Dynasties in Chinese history

From the inauguration of dynastic rule by Yu the Great in circa 2070 BC to the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 in the wake of the Xinhai Revolution, China was ruled by a series of successive dynasties.[lower-alpha 1] Dividing the history of China into periods ruled by dynasties is a common method of periodization utilized by scholars.[1]

Approximate territories controlled by the various dynasties and states throughout Chinese history, juxtaposed with the modern Chinese border.
History of China
ANCIENT
Neolithic c. 8500 – c. 2070 BC
Xia c. 2070 – c. 1600 BC
Shang c. 1600 – c. 1046 BC
Zhou c. 1046 – 256 BC
 Western Zhou
 Eastern Zhou
   Spring and Autumn
   Warring States
IMPERIAL
Qin 221–207 BC
Han 202 BC – 220 AD
  Western Han
  Xin
  Eastern Han
Three Kingdoms 220–280
  Wei, Shu and Wu
Jin 266–420
  Western Jin
  Eastern Jin Sixteen Kingdoms
Northern and Southern dynasties
420–589
Sui 581–618
Tang 618–907
  (Wu Zhou 690–705)
Five Dynasties and
Ten Kingdoms
907–979		 Liao 916–1125
Song 960–1279
  Northern Song Western Xia
  Southern Song Jin Western Liao
Yuan 1271–1368
Ming 1368–1644
Qing 1636–1912
MODERN
Republic of China on mainland 1912–1949
People's Republic of China 1949–present
Republic of China on Taiwan 1949–present
Related articles

Terminology

The following is a list of terms associated with the concept of dynasty in Chinese historiography:

  • cháo (朝): a dynasty
  • cháodài (朝代): an era corresponding to the rule of a dynasty
  • wángcháo (王朝): while technically referring to royal dynasties, this term is often inaccurately applied to dynasties whose rulers held non-royal titles such as emperor
  • huángcháo (皇朝): generally used for imperial dynasties

History
A depiction of Yu, the initiator of dynastic rule in China, by the Southern Song court painter Ma Lin.
A photograph of the Xuantong Emperor, widely considered to be the last legitimate monarch of China, taken in AD 1922.

Start of the Chinese dynastic system

As the founder of China's first dynasty, the Xia dynasty, Yu the Great is conventionally regarded as the inaugurator of dynastic rule in China.[2] In the Chinese dynastic system, sovereign rulers theoretically possessed absolute power and private ownership of everything within their realm.[3] This concept, known as jiā tiānxià (家天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the ruling family"), was in contrast to the pre-Xia notion of gōng tiānxià (公天下; "All under Heaven belongs to the public") whereby leadership succession was non-hereditary.[3][4]

Dynastic transition

The rise and fall of dynasties is a prominent feature of Chinese history. Some scholars have attempted to explain this phenomenon by attributing the success and failure of dynasties to the morality of the rulers, while others have focused on the tangible aspects of monarchical rule.[5] This method of explanation has come to be known as the dynastic cycle.[5][6][7]

Dynastic transitions (改朝換代; gǎi cháo huàn dài) in the history of China occurred primarily through two ways: military conquest and usurpation.[8] The supersession of the Liao dynasty by the Jin dynasty was achieved following a series of successful military campaigns, as was the later unification of China under the Yuan dynasty; on the other hand, the transition from the Eastern Han to the Cao Wei, as well as from the Southern Qi to the Liang dynasty, were cases of usurpation. Oftentimes, usurpers would seek to portray their predecessors as having relinquished the throne willingly—a process called shànràng (禪讓; "voluntary abdication")—as a means to legitimize their rule.[9]

One might incorrectly infer from viewing historical timelines that transitions between dynasties occurred abruptly and roughly. Rather, new dynasties were often established before the complete overthrow of an existing regime.[10] For example, AD 1644 is frequently cited as the year in which the Qing dynasty succeeded the Ming dynasty in possessing the Mandate of Heaven. However, the Qing dynasty was officially proclaimed in AD 1636 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing through renaming the Later Jin established by his father the Emperor Taizu of Qing in AD 1616, while the Ming imperial family would rule the Southern Ming until AD 1662.[11][12] The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning based in Taiwan continued to oppose the Qing until AD 1683.[13] Meanwhile, other factions also fought for control over China during the Ming–Qing transition, most notably the Shun and Xi dynasties proclaimed by Li Zicheng and Zhang Xianzhong respectively.[14][15][16] This change of ruling houses was a convoluted and prolonged affair, and the Qing took almost two decades to extend their rule over the entirety of China proper.

Similarly, during the earlier Sui–Tang transition, numerous regimes established by rebel forces vied for control and legitimacy as the power of the ruling Sui dynasty weakened. Autonomous regimes that existed during this period of upheaval included, but not limited to, Wei (魏; by Li Mi), Qin (秦; by Xue Ju), Qi (齊; by Gao Tancheng), Xu (許; by Yuwen Huaji), Liang (梁; by Shen Faxing), Liang (梁; by Liang Shidu), Xia (夏; by Dou Jiande), Zheng (鄭; by Wang Shichong), Chu (楚; by Zhu Can), Chu (楚; by Lin Shihong), Yan (燕; by Gao Kaidao), and Song (宋; by Fu Gongshi). The Tang dynasty that superseded the Sui launched a decade-long military campaign to reunify China proper.[17]

According to Chinese historiographical tradition, each new dynasty would compose the history of the preceding dynasty, culminating in the Twenty-Four Histories.[18] This tradition was maintained even after the Xinhai Revolution overthrew the Qing dynasty in favor of a republic. However, the attempt by the Republicans to draft the history of the Qing was disrupted by the Chinese Civil War, which resulted in the political division of China into the People's Republic of China on mainland China and the Republic of China on Taiwan.[19][20]

End of the Chinese dynastic system

Dynastic rule in China collapsed in AD 1912 when the Republic of China superseded the Qing dynasty following the success of the Xinhai Revolution.[21][22] While there were attempts after the Xinhai Revolution to reinstate dynastic rule in China, such as the Empire of China (AD 1915–1916) and the Manchu Restoration (AD 1917), they were unsuccessful at consolidating their rule and gaining political legitimacy.[23][24] Similarly, the Manchukuo (AD 1932–1945; monarchy since AD 1934), a puppet state of the Empire of Japan during World War II with limited diplomatic recognition, is not regarded as a legitimate regime.[25] Ergo, historians usually consider the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor on 12 February 1912 as the end of the Chinese dynastic system. Dynastic rule in China lasted almost four millennia.[21]

Political legitimacy

China was divided during multiple periods in its history, with different regions ruled by different dynasties. Effectively, these dynasties functioned as separate states with their own court and political institutions. Political division existed during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, the Northern and Southern dynasties, and the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms periods, among others.

