China–New Zealand relations

New Zealand's contact with China started in the mid 19th century. The first records of ethnic Chinese in New Zealand were migrant workers from Guangdong province, who arrived during the 1860s Otago Gold Rush. Most of the migrant workers were male, with few women migrants. Emigration from China was driven by overpopulation, land shortages, famine, drought, banditry, and peasant revolts, which triggered a wave of Chinese migration to Southeast Asia, Australia, New Zealand, the United States, and Canada.[7]

Early Chinese migrants encountered considerable racial discrimination and prejudice. In 1871, the New Zealand Government imposed a poll tax on Chinese migrants that was not repealed until 1944. Other discriminatory policies included an English literacy test, restrictive immigration measures, denial of old age pensions, and being barred from permanent residency and citizenship (from 1908 to 1952). After the Gold Rush ended in the 1880s, many of the former Chinese miners found work as market gardeners, shopkeepers, and laundry operators. There was some limited intermarriage with White and indigenous Māori women.[8][9]

In 1903, the Qing dynasty had established a consulate in Wellington to deal with trade, immigration, and local Chinese welfare. Following the Xinhai Revolution in 1912, the Republic of China took over the consulate. The lack of a reciprocal New Zealand mission in China made the Republic of China's mission in Wellington serve as the primary point of contact between both governments until 1972.[10] During the Republican era, New Zealand interests in China were largely represented by British diplomatic and consular missions. However, there were some attempts to establish New Zealand trade commissions in Tianjin and Shanghai.[11]

Between 1912 and 1949, there were over 350 New Zealand expatriates living and working in China, including missionaries for various Christian denominations, medical workers, United Nations Relief and Rehabilitation Administration (UNRRA) workers, teachers, and telegraph workers. Some notable expatriates included the missionaries Annie James and James Huston Edgar, and the Communist writer, teacher, and activist Rewi Alley.[12]

During the Second World War, New Zealand society developed a more favourable view of China because of its status as a wartime ally against Japan. Chinese market gardeners were viewed as an important contribution to the wartime economy. New Zealand also eased its immigration policy to admit Chinese refugees and grant them permanent residency. In the postwar years, many Chinese migrants, including women and children, settled in New Zealand since the Communist victory in 1949 made it difficult for many to return home.[13]

Following the establishment of the People's Republic of China (PRC) in 1949, New Zealand did not initially recognise the new government. Instead, it joined Australia and the United States in continuing to recognise the Republic of China (ROC) government, which had relocated to Taiwan, as the legitimate government of China. Between 1951 and 1960, New Zealand and Australia consistently supported a US moratorium proposal to block Soviet efforts to seat the PRC as the lawful representatives of China in the United Nations and to expel the ROC representatives. By contrast, the United Kingdom had established diplomatic relations with the PRC in 1949. While the conservative National Party favoured the ROC, the social -democratic Labour Party favoured extending diplomatic relations to the PRC. New Zealand and the PRC also fought on opposite sides during the Korean War, with the former supporting the United Nations forces and the latter backing North Korea.[14][15]

The PRC government also expelled many missionaries and foreigners, including most New Zealand expatriates by 1951. One missionary, Annie James of the New Zealand Presbyterian Church's Canton Villages Mission, was imprisoned and interrogated. However, some pro-communist Westerners, including Rewi Alley, were allowed to remain in China. Alley pioneered a working model for secular "cooperative education" in vocational subjects and rural development. Despite the lack of official relations between the two countries, unofficial relations were conducted through the auspices of the Chinese People's Association for Friendship with Foreign Countries and the New Zealand China Friendship Society (NZCFS). In addition, the Communist Party of New Zealand and trade unions were sympathetic to the PRC.[16][17]

Prime Minister of New Zealand Keith Holyoake visited ROC President Chiang Kai-shek in 1960. Holyoake had a favourable view of the ROC and permitted the upgrading of the ROC consulate to full embassy status in 1962. However, New Zealand declined to establish any diplomatic or trading mission in Taiwan but opted to conduct its relations with the ROC through trade commissioners based in Tokyo and Hong Kong. As pressure for PRC representation at the United Nations grew, the New Zealand Government came to favour dual representation of both Chinese governments, but that was rejected by both the ROC and the PRC. In 1971, New Zealand and other US allies unsuccessfully opposed United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758 to recognise the PRC as the "only legitimate representative of China to the UN."[18][19]

