled independently.[245]

Cakra Donya bell, a gift from Zheng He to Semudera (Aceh Museum)

During the onset of their voyages, the treasure fleet would embark from the Longjiang shipyard, north-west of Nanjing.[246] They would then sail down the Yangtze River to Liujiagang.[246] Once there, Admiral Zheng He would organize his fleet and make sacrifices to the goddess Tianfei.[246] Over the course of the following four to eight weeks, the fleet would gradually proceed to Taiping anchorage in Changle, Fujian.[246] There, the fleet would wait for the favorable northeast monsoon of winter[lower-alpha 22] before leaving the Fujian coast.[26][246][247] They would reach the sea through the Wuhumen.[26] They then mostly sailed through established trade routes to other regions.[150] The port of Qui Nhon in Champa was always the first foreign destination that the fleet visited.[25]

During the first three voyages from 1405 to 1411, the fleet followed the same basic maritime route: from Fujian to the first call in Champa, across the South China Sea to Java and Sumatra, up the Strait of Malacca to northern Sumatra for assembly of the fleet, across the Indian Ocean to Ceylon, then along the Malabar Coast to Calicut.[248] For the time being, the fleet sailed up to and no further than Calicut.[230][208] During the fourth voyage, the route was extended to Hormuz.[249][208] During the fifth, sixth, and seventh voyage, the fleet proceeded further to destinations in the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[249][208] For the sixth voyage, the treasure fleet sailed up to Calicut, where several detached squadrons proceeded to further destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[249] For the seventh voyage, the treasure fleet followed the route up to Hormuz, while detached squadrons traveled to the other far-lying destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[249]

The treasure fleet sailed the equatorial and subtropical waters of the South China Sea and Indian Ocean, where they were dependent on the circumstances of the annual cycle of monsoon winds.[250][251] The fleet's navigators therefore precisely organized the voyages under careful considerations of the periodical patterns of the tropical and subtropical monsoon.[251] For the southward route from Changle in China to Surabaya in Java, the fleet followed the northeast wind, crossed the Equator (where the northeast wind changes into the northwest wind due to the Coriolis force), and then follow the northwest wind.[252] At Java, the fleet would wait for the arrival of the tropical southeast wind in the Southern Hemisphere and then follow this wind towards Sumatra.[252] At Sumatra, the fleet was halted due to the change of the southeast wind into a strong southwest wind at a northern latitude close to the Equator and thus would wait for the northeast wind of the next winter.[252] For the northwestward route towards Calicut and Hormuz, they took advantage of this northeast wind.[252] The return journey was set during the late summer and early autumn, because favorable monsoon winds would be present during this period.[253] The fleet left Hormuz before the southwest monsoon arrived over the Indian Ocean.[252] They made use of the north wind for the southward journey from Hormuz to Calicut.[252] For the eastward journey from Sumatra, the fleet made use of the newly-arrived southwest monsoon over the eastern parts of the Indian Ocean.[252] After the fleet passed through the Strait of Malacca, the fleet would have caught up with the southwest wind over the South China Sea to sail back to China.[252] As the maritime conditions were limited due to the monsoon winds, squadrons were detached from the main fleet to diverge to specific destinations.[252] The first point of divergence was Sumatra from where a squadron would travel to Bengal.[252] The second point of divergence was Calicut from where ships sailed to Hormuz as well as other destinations at the Arabian Peninsula and East Africa.[252] Malacca was the rendezvous point where the squadrons would reassemble for the final leg of the return journey.[252]

During all the voyages, the fleet departed from Sumatra to sail westward across the Indian Ocean.[254] Northern Sumatra was an important region for the fleet's anchorage and assembly before they proceeded through the Indian Ocean to Ceylon and southern India.[72] Mainly its location rather than its wealth or products were important to the fleet.[126] Ma Huan wrote that Semudera was the main route to the Western Ocean,[255] characterizing it as the most important port of assembly for the Western Ocean.[72] The journey from Sumatra to Ceylon involved sailing for about two to four weeks without laying sight on land.[247] The first part of Ceylon that became visible after departure from Sumatra was Namanakuli (or Parrot's Beak Mountain), the eastern-most mountain (6680 ft in elevation and 45 miles away from the coast).[254] Two or three days after its sighting, the treasure fleet adjusted their course to sail south of Dondra Head at Ceylon.[254] After a considerable long time at sea since leaving Sumatra, the fleet would make a call at a port in Ceylon, usually at Beruwala and sometimes at Galle.[256] Even though they have made port at both locations, their clear preference was Beruwala over Galle.[51] Ma Huan characterized Beruwala as "the wharf of the country of Ceylon."[51]