Relations between Chinese dynasties during periods of division often revolved around political legitimacy, which was derived from the doctrine of the Mandate of Heaven.[26] Dynasties ruled by ethnic Han would proclaim rival dynasties founded by other ethnicities as illegitimate, usually justified based on the concept of Hua–Yi distinction. On the other hand, many dynasties of non-Han origin saw themselves as the legitimate dynasty of China and often sought to portray themselves as the true inheritor of Chinese culture and history. Traditionally, only regimes deemed as "legitimate" or "orthodox" (正統; zhèngtǒng) are termed cháo (朝; "dynasty"); "illegitimate" or "unorthodox" regimes are referred to as guó (國; usually translated as either "state" or "kingdom"[lower-alpha 2]), even if these regimes were dynastic in nature.[27] The political legitimacy status of some of these dynasties remain contentious among modern scholars.

Such legitimacy dispute existed during the following periods:

  • Three Kingdoms[28]
  • Eastern Jin and Sixteen Kingdoms[30]
    • The Eastern Jin proclaimed itself as legitimate
    • Several of the Sixteen Kingdoms such as the Han Zhao, the Later Zhao, and the Former Qin also claimed legitimacy
  • Northern and Southern dynasties[31]
    • All dynasties during this period saw themselves as the legitimate representative of China; the Northern dynasties referred to their southern counterparts as "dǎoyí" (島夷; "island dwelling barbarians"), while the Southern dynasties called their northern neighbors "suǒlǔ" (索虜; "barbarians with braids")[32][33]
  • Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms[34]
    • Having directly succeeded the Tang dynasty, the Later Liang considered itself to be a legitimate dynasty[34]
    • The Later Tang regarded itself as the restorer of the earlier Tang dynasty and rejected the legitimacy of its predecessor, the Later Liang[34]
    • The Later Jin accepted the Later Tang as a legitimate regime[34]
    • The Southern Tang was, for a period of time, considered the legitimate dynasty during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period[34]
    • Modern historiography generally considers the Five Dynasties, as opposed to the contemporary Ten Kingdoms, as legitimate[34][35]
  • Liao dynasty, Song dynasty, and Jin dynasty[36]
    • Following the conquest of the Later Jin, the Liao dynasty claimed legitimacy and succession from it[37]
    • Both the Northern Song and Southern Song considered themselves to be the legitimate Chinese dynasty
    • The Jin dynasty challenged the Song's claim of legitimacy
    • The succeeding Yuan dynasty recognized all three in addition to the Western Liao as legitimate Chinese dynasties, culminating in the composition of the History of Liao, the History of Song, and the History of Jin[38][39][40]
  • Ming dynasty and Northern Yuan[41]
    • The Ming dynasty recognized the preceding Yuan dynasty as a legitimate Chinese dynasty, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Yuan, thus considering the Northern Yuan as illegitimate
    • Northern Yuan rulers continued to claim the "Great Yuan" dynastic title and used Chinese imperial titles continuously until AD 1388; Chinese titles were restored on several occasions thereafter for brief periods
    • The Mongol historian Rashipunsug argued that the Northern Yuan had succeeded the legitimacy from the Yuan dynasty; the Qing dynasty, which later defeated and annexed the Northern Yuan, inherited this legitimacy, thus rendering the Ming as illegitimate[42]
  • Qing dynasty and Southern Ming[43]
    • The Qing dynasty recognized the preceding Ming dynasty as legitimate, but asserted that it had succeeded the Mandate of Heaven from the Ming, thus refuting the claimed legitimacy of the Southern Ming
    • The Southern Ming continued to claim legitimacy until its eventual defeat by the Qing
    • The Ming loyalist Kingdom of Tungning in Taiwan denounced the Qing dynasty as illegitimate
    • The Joseon dynasty of Korea and the Later Lê dynasty of Vietnam had at various times considered the Southern Ming, instead of the Qing, as legitimate[44][45]

While periods of disunity often resulted in heated debates among officials and historians over which dynasty could and should be considered orthodox, the Northern Song statesman Ouyang Xiu propounded that such orthodoxy existed in a state of limbo during fragmented periods and was restored after political unification was achieved.[46] From this perspective, the Song dynasty possessed legitimacy by virtue of its ability to end the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period despite not having succeeded the orthodoxy from the Later Zhou. Similarly, Ouyang considered the concept of orthodoxy to be in oblivion during the Three Kingdoms, the Sixteen Kingdoms, and the Northern and Southern dynasties periods.[46]

As most Chinese historiographical sources uphold the idea of unilineal dynastic succession, only one dynasty could be considered orthodox at any given time.[35] Most modern sources consider the legitimate line of succession to be as follows:[35]

Xia dynasty → Shang dynasty → Western Zhou → Eastern Zhou → Qin dynasty → Western Han → Eastern Han → Cao Wei → Western Jin → Eastern Jin → Liu Song → Southern Qi → Liang dynasty → Chen dynasty → Sui dynasty → Tang dynasty → Later Liang → Later Tang → Later Jin → Later Han → Later Zhou → Northern Song → Southern Song → Yuan dynasty → Ming dynasty → Qing dynasty

These historical legitimacy disputes are similar to the modern competing claims of legitimacy by the People's Republic of China based in Beijing and the Republic of China based in Taipei. Both regimes formally adhere to the One-China policy and claim to be the sole legitimate representative of the whole of China.[47]

Dynasties with agnatic relations

There were several groups of Chinese dynasties that were ruled by families with patrilineal relations, yet due to various reasons these regimes are considered to be separate dynasties and given separate retroactive names for historiographical purpose. Such conditions as differences in their official dynastic title and fundamental changes to their rule would create the need for nomenclatural distinction, despite these dynasties sharing common ancestral origins.

Additionally, numerous other dynasties claimed descent from earlier dynasties as a calculated political move to obtain or enhance their legitimacy, even if such claims were unfounded.

The agnatic relations of the following groups of Chinese dynasties are typically recognized by historians:

Classification of dynasties
A German map of the Chinese Empire during the height of the Qing dynasty. The Qing dynasty is considered to be a "Central Plain dynasty", a "unified dynasty", and a "conquest dynasty".

Central Plain dynasties

The Central Plain is a vast area on the lower reaches of the Yellow River which formed the cradle of Chinese civilization. "Central Plain dynasties" (中原王朝; Zhōngyuán wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China that had their capital cities situated within the Central Plain.[52] This term could refer to dynasties of both Han and non-Han ethnic origins.[52]

Unified dynasties

"Unified dynasties" (大一統王朝; dàyītǒng wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China, regardless of their ethnic origin, that achieved the unification of China proper. "China proper" is a region generally regarded as the traditional heartland of the Han people, and is not equivalent to the term "China". Imperial dynasties that had unified China proper may be known as the "Chinese Empire" or the "Empire of China" (中華帝國; Zhōnghuá Dìguó).[53][54]

The concept of "great unity" or "grand unification" (大一統; dàyītǒng) was first mentioned in the Chinese classical text Gongyang Commentary on the Spring and Autumn Annals that was supposedly authored by the Qi scholar Gongyang Gao.[55][56][57] Other prominent figures like Confucius and Mencius also touched upon this concept in their respective works.[58][59]

Historians typically consider the following dynasties to have unified China proper: the Qin dynasty, the Western Han, the Xin dynasty, the Eastern Han, the Western Jin, the Sui dynasty, the Tang dynasty, the Wu Zhou, the Northern Song, the Yuan dynasty, the Ming dynasty, and the Qing dynasty.[60][61] The status of the Northern Song as a unified dynasty is disputed among historians as the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun were partially administered by the contemporaneous Liao dynasty while the Western Xia exercised partial control over Hetao; the Northern Song, in this sense, did not truly achieve the unification of China proper.[60][62]

Conquest dynasties
Main article: Conquest dynasty

"Conquest dynasties" (征服王朝; zhēngfú wángcháo) refer to dynasties of China founded by non-Han peoples that ruled parts or all of China proper.[63] This term was first coined by the historian and sinologist Karl August Wittfogel and remains a source of controversy among scholars who believe that Chinese history should be analyzed and understood from a multiethnic and multicultural perspective.[64] For instance, the Northern Wei and the Qing dynasty, established by the Xianbei and Manchu ethnicities respectively, are considered conquest dynasties of China.[63]

Naming convention

Official dynastic name

It was customary for Chinese monarchs to adopt an official name for the realm, known as the guóhào (國號; "name of the state"), upon the establishment of a dynasty.[65][66] During the rule of a dynasty, its guóhào functioned as the formal name of the state, both internally and for diplomatic purposes.

There were instances whereby the official name was changed during the reign of a dynasty. For example, the dynasty known retroactively as Southern Han (南漢) initially used the name "Yue" (越), only to be renamed to "Han" (漢) subsequently.[67]

The formal name of Chinese dynasties was usually derived from one the following sources:

  • The name of the ruling tribe or tribal confederation[68][69]
    • e.g., the Xia dynasty took its name from its ruling class, the Xia tribal confederation[68]
  • The noble title held by the dynastic founder prior to the founding of the dynasty[68][69]
  • The name of a historical state that occupied the same geographical location as the new dynasty[69][71]
  • The name of a previous dynasty from which the new dynasty claimed descent or succession from, even if such familial link was questionable[69]
  • A term with auspicious or other significant connotations[68][69]
    • e.g., the Yuan dynasty was officially the "Great Yuan", a name derived from a clause in the Classic of Changes, "dà zāi Qián Yuán" (大哉乾元; "Great is the Heavenly and Primal")[73]

The official title of several dynasties bore the character "dà" (大; "great"). In Yongzhuang Xiaopin by the Ming historian Zhu Guozhen, it was claimed that the first dynasty to do so was the Yuan dynasty.[74][75] However, several sources like the History of Liao and the History of Jin compiled by the Yuan historian Toqto'a revealed that the official dynastic name of some earlier dynasties such as the Liao and the Jin also contained the character "dà".[76][77] It was also common for officials, subjects, or vassal states of a particular dynasty to include the term "dà" (or an equivalent term in other languages) when referring to this dynasty as a form of respect, even if the official dynastic name did not include it.[75] For instance, the Japanese historical text Nihon Shoki referred to the Tang dynasty as "Ōkara" (大唐; "Great Tang") despite its dynastic name being simply "Tang".

The adoption of guóhào, as well as the importance assigned to it, had promulgated within the Sinosphere. Notably, rulers of Vietnam and Korea also declared guóhào for their respective realm.

Retroactive dynastic name

In Chinese historiography, historians generally do not refer to dynasties by their official name. Instead, historiographical names, which were most commonly derived from their guóhào, are used. For instance, the Sui dynasty (隋朝) is known as such because its formal name was "Sui" (隋). Likewise, the Jin dynasty (金朝) was officially the "Great Jin" (大金).

When more than one dynasty shared the same Chinese character(s) as their formal name, as was common in Chinese history, prefixes are retroactively applied to dynastic names by historians in order to distinguish between these similarly-named regimes.[78][79] Frequently used prefixes include:

A dynasty could be referred to by more than one retroactive name in Chinese historiography, albeit some are more widely used than others. For instance, the Liu Song (劉宋) is also known as the "Former Song" (前宋), and the Yang Wu (楊吳) is also called the "Southern Wu" (南吳).

Scholars usually make a historiographical distinction for dynasties whose rule were interrupted. For example, the Song dynasty is divided into the Northern Song and the Southern Song, with the Jingkang Incident as the dividing line; the original "Song" founded by the Emperor Taizu of Song was therefore differentiated from the "Song" restored under the Emperor Gaozong of Song. In such cases, the regime had collapsed, only to be re-established; a distinction between the original regime and the new regime is thus necessary for historiographical purpose. Major exceptions to this historiographical practice include the Western Qin and the Tang dynasty, which were interrupted by the Later Qin and the Wu Zhou respectively.

In Chinese sources, the term "dynasty" (朝; cháo) is usually omitted when referencing dynasties that have prefixes in their historiographical names. Such a practice is sometimes adopted in English usage, even though the inclusion of the word "dynasty" is also widely seen in English scholarly writings. For example, the Northern Zhou is also sometimes referred to as the "Northern Zhou dynasty".[80]

List of major Chinese dynasties

This list includes only major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines.