Ming China had cordial relations with Calicut, which was valuable as they tried to extend the tributary system to the states around the Indian Ocean.[180] Ma Huan described Calicut as the "great country of the Western Ocean".[31][72] He was very positive about the Calicut authorities' regulation of trade and attention to weights and measurements.[31] Fei Xin described Calicut as the "great harbor" of the Western Ocean countries.[128]

Section of the Mao Kun map

During the voyages, the crew acquired and collected a large amount of navigational data.[257] These were specifically recorded by the astrological officer and his four astrologers.[258] The navigational data were processed into different kinds of charts by a cartographic office.[257][258] The office included an astrological officer, four astrologers, and their clerks.[258] This provided the expeditionary commanders with the necessary navigational charts for their voyages.[257] Many copies of the expeditionary charts were housed in the Ministry of War.[257] Additional navigational data were probably also supplied by local maritime pilots, Arab records, Indian records, and earlier Chinese records.[258]

The Mao Kun map is associated with the route of the voyages.[259] The map is collected in the Wubei Zhi, compiled by Mao Yuanyi.[260] It depicts various geographic locations, from Nanjing to Hormuz as well as the East African coast, with routes illustrated by dotted lines.[260] The directions are expressed by compass points and distances, with references to navigational techniques (such as depth sounding to avoid shallow waters) and astronomy (particularly along the north–south route of Africa where the latitude is determined by the height of constellations relative to the horizon).[260] The distances are expressed by time according to a watch system (two hour periods).[260] The Mao Kun map is appended by four stellar diagrams used for determining the position of the ship in relation to the stars and constellations on specific sections of the maritime route.[260]

Tribute Giraffe with Attendant, depicting a giraffe presented by Bengali envoys to the Ming court (Philadelphia Museum of Art)

The faith of the treasure fleet's crew centered around Tianfei, the "Heavenly Princess" who was the goddess of sailors and seafarers.[261] The Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions suggest that Zheng He's life was mostly defined by the treasure voyages and that his devotion to Tianfei was the dominant faith that he adhered to.[262] The two inscriptions honored and commemorated the goddess Tianfei.[263] Admiral Zheng He and his associates had established these inscriptions at the temples of Tianfei at Liujiagang on 14 March 1431 and Changle between 5 December 1431 and 3 January 1432.[264] These inscriptions make reference to the crew witnessing St. Elmo's fire during dangerous storms and interpreting it as a sign of divine protection by Tianfei.[265] The Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions are considered the epitaphs of the Ming treasure voyages.[119]

In Galle at Ceylon, Zheng He set up a trilingual inscription dated 15 February 1409.[lower-alpha 23][50][266] The inscription is in three languages, in which the Chinese section praised the Buddha, the Tamil section praised the local god Tenavarai Nayanar who was an incarnation of Vishnu, and the Persian section praised Allah.[266] Each section contains a similar list of offerings, including items such as 1000 pieces of gold, 5000 pieces of silver, 100 rolls of silk, 2500 catties of perfumed oil, and a variety of bronze ornaments.[51][267] Thus, as shown by this inscription, the Chinese paid their respect to the three religions that were dominant in Ceylon.[261][266]

On 20 September 1414, Bengali envoys presented a tribute giraffe in the name of King Saif Al-Din Hamzah Shah of Bengal (r. 1410–1412) to the Yongle Emperor of Ming China.[268] The giraffe was presented as the qilin, but the Yongle Emperor dismissed this association and did not want his officials to send laudatory memorials on behalf of its auspicious appearance during his reign.[269]

There are several extant contemporary accounts, including Ma Huan's Yingya Shenglan [瀛涯勝覽],[lower-alpha 24] Fei Xin's Xingcha Shenglan [星槎勝覽], and Gong Zhen's Xiyang Fanguo Zhi [西洋番國志].[270][271] Ma Huan served as an interpreter on the fourth, sixth, and seventh voyage.[138][272] Guo Chongli was Ma Huan's collaborator on the Yingya Shenglan and participated in three of the expeditions.[273] Fei Xin served as a soldier on the third, fifth, and seventh expedition.[272][274] Gong Zhen served as Zheng He's private secretary on the seventh voyage.[272][275] These three sources provide insightful observations to the political, economic, social, cultural, and religious conditions of the lands visited throughout the voyages.[276] In addition, the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions are valuable records by Admiral Zheng He and his associates themselves.[277]