Dynasty Ruling house Period of rule Rulers
Name[lower-alpha 3]
(English / Chinese[lower-alpha 4] / Pinyin[lower-alpha 5] / Bopomofo)		 Origin of name Surname
(English / Chinese[lower-alpha 4])		 Ethnicity[lower-alpha 6] Status[lower-alpha 7] Year Term Founder[lower-alpha 8] Last monarch List
Semi-legendary
Xia dynasty
夏朝
Xià Cháo
ㄒㄧㄚˋ ㄔㄠˊ		 Tribal name Si
姒		 Huaxia Royal 2070–1600 BC[lower-alpha 9][lower-alpha 10][lower-alpha 11][87] 430 years[lower-alpha 10][lower-alpha 11] Yu of Xia Jie of Xia (list)
Ancient China
Shang dynasty
商朝
Shāng Cháo
ㄕㄤ ㄔㄠˊ		 Toponym Zi
子		 Huaxia Royal 1600–1046 BC[lower-alpha 9][lower-alpha 12][89] 554 years[lower-alpha 12] Tang of Shang Zhou of Shang (list)
Western Zhou[lower-alpha 13]
西周
Xī Zhōu
ㄒㄧ ㄓㄡ		 Toponym Ji
姬		 Huaxia Royal 1046–771 BC[lower-alpha 9][lower-alpha 14][90] 275 years[lower-alpha 14] Wu of Zhou You of Zhou (list)
Eastern Zhou[lower-alpha 13]
東周
Dōng Zhōu
ㄉㄨㄥ ㄓㄡ		 From Zhou dynasty Ji
姬		 Huaxia Royal 770–256 BC[90] 514 years Ping of Zhou Nan of Zhou (list)
Early Imperial China[lower-alpha 15]
Qin dynasty
秦朝
Qín Cháo
ㄑㄧㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ		 Toponym Ying
嬴		 Huaxia Imperial
(221–207 BC)
Royal
(207 BC)		 221–207 BC[91] 14 years Qin Shi Huang Qin San Shi (list)
Western Han[lower-alpha 16]
西漢
Xī Hàn
ㄒㄧ ㄏㄢˋ		 Toponym & Noble title Liu
劉		 Han Imperial 202 BC–AD 9[lower-alpha 17][93] 211 years[lower-alpha 17] Gao of Han Liu Ying (list)
Xin dynasty
新朝
Xīn Cháo
ㄒㄧㄣ ㄔㄠˊ		 "New" Wang
王		 Han Imperial AD 9–23[94] 14 years Wang Mang Wang Mang (list)
Eastern Han[lower-alpha 16]
東漢
Dōng Hàn
ㄉㄨㄥ ㄏㄢˋ		 From Han dynasty Liu
劉		 Han Imperial AD 25–220[95] 195 years Guangwu of Han Xian of Han (list)
Three Kingdoms
三國
Sān Guó
ㄙㄢ ㄍㄨㄛˊ		 AD 220–280[96] 60 years (list)
Cao Wei
曹魏
Cáo Wèi
ㄘㄠˊ ㄨㄟˋ		 Noble title Cao
曹		 Han Imperial AD 220–266[97] 46 years Wen of Cao Wei Yuan of Cao Wei (list)
Shu Han
蜀漢
Shǔ Hàn
ㄕㄨˇ ㄏㄢˋ		 From Han dynasty Liu
劉		 Han Imperial AD 221–263[98] 42 years Zhaolie of Shu Han Xiaohuai of Shu Han (list)
Eastern Wu
東吳
Dōng Wú
ㄉㄨㄥ ㄨˊ		 Noble title Sun
孫		 Han Royal
(AD 222–229)
Imperial
(AD 229–280)		 AD 222–280[99] 58 years Da of Eastern Wu Sun Hao (list)
Western Jin[lower-alpha 18][lower-alpha 19]
西晉
Xī Jìn
ㄒㄧ ㄐㄧㄣˋ		 Noble title Sima
司馬		 Han Imperial AD 266–316[100] 50 years Wu of Jin Min of Jin (list)
Eastern Jin[lower-alpha 18][lower-alpha 19]
東晉
Dōng Jìn
ㄉㄨㄥ ㄐㄧㄣˋ		 From Jin dynasty (AD 266–420) Sima
司馬		 Han Imperial AD 317–420[101] 103 years Yuan of Jin Gong of Jin (list)
Sixteen Kingdoms
十六國
Shíliù Guó
ㄕˊ ㄌㄧㄡˋ ㄍㄨㄛˊ		 AD 304–439[102] 135 years (list)
Han Zhao
漢趙
Hàn Zhào
ㄏㄢˋ ㄓㄠˋ		 Toponym & From Han dynasty Liu[lower-alpha 20]
劉		 Xiongnu Royal
(AD 304–308)
Imperial
(AD 308–329)		 AD 304–329[105] 25 years Guangwen of Han Zhao Liu Yao (list)
Cheng Han
成漢
Chéng Hàn
ㄔㄥˊ ㄏㄢˋ		 Toponym & From Han dynasty Li
李		 Di Princely
(AD 304–306)
Imperial
(AD 306–347)		 AD 304–347[lower-alpha 21][107] 43 years[lower-alpha 21] Wu of Cheng Han[lower-alpha 21] Li Shi (list)
Later Zhao
後趙
Hòu Zhào
ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄠˋ		 Noble title Shi
石		 Jie Royal
(AD 319–330)
Imperial
(AD 330–351)
Princely
(AD 351)		 AD 319–351[108] 32 years Ming of Later Zhao Shi Zhi (list)
Former Liang
前涼
Qián Liáng
ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ		 Toponym Zhang
張		 Han Princely
(AD 320–354; AD 355–363)
Imperial
(AD 354–355)
Ducal
(AD 363–376)		 AD 320–376[109] 56 years Cheng of Former Liang Dao of Former Liang (list)
Former Yan
前燕
Qián Yān
ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄧㄢ		 Toponym Murong
慕容		 Xianbei Princely
(AD 337–353)
Imperial
(AD 353–370)		 AD 337–370[110] 33 years Wenming of Former Yan You of Former Yan (list)
Former Qin
前秦
Qián Qín
ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄑㄧㄣˊ		 Toponym Fu[lower-alpha 22]
苻		 Di Imperial AD 351–394[lower-alpha 23][110] 43 years[lower-alpha 23] Jingming of Former Qin[lower-alpha 23] Fu Chong (list)
Later Yan
後燕
Hòu Yān
ㄏㄡˋ ㄧㄢ		 From Former Yan Murong[lower-alpha 24][lower-alpha 25]
慕容		 Xianbei[lower-alpha 25] Princely
(AD 384–386)
Imperial
(AD 386–409)		 AD 384–409[lower-alpha 26][115] 25 years[lower-alpha 26] Chengwu of Later Yan Zhaowen of Later Yan
or
Huiyi of Yan[lower-alpha 27]		 (list)
Later Qin
後秦
Hòu Qín
ㄏㄡˋ ㄑㄧㄣˊ		 Toponym Yao
姚		 Qiang Royal
(AD 384–386)
Imperial
(AD 386–417)		 AD 384–417[116] 33 years Wuzhao of Later Qin Yao Hong (list)
Western Qin
西秦
Xī Qín
ㄒㄧ ㄑㄧㄣˊ		 Toponym Qifu
乞伏		 Xianbei Princely AD 385–400; AD 409–431[117] 37 years[lower-alpha 28] Xuanlie of Western Qin Qifu Mumo (list)
Later Liang[lower-alpha 29]
後涼
Hòu Liáng
ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ		 Toponym Lü
呂		 Di Ducal
(AD 386–389)
Princely
(AD 389–396)
Imperial
(AD 396–403)		 AD 386–403[118] 17 years Yiwu of Later Liang Lü Long (list)
Southern Liang
南涼
Nán Liáng
ㄋㄢˊ ㄌㄧㄤˊ		 Toponym Tufa
禿髮		 Xianbei Princely AD 397–414[119] 17 years Wu of Southern Liang Jing of Southern Liang (list)
Northern Liang
北涼
Běi Liáng
ㄅㄟˇ ㄌㄧㄤˊ		 Toponym Juqu[lower-alpha 30]
沮渠		 Xiongnu[lower-alpha 30] Ducal
(AD 397–399; AD 401–412)
Princely
(AD 399–401; AD 412–439)		 AD 397–439[121] 42 years Duan Ye Ai of Northern Liang (list)
Southern Yan
南燕
Nán Yān
ㄋㄢˊ ㄧㄢ		 From Former Yan Murong
慕容		 Xianbei Princely
(AD 398–400)
Imperial
(AD 400–410)		 AD 398–410[122] 12 years Xianwu of Southern Yan Murong Chao (list)
Western Liang
西涼
Xī Liáng
ㄒㄧ ㄌㄧㄤˊ		 Toponym Li
李		 Han Ducal AD 400–421[123] 21 years Wuzhao of Western Liang Li Xun (list)
Hu Xia
胡夏
Hú Xià
ㄏㄨˊ ㄒㄧㄚˋ		 From Xia dynasty Helian[lower-alpha 31]
赫連		 Xiongnu Imperial AD 407–431[125] 24 years Wulie of Hu Xia Helian Ding (list)
Northern Yan
北燕
Běi Yān
ㄅㄟˇ ㄧㄢ		 From Former Yan Feng[lower-alpha 32]
馮		 Han[lower-alpha 32] Imperial AD 407–436[lower-alpha 33][126] 29 years[lower-alpha 33] Huiyi of Yan[lower-alpha 27]
or
Wencheng of Northern Yan		 Zhaocheng of Northern Yan (list)
Northern dynasties
北朝
Běi Cháo
ㄅㄟˇ ㄔㄠˊ		 AD 386–581[127] 195 years (list)
Northern Wei
北魏
Běi Wèi
ㄅㄟˇ ㄨㄟˋ		 Toponym Tuoba[lower-alpha 34]
拓跋		 Xianbei Princely
(AD 386–399)
Imperial
(AD 399–535)		 AD 386–535[129] 149 years Daowu of Northern Wei Xiaowu of Northern Wei (list)
Eastern Wei
東魏
Dōng Wèi
ㄉㄨㄥ ㄨㄟˋ		 From Northern Wei Yuan
元		 Xianbei Imperial AD 534–550[130] 16 years Xiaojing of Eastern Wei Xiaojing of Eastern Wei (list)
Western Wei
西魏
Xī Wèi
ㄒㄧ ㄨㄟˋ		 From Northern Wei Yuan[lower-alpha 35]
元		 Xianbei Imperial AD 535–557[130] 22 years Wen of Western Wei Gong of Western Wei (list)
Northern Qi
北齊
Běi Qí
ㄅㄟˇ ㄑㄧˊ		 Noble title Gao
高		 Han Imperial AD 550–577[130] 27 years Wenxuan of Northern Qi Gao Heng (list)
Northern Zhou
北周
Běi Zhōu
ㄅㄟˇ ㄓㄡ		 Noble title Yuwen
宇文		 Xianbei Imperial AD 557–581[130] 24 years Xiaomin of Northern Zhou Jing of Northern Zhou (list)
Southern dynasties
南朝
Nán Cháo
ㄋㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ		 AD 420–589[132] 169 years (list)
Liu Song
劉宋
Liú Sòng
ㄌㄧㄡˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ		 Noble title Liu
劉		 Han Imperial AD 420–479[133] 59 years Wu of Liu Song Shun of Liu Song (list)
Southern Qi
南齊
Nán Qí
ㄋㄢˊ ㄑㄧˊ		 A prophecy on defeating the Liu clan Xiao
蕭		 Han Imperial AD 479–502[134] 23 years Gao of Southern Qi He of Southern Qi (list)
Liang dynasty
梁朝
Liáng Cháo
ㄌㄧㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ		 Toponym Xiao
蕭		 Han Imperial AD 502–557[135] 55 years Wu of Liang Jing of Liang (list)
Chen dynasty
陳朝
Chén Cháo
ㄔㄣˊ ㄔㄠˊ		 Noble title Chen
陳		 Han Imperial AD 557–589[136] 32 years Wu of Chen Chen Shubao (list)
Middle Imperial China[lower-alpha 15]
Sui dynasty
隋朝
Suí Cháo
ㄙㄨㄟˊ ㄔㄠˊ		 Noble title ("随" homophone) Yang[lower-alpha 36]
楊		 Han Imperial AD 581–619[138] 38 years Wen of Sui Gong of Sui (list)
Tang dynasty
唐朝
Táng Cháo
ㄊㄤˊ ㄔㄠˊ		 Noble title Li
李		 Han Imperial AD 618–690; AD 705–907[139] 274 years[lower-alpha 37] Gaozu of Tang Ai of Tang (list)
Wu Zhou
武周
Wǔ Zhōu
ㄨˇ ㄓㄡ		 From Zhou dynasty Wu
武		 Han Imperial AD 690–705[140] 15 years Wu Zhao Wu Zhao (list)
Five Dynasties
五代
Wǔ Dài
ㄨˇ ㄉㄞˋ		 AD 907–960[141] 53 years (list)
Later Liang[lower-alpha 29]
後梁
Hòu Liáng
ㄏㄡˋ ㄌㄧㄤˊ		 Noble title Zhu
朱		 Han Imperial AD 907–923[142] 16 years Taizu of Later Liang Zhu Youzhen (list)
Later Tang
後唐
Hòu Táng
ㄏㄡˋ ㄊㄤˊ		 From Tang dynasty Li[lower-alpha 38][lower-alpha 39][lower-alpha 40]
李		 Shatuo[lower-alpha 40] Imperial AD 923–937[146] 14 years Zhuangzong of Later Tang Li Congke (list)
Later Jin[lower-alpha 41]
後晉
Hòu Jìn
ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣˋ		 Toponym Shi
石		 Shatuo Imperial AD 936–947[147] 11 years Gaozu of Later Jin Chu of Later Jin (list)
Later Han
後漢
Hòu Hàn
ㄏㄡˋ ㄏㄢˋ		 From Han dynasty Liu
劉		 Shatuo Imperial AD 947–951[147] 4 years Gaozu of Later Han Yin of Later Han (list)
Later Zhou
後周
Hòu Zhōu
ㄏㄡˋ ㄓㄡ		 From Zhou dynasty Guo[lower-alpha 42]
郭		 Han Imperial AD 951–960[147] 9 years Taizu of Later Zhou Gong of Later Zhou (list)
Ten Kingdoms
十國
Shí Guó
ㄕˊ ㄍㄨㄛˊ		 AD 907–979[149] 62 years (list)
Former Shu
前蜀
Qián Shǔ
ㄑㄧㄢˊ ㄕㄨˇ		 Toponym / Noble title Wang
王		 Han Imperial AD 907–925[150] 18 years Gaozu of Former Shu Wang Yan (list)
Yang Wu
楊吳
Yáng Wú
ㄧㄤˊ ㄨˊ		 Toponym Yang
楊		 Han Princely
(AD 907–919)
Royal
(AD 919–927)
Imperial
(AD 927–937)		 AD 907–937[lower-alpha 43][152] 30 years[lower-alpha 43] Liezu of Yang Wu[lower-alpha 43] Rui of Yang Wu (list)
Ma Chu
馬楚
Mǎ Chǔ
ㄇㄚˇ ㄔㄨˇ		 Toponym Ma
馬		 Han Royal
(AD 907–930)
Princely
(AD 930–951)		 AD 907–951[153] 44 years Wumu of Ma Chu Ma Xichong (list)
Wuyue
吳越
Wúyuè
ㄨˊ ㄩㄝˋ		 Toponym Qian
錢		 Han Royal
(AD 907–932; AD 937–978)
Princely
(AD 934–937)		 AD 907–978[153] 71 years Taizu of Wuyue Zhongyi of Qin (list)
Min
閩
Mǐn
ㄇㄧㄣˇ		 Toponym Wang[lower-alpha 44]
王		 Han Princely
(AD 909–933; AD 944–945)
Imperial
(AD 933–944; AD 945)		 AD 909–945[153] 36 years Taizu of Min Tiande (list)
Southern Han
南漢
Nán Hàn
ㄋㄢˊ ㄏㄢˋ		 From Han dynasty Liu
劉		 Han Imperial AD 917–971[153] 54 years Gaozu of Southern Han Liu Chang (list)
Jingnan
荊南
Jīngnán
ㄐㄧㄥ ㄋㄢˊ		 Toponym Gao
高		 Han Princely AD 924–963[153] 39 years Wuxin of Chu Gao Jichong (list)
Later Shu
後蜀
Hòu Shǔ
ㄏㄡˋ ㄕㄨˇ		 Toponym Meng
孟		 Han Imperial AD 934–965[153] 31 years Gaozu of Later Shu Gongxiao of Chu (list)
Southern Tang
南唐
Nán Táng
ㄋㄢˊ ㄊㄤˊ		 From Tang dynasty Li[lower-alpha 45]
李		 Han Imperial
(AD 937–958)
Royal
(AD 958–976)		 AD 937–976[156] 37 years Liezu of Southern Tang Li Yu (list)
Northern Han
北漢
Běi Hàn
ㄅㄟˇ ㄏㄢˋ		 From Later Han Liu[lower-alpha 46]
劉		 Shatuo[lower-alpha 46] Imperial AD 951–979[158] 28 years Shizu of Northern Han Yingwu of Northern Han (list)
Liao dynasty
遼朝
Liáo Cháo
ㄌㄧㄠˊ ㄔㄠˊ		 "Iron" (Khitan homophone) / Toponym Yelü
耶律
 Khitan Imperial AD 916–1125[lower-alpha 47][160] 209 years[lower-alpha 47] Taizu of Liao Tianzuo of Liao (list)
Western Liao
西遼
Xī Liáo
ㄒㄧ ㄌㄧㄠˊ		 From Liao dynasty Yelü[lower-alpha 48]
耶律
 Khitan[lower-alpha 48] Royal
(AD 1124–1132)
Imperial
(AD 1132–1218)		 AD 1124–1218[163] 94 years Dezong of Western Liao Kuchlug (list)
Northern Song[lower-alpha 49]
北宋
Běi Sòng
ㄅㄟˇ ㄙㄨㄥˋ		 Toponym Zhao
趙		 Han Imperial AD 960–1127[164] 167 years Taizu of Song Qinzong of Song (list)
Southern Song[lower-alpha 49]
南宋
Nán Sòng
ㄋㄢˊ ㄙㄨㄥˋ		 From Song dynasty Zhao
趙		 Han Imperial AD 1127–1279[165] 152 years Gaozong of Song Zhao Bing (list)
Western Xia
西夏
Xī Xià
ㄒㄧ ㄒㄧㄚˋ		 Toponym Weiming[lower-alpha 50]
嵬名
𗼨𗆟		 Tangut Imperial AD 1038–1227[167] 189 years Jingzong of Western Xia Li Xian (list)
Jin dynasty[lower-alpha 19]
金朝
Jīn Cháo
ㄐㄧㄣ ㄔㄠˊ		 "Gold" Wanyan
完顏
 Jurchen Imperial AD 1115–1234[168] 119 years Taizu of Jin Wanyan Chenglin (list)
Late Imperial China[lower-alpha 15]
Yuan dynasty
元朝
Yuán Cháo
ㄩㄢˊ ㄔㄠˊ		 "Great" / "Primacy" Borjigin
孛兒只斤
ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ		 Mongol Imperial AD 1271–1368[lower-alpha 51][170] 97 years[lower-alpha 51] Shizu of Yuan Huizong of Yuan (list)
Northern Yuan
北元
Běi Yuán
ㄅㄟˇ ㄩㄢˊ		 From Yuan dynasty Borjigin[lower-alpha 52]
孛兒只斤
ᠪᠣᠷᠵᠢᠭᠢᠨ		 Mongol[lower-alpha 52] Imperial AD 1368–1635[lower-alpha 53][176] 267 years[lower-alpha 53] Huizong of Yuan Borjigin Ejei Khongghor[lower-alpha 53] (list)
Ming dynasty
明朝
Míng Cháo
ㄇㄧㄥˊ ㄔㄠˊ		 "Bright" Zhu
朱		 Han Imperial AD 1368–1644[177] 276 years Hongwu Chongzhen (list)
Southern Ming
南明
Nán Míng
ㄋㄢˊ ㄇㄧㄥˊ		 From Ming dynasty Zhu
朱		 Han Imperial AD 1644–1662[lower-alpha 54][179] 18 years[lower-alpha 54] Hongguang Yongli[lower-alpha 54] (list)
Later Jin[lower-alpha 41]
後金
Hòu Jīn
ㄏㄡˋ ㄐㄧㄣ		 From Jin dynasty (AD 1115–1234) Aisin Gioro
愛新覺羅
ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ		 Jurchen[lower-alpha 55] Royal AD 1616–1636[182] 20 years Tianming Taizong of Qing (list)