Pages from a copy of Ma Huan's Yingya Shenglan

The Ming Shilu also provides a lot of the information relating to the treasure voyages,[278][276] particularly the exchange of ambassadors.[276] The work is divided into individual sections about the reigns of Ming emperors.[278] Zheng He lived through the reigns of five Ming emperors,[278] but he directly served three emperors in his life.[279] He is mentioned in the Taizong Shilu of the Yongle reign, the Renzong Shilu of the Hongxi reign, and the Xuanzong Shilu of the Xuande reign.[278] The Taizong Shilu had combined the second and third voyages into one expedition.[280][281] This record was followed by the Mingshi.[281][282] This caused Zheng He's Palembang journey from 1424 to 1425[lower-alpha 25] to be wrongly construed as the sixth voyage to make up for the seven voyages.[108][280][281] However, the Liujiagang and Changle inscriptions make a clear distinction between the second and third voyage as they correctly date the second voyage from 1407 to 1409 and the third voyage from 1409 to 1411.[280][283][284]

A number of later works have been preserved. The accounts in the Mingshi (1739) and Huang Xingzeng's Xiyang Chaogong Dianlu [西洋朝貢典錄] (1520) rely on Ma Huan's original Yingya Shenglan.[285] Zheng Xiao's Wuxuebian [吾學編] (ca. 1522) relies on Zhang Sheng's "rifacimento" of Ma Huan's Yingya Shenglan.[lower-alpha 26][285] Zhu Yunming's Qianwen Ji [A Record of Things Once Heard] (ca. 1526) contains his Xia Xiyang [下西洋; Down the Western Ocean], which provides a detailed itinerary of the seventh voyage.[262][286] There are also Lu Rong's Shuyuan Zaji [菽園雜記; Bean Garden Miscellany] (1475),[287] Yan Gongjian's Shuyu Zhouzilu [殊域周咨錄; Record of Despatches Concerning the Different Countries] (1520),[287] Gu Qiyuan's Kezuo Zhuiyu [客座贅語; Boring Talks for My Guests] (ca. 1628).[287] Mao Yuanyi's Wubei Zhi [武備志] (1628) preserves the Mao Kun map [茅坤圖], which is largely based on material from the treasure voyages.[287]

Luo Maodeng's Sanbao Taijian Xia Xiyang Ji Tongsu Yanyi [三寶太監下西洋記通俗演義] (1597) is a fiction novel about the exploits of Admiral Zheng He and his fleet.[272][288] In the preface, Luo states that Chinese maritime power was essential to maintaining the world order.[289] In Luo's work, Admiral Zheng He sailed the oceans in search for a sacred imperial seal to restore harmony in the Middle Kingdom.[288] He never finds this seal in the story, giving the suggestion that the world order cannot be restored by any other means than military force according to Finlay (1992).[290] Luo Maodeng's novel contains a description of different classes of ships with their sizes: the 36 nine-masted treasure ships (baochuan) were 44.4 by 18 zhang, the 700 eight-masted horse ships (machuan) were 37 by 15 zhang, the 240 seven-masted grain ships or supply ships (liangchuan) were 28 by 12 zhang, the 300 six-masted billet ships or troop transports (zuochuan) were 24 by 9.4 zhang, and the 180 five-masted combat ships or warships proper (zhanchuan) were 18 by 6.8 zhang.[291] Dreyer (2007) argues that this work holds little to no evidential value as a historical source, but also notes that Duyvendak thinks that it may be based on some truth.[292]

The Kezuo Zhuiyu and the Shuyu Zhouzilu describes the following circumstances of what happened to the official archives about the expeditions.[293] The Chenghua Emperor issued an order to retrieve the documents concerning the expeditions to the Western Ocean from the Ministry of War archives, but the official Liu Daxia (劉大夏) had hidden and burned the documents.[293][294] Liu Daxia dismissed the accounts as "deceitful exaggerations of bizarre things far removed from the testimony of people's ears and eyes."[293][294][276]