Qing dynasty
清朝
Qīng Cháo
ㄑㄧㄥ ㄔㄠˊ		 "Pure" Aisin Gioro
愛新覺羅
ᠠᡳᠰᡳᠨ ᡤᡳᠣᡵᠣ		 Manchu Imperial AD 1636–1912[lower-alpha 56][183] 276 years Taizong of Qing Xuantong (list)
Criteria for inclusion
This list includes only major dynasties of China that are typically found in simplified forms of Chinese historical timelines. There were many other dynastic regimes that existed within or overlapped with the boundaries defined in the scope of Chinese historical geography.[lower-alpha 57] These were:[196] Dynasties outside of "China" with full or partial Chinese ancestry, like the Early Lý dynasty of Vietnam and the Thonburi dynasty of Siam, are not included.[197][198][199][200] Likewise, dynasties that ruled Chinese tributary states outside of "China", such as the First Shō dynasty of the Ryukyu Islands and the Nguyễn dynasty of Vietnam, are also excluded from this list.[201][202]
Legend
  Major dynasties
  Major time periods
  Dynasties counted among the "Three Kingdoms"
  Dynasties counted among the "Sixteen Kingdoms"
  Dynasties counted among the "Northern dynasties" within the broader "Northern and Southern dynasties"
  Dynasties counted among the "Southern dynasties" within the broader "Northern and Southern dynasties"
  Dynasties counted among the "Five Dynasties" within the broader "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms"
  Dynasties counted among the "Ten Kingdoms" within the broader "Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms"

Timelines
Further information: Timeline of Chinese history

Timeline of major historical periods
Xia–Shang–W. Zhou
Qin–Han
Sui–Tang
Liao–Song–W. Xia–Jin–Yuan
Ming–Qing

Timeline of major dynasties and regimes
ChinaTaiwanRepublic of China (1912–1949)Southern MingQing dynastyLater Jin (1616–1636)Ming dynastyNorthern Yuan dynastyYuan dynastyQara KhitaiJin dynasty (1115–1234)Western XiaNorthern Song DynastyNorthern HanLater ZhouLater Han (Five Dynasties)Southern TangLater Jin (Five Dynasties)Later ShuJingnanLater TangSouthern HanLiao dynastyMin KingdomWuyueMa ChuYang WuFormer ShuLater Liang (Five Dynasties)Tang dynastyZhou dynasty (690–705)Tang dynastySui dynastyChen dynastyNorthern ZhouNorthern QiWestern WeiEastern WeiLiang dynastySouthern QiLiu Song dynastyWestern QinNorthern YanXia (Sixteen Kingdoms)Western Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)Southern YanNorthern LiangSouthern Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)Northern WeiLater Liang (Sixteen Kingdoms)Western QinLater QinLater YanFormer QinFormer YanFormer LiangLater ZhaoCheng HanFormer ZhaoJin dynasty (266–420)Eastern WuShu HanCao WeiXin dynastyQin dynastyEastern ZhouWestern ZhouShang dynastyXia dynastyThree Sovereigns and Five Emperors
Legend
  Protodynastic rulers
  Dynastic regimes
  Non-dynastic regimes