The Shuyu Zhouzilu then adds the following to the story.[293] The Minister of War Xiang Zhong (項忠; in office 1474–1477) had sent a clerk to retrieve the documents, but the clerk could not find them after several days of searching.[293][294] Liu Daxia eventually confessed and justified his actions to Xiang Zhong by stating that "the expeditions of Sanbao to the Western Ocean wasted tens of myriads of money and grain, and moreover the people who met their deaths [on these expeditions] may be counted by the myriads. Although he returned with wonderful things, what benefit was it to the state? This was merely an action of bad government of which ministers should severely disapprove. Even if the old archives were still preserved they should be destroyed in order to suppress [a repetition of these things] at the root."[293][294] Xiang Zhong was recorded to have been impressed by this explanation.[293][294]

The Mingshi, the Xuanzong Shilu, and the Mingshi Jishi Benmo [明史紀事本末] attributes the reason for the suppression and destruction of the archived records to preventing that the powerful eunuch Wang Zhi (汪直) could consult it for his invasion of Vietnam.[295] Dreyer (2007) notes that Liu Daxia could not have had access to the records in his capacity at the time, thus raising doubt about his actual involvement.[294] Duyvendak (1939) states that the Ministry of War officials were not influential enough to stop the retrieval of the documents and therefore speculates that Liu Daxia may have destroyed them with the approval of the Minister of War.[296]

Southeast Asian sources also provide clues about the Ming treasure voyages, but Suryadinata (2005) remarks that their reliability should be scrutinized as these local histories can be intertwined with legends but still remain relevant in the collective memories of the people concerned.[297] For instance, he highlights the difficulties of doing research in the role of the Chinese voyages in the Islamization of Java and Malacca, as these activities are not mentioned in the Chinese chronicles and local accounts may contain more legend than history.[298]

In 1499, shortly before Vasco da Gama's return from India to Portugal, Girolamo Sernigi reported on the Portuguese accounts from da Gama's expedition that "certain vessels of white Christians" had made port at Calicut on the Malabar coast generations before their arrival.[300] He speculated that these unknown mariners could have been the Germans or the Russians, but concluded that they may learn who those people are when da Gama arrives.[301] After his arrival at Calicut, da Gama began hearing tales of pale bearded men who sailed with their giant ships along the local coastal waters of Calicut generations before.[302] The Portuguese had in actuality encountered Malabar traditions that preserved the memory of Zheng He's voyages,[303] but they were not aware that these tales were about Zheng He's fleets.[302] They would eventually discover that these unknown mariners were, in fact, the Chinese.[300] Da Gama's men were apparently even mistaken for the Chinese at first on arrival at the East African coast, because the Chinese had been the last-seen pale-skinned strangers arriving with large wooden ships in the memories of the East African people.[300]

In the late 16th century, Juan González de Mendoza wrote that "it is plainly seene, that [the Chinese] did come with shipping into the Indies, having conquered al that is from China, unto the farthest part thereof. . . . So that at this day there is great memory of them . . . in the kingdom of Calicut, where be so many trees and fruits . . . were brought thither by the Chinos when that they were lords and governours of that countrie."[304]

In November 1997 during a Harvard University speech, President Jiang Zemin praised Admiral Zheng He for spreading Chinese culture abroad.[305] Many present-day Chinese people perceive that these expeditions were conducted in accordance with Confucian ideals.[305] Since 2005, in commemoration of the Ming treasure voyages, China has annually celebrated its National Maritime Day on 11 July.[306] That year also marked the 600th anniversary of Zheng He's maiden voyage.[306][307]

Although the present-day popular narrative may emphasize the peaceful nature of the voyages, especially in terms of the absence of territorial conquest and colonial subjugation, it overlooks the heavy militarization of the Ming treasure fleet to exercise power projection and thereby promote its interests.[308] In present-day Chinese political discourse, with rising developments in China's maritime capabilities and ambitions, the Ming treasure voyages are evoked to underscore a peaceful emergence of modern China.[309][310] It is suggested that, by drawing parallels between contemporary China and the historical narrative as provided by these voyages, this political process has several functions for the Chinese nation: it stimulates national pride and shapes national identity, it reaffirms a maritime identity, it legitimizes the development of maritime power, it provides an image of a harmonious and peaceful development, it highlights interconnectedness with the broader world, and it provides contrast to the violent nature of western colonialism.[310] As such, the Ming treasure voyages play an important narrative role in China's desire to change its strategic paradigm to that of a maritime power.[310]