See also

Notes
  1. All attempts at restoring monarchical and dynastic rule in China after the success of the Xinhai Revolution ended in failure. Hence, the abdication of the Xuantong Emperor in AD 1912 is typically regarded as the formal end of the Chinese monarchy.
  2. The term "kingdom" is potentially misleading as not all rulers held the title of king. For example, sovereigns of the Eastern Wu held the title huángdì (皇帝; "emperor") despite the realm being considered as one of the "Three Kingdoms". Similarly, monarchs of the Western Qin, one of the "Sixteen Kingdoms", bore the title wáng (王; usually translated as "prince").
  3. The English and Chinese names stated are historiographical nomenclature. These should not be confused with the guóhào officially proclaimed by each dynasty. A dynasty may be known by more than one historiographical name.
  4. The Chinese characters shown are in Traditional Chinese. Some characters may have simplified versions that are currently used in mainland China. For instance, the characters for the Eastern Han are written as "東漢" in Traditional Chinese and "东汉" in Simplified Chinese.
  5. While Hanyu Pinyin is the most common form of romanization currently in adoption, some scholarly works utilize the Wade–Giles system, which may differ drastically in the spelling of certain words. For instance, the Qing dynasty is rendered as "Ch῾ing dynasty" in Wade–Giles.[81]
  6. While Chinese historiography tends to treat dynasties as being of specific ethnic stocks, there were some monarchs who had mixed heritage.[82] For instance, the Jiaqing Emperor of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty was of mixed Manchu and Han descent, having derived his Han ancestry from his mother, the Empress Xiaoyichun.[83]
  7. The status of a dynasty was dependent upon the chief title bore by its monarch at any given time.
  8. The monarchs listed were the de facto founders of dynasties. However, it was common for Chinese monarchs to posthumously honor earlier members of the family as monarchs. For instance, while the Later Jin was officially established by the Emperor Gaozu of Later Jin, four earlier members of the ruling house were posthumously accorded imperial titles, the most senior of which was Shi Jing who was conferred the temple name Jingzu (靖祖) and the posthumous name Emperor Xiao'an (孝安皇帝).
  9. The dates given for the Xia dynasty, the Shang dynasty, and the Western Zhou prior to the start of the Gonghe Regency in 841 BC are derived from the Xia–Shang–Zhou Chronology Project.
  10. The Xia dynasty was interrupted by the rule of Yi and Han Zhuo for approximately 40 years.[84] Sources disagree on the dates of the start and end of the interregnum. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed prior to the interregnum and the restored realm. The King Xiang of Xia was the last ruler before the interregnum; the King Shao Kang of Xia was the first ruler after the interregnum.[84]
  11. The rule of the Xia dynasty was traditionally dated 2205–1766 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin.[85][86] Accordingly, the Xia dynasty lasted 399 years excluding the 40-year interregnum.
  12. The rule of the Shang dynasty was traditionally dated 1766–1122 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin.[85][88] Accordingly, the Shang dynasty lasted 644 years.
  13. The Western Zhou (西周) and the Eastern Zhou (東周) are collectively known as the Zhou dynasty (周朝; Zhōu Cháo).[48]
  14. The rule of the Western Zhou was traditionally dated 1122–771 BC as per the calculations made by the historian Liu Xin.[85][88] Accordingly, the Western Zhou lasted 351 years.
  15. The terms "Chinese Empire" and "Empire of China" refer to the Chinese state under the rule of various imperial dynasties, particularly those that had achieved the unification of China proper.[53][54]
  16. The Western Han (西漢) and the Eastern Han (東漢) are collectively known as the Han dynasty (漢朝; Hàn Cháo).[49]
  17. Some historians consider 206 BC, the year in which the Emperor Gao of Han was proclaimed King of Han, to be the start of the Western Han.[92] Accordingly, the Western Han lasted 215 years.
  18. The Western Jin (西晉) and the Eastern Jin (東晉) are collectively known as the Jin dynasty (晉朝; Jìn Cháo).[50]
  19. The names of the Jin dynasty (晉朝) of the Sima clan and the Jin dynasty (金朝) of the Wanyan clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin".
  20. The ruling house of the Han Zhao initially bore the surname Luandi (攣鞮).[103][104] Liu (劉) was subsequently adopted as the surname prior to the establishment of the Han Zhao.
  21. Some historians consider AD 303, the year in which the Emperor Jing of Cheng Han proclaimed the era name Jianchu (建初), to be the start of the Cheng Han.[106] Accordingly, the Cheng Han was founded by the Emperor Jing of Cheng Han and lasted 44 years.
  22. The ruling house of the Former Qin initially bore the surname Pu (蒲).[111] Fu (苻) was subsequently adopted as the surname by the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin prior to the establishment of the Former Qin.[111]
  23. Some historians consider AD 350, the year in which the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin was proclaimed Prince of Three Qins, to be the start of the Former Qin.[112] Accordingly, the Former Qin was founded by the Emperor Huiwu of Former Qin and lasted 44 years.
  24. As Lan Han, surnamed Lan (蘭), was not a member of the Murong (慕容) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[113]
  25. The Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Goguryeo descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.[114] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
  26. Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Later Yan ended in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 23 years or 25 years.
  27. The Emperor Huiyi of Yan could either be the last Later Yan monarch or the founder of the Northern Yan depending on the historian's characterization.[114]
  28. The Western Qin was interrupted by the Later Qin between AD 400 and AD 409. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 400 and the realm restored in AD 409. The Prince Wuyuan of Western Qin was both the last ruler before the interregnum and the first ruler after the interregnum.
  29. The names of the Later Liang (後涼) of the Lü clan and the Later Liang (後梁) of the Zhu clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Liang".
  30. Duan Ye, surnamed Duan (段), was of Han Chinese descent. The enthronement of the Prince Wuxuan of Northern Liang was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.[120]
  31. The ruling house of the Hu Xia initially bore the surname Liu (劉).[124] The Emperor Wulie of Hu Xia subsequently adopted Helian (赫連) as the surname.[124]
  32. The Emperor Huiyi of Yan was of Goguryeo descent. Originally surnamed Gao (高), he was an adopted member of the Murong (慕容) clan.[114] The enthronement of the Emperor Wencheng of Northern Yan was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
  33. Depending on the status of the Emperor Huiyi of Yan, the Northern Yan was established in either AD 407 or AD 409 and lasted either 29 years or 27 years.
  34. The ruling house of the Northern Wei initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋).[128] The Emperor Xiaowen of Northern Wei subsequently adopted Yuan (元) as the surname.[128]
  35. The ruling house of the Western Wei initially bore the surname Yuan (元). The Emperor Gong of Western Wei subsequently adopted Tuoba (拓跋) as the surname.[131]
  36. The ruling house of the Sui dynasty initially bore the surname Yang (楊). The Western Wei later bestowed the surname Puliuru (普六茹) upon the family.[137] The Emperor Wen of Sui subsequently restored Yang as the surname.
  37. The Tang dynasty was interrupted by the Wu Zhou between AD 690 and AD 705. Chinese historiography does not make a distinction between the realm that existed up to AD 690 and the realm restored in AD 705. The Emperor Ruizong of Tang was the last ruler before the interregnum; the Emperor Zhongzong of Tang was the first ruler after the interregnum.
  38. The ruling house of the Later Tang initially bore the surname Zhuye (朱邪).[143] Li (李) was subsequently adopted as the surname by the Emperor Xianzu of Later Tang prior to the establishment of the Later Tang.[143]
  39. The Emperor Mingzong of Later Tang, originally without surname, was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.[144] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
  40. Li Congke was of Han Chinese descent. Originally surnamed Wang (王), he was an adopted member of the Li (李) clan.[145] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
  41. The names of the Later Jin (後晉) of the Shi clan and the Later Jin (後金) of the Aisin Gioro clan are rendered similarly using the Hanyu Pinyin system, even though they do not share the same Chinese character for "Jin".
  42. The Emperor Shizong of Later Zhou, originally surnamed Chai (柴), was an adopted member of the Guo (郭) clan.[148] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
  43. Some historians consider AD 902, the year in which the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu was proclaimed Prince of Wu, to be the start of the Yang Wu.[151] Accordingly, the Yang Wu was founded by the Emperor Taizu of Yang Wu and lasted 35 years.
  44. As Zhu Wenjin, surnamed Zhu (朱), was not a member of the Wang (王) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[154]
  45. The ruling house of the Southern Tang initially bore the surname Xu (徐).[155] The Emperor Liezu of Southern Tang subsequently adopted Li (李) as the surname.[155]
  46. The Emperor Yingwu of Northern Han was of Han Chinese descent. Originally surnamed He (何), he was an adopted member of the Liu (劉) clan.[157] His enthronement was therefore not a typical dynastic succession.
  47. Some historians consider AD 907, the year in which the Emperor Taizu of Liao was proclaimed Khagan of the Khitans, to be the start of the Liao dynasty.[159] Accordingly, the Liao dynasty lasted 218 years.
  48. Kuchlug, originally without surname, was of Naiman descent. As he was not a member of the Yelü (耶律) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[161][162]
  49. The Northern Song (北宋) and the Southern Song (南宋) are collectively known as the Song dynasty (宋朝; Sòng Cháo).[51]
  50. The ruling house of the Western Xia initially bore the surname Tuoba (拓跋). The Tang dynasty and the Song dynasty later bestowed the surnames Li (李) and Zhao (趙) upon the family respectively. The Emperor Jingzong of Western Xia subsequently adopted Weiming (嵬名) as the surname.[166]
  51. Some historians consider AD 1260, the year in which the Emperor Shizu of Yuan was proclaimed Khagan of the Mongol Empire, to be the start of the Yuan dynasty.[169] Accordingly, the Yuan dynasty lasted 108 years.
  52. Choros Esen, surnamed Choros (綽羅斯), was of Oirat descent. As he was not a member of the Borjigin (孛兒只斤) clan by birth, his enthronement was not a typical dynastic succession.[171][172]
  53. Traditional Chinese historiography considers the Northern Yuan to have ended in either AD 1388 or AD 1402.[173][174] Accordingly, the Northern Yuan lasted either 20 years or 34 years, and its last ruler was either the Tianyuan Emperor or the Örüg Temür Khan. However, some historians regard the Mongol regime that existed from AD 1388 or AD 1402 up to AD 1635—referred to in the History of Ming as "Dada" (韃靼)—as a direct continuation of the Northern Yuan.[175]
  54. Some historians consider AD 1664, the year in which the reign of the Dingwu Emperor came to an end, to be the end of the Southern Ming.[178] Accordingly, the Southern Ming lasted 20 years and its last ruler was the Dingwu Emperor. However, the existence and identity of the Dingwu Emperor, supposedly reigned from AD 1646 to AD 1664, are disputed.
  55. The Jurchen ethnic group was renamed "Manchu" in AD 1635 by the Emperor Taizong of Qing.[180][181]
  56. The Qing dynasty was briefly restored between 1 July 1917 and 12 July 1917. The movement was led by Zhang Xun who reinstalled the Xuantong Emperor to the Chinese throne.[24] Due to the abortive nature of the event, it is usually excluded from the Qing history.
  57. As proposed by scholars such as Tan Qixiang, the geographical extent covered in the study of Chinese historical geography largely corresponds with the territories once ruled by the Qing dynasty during its territorial peak between the AD 1750s and the AD 1840s, prior to the outbreak of the First Opium War.[184] At its height, the Qing dynasty exercised jurisdiction over an area larger than 13 million km2, encompassing:[185][186][187] Modern Chinese historiography considers all regimes, regardless of the ethnicity of the ruling class, that were established within or overlapped with the above geographical boundaries to be part of Chinese history.[194][195] Similarly, all ethnic groups that were active within the above geographical boundaries are considered ethnicities of China.[194][195]

References

Citations
  1. Keay, John (2010). China: A History. ISBN 9780007372089.
  2. Ebrey, Patricia; Liu, Kwang-Ching (2010). The Cambridge Illustrated History of China. p. 10. ISBN 9780521124331.
  3. Chan, Joseph (2013). Confucian Perfectionism: A Political Philosophy for Modern Times. p. 213. ISBN 9781400848690.
  4. Qi, Zhixiang (2016). 中國現當代人學史：思想演變的時代特徵及其歷史軌跡. p. 21. ISBN 9789869244923.
  5. Perdue, Peter (2009). China Marches West: The Qing Conquest of Central Eurasia. p. 6. ISBN 9780674042025.
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Sources
  • China Handbook Editorial Committee, China Handbook Series: History (trans., Dun J. Li), Beijing, 1982, 188–189; and Shao Chang Lee, "China Cultural Development" (wall chart), East Lansing, 1984.
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