In December 1972, the newly elected Third Labour Government formally recognised the People's Republic of China, with both governments signing a Joint Communique to govern bilateral relations. According to former New Zealand diplomat Gerald Hensley, Prime Minister Norman Kirk initially hesitated recognising the PRC until his second term but changed his mind because of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Kirk was influenced by his Australian counterpart Gough Whitlam's decision to recognise the PRC.[20][21][22]

Despite ending diplomatic relations with the ROC, the New Zealand Permanent Representative to the UN negotiated an agreement with his ROC counterpart Huang Hua for both countries to continue maintaining trade and other non-official contacts with Taiwan. The last ROC Ambassador to New Zealand was Konsin Shah, the dean of the diplomatic corps in Wellington.[23][24]

In April 1973, Joe Walding became the first New Zealand government minister to visit China and met Premier Zhou Enlai. In return, Chinese Foreign Trade Minister Bai Xiangguo visited Wellington, seeking to sign a trade agreement in New Zealand. The same year, the PRC established an embassy in Wellington, and Pei Tsien-chang was appointed as the first Chinese ambassador to New Zealand. In September 1973, the New Zealand Embassy was established in Beijing with Bryce Harland serving as the first New Zealand Ambassador to China.[24][25]

Following the 1975 general election, the Third National Government abandoned National's support for the "Two Chinas policy" and expanded upon its Labour predecessors' diplomatic and trade relations with the PRC.[24][26] In April–May 1976, Robert Muldoon became the first New Zealand Prime Minister to visit China. He visited Beijing and met with Premier Hua Guofeng and Chairman Mao Zedong. Muldoon's visit serve to strengthen diplomatic and trading ties between the two countries and to reassure the New Zealand public that China did not pose a threat to New Zealand.[27]

Since the end of the Cold War, bilateral relations between New Zealand and China have grown particularly in the areas of trade, education, tourism, climate change, and public sector co-operation. Bilateral relations has been characterized by trade and economic co-operation. In August 1997, New Zealand became the first Western country to support China's accession to the World Trade Organization by concluding a bilateral agreement. In April 2004, New Zealand became the first country to recognise China as a market economy during a second round of trade negotiations. In November 2004, New Zealand and China launched negotiations towards a free trade agreement in November 2004, with an agreement being signed in April 2008. In November 2016, both countries entered into negotiations to upgrade their free trade agreement.[5][28]

Countries which signed cooperation documents related to the Belt and Road Initiative

In 1972, New Zealand's trade relations with Mainland China were paltry with NZ exports to China estimated to being less than NZ$2 million per annum. Early New Zealand exports to China included timber, pulp and paper while early Chinese exports to NZ were high-quality printing paper and chemicals.[34][35] Over the successive decades, trade between the two countries grew. In terms of the Chinese share of New Zealand trade, New Zealand's exports to China rose from about 2% in 1981 to about 4.9% in 1988. In 1990, it dropped to 1% due to the fallout from the Tiananmen Square massacre. By 2001, NZ exports to China accounted for 7% of China's New Zealand's overseas trade. Meanwhile, New Zealand imports to China rose from below 1% of New Zealand's trade volume in 1981 to 7% by 2001.[36]

Mainland China (i.e. excluding Hong Kong and Macau) is New Zealand's largest trading partner, with bilateral trade between the two countries in 2017-18 valued at NZ$27.75 billion. Hong Kong SAR is New Zealand's 13th-largest trading partner, with bilateral trade of NZ$2.1 billion.[37]

New Zealand's main exports to China are dairy products, travel and tourism, wood and wood products, meat, fish and seafood, and fruit. China's main exports to New Zealand are electronics, machinery, textiles, furniture, and plastics.[38][37]

HMNZS Te Kaha docked in Victoria Harbour, Hong Kong, China - 2004

Chinese Navy ship in Auckland, NZ

A free trade agreement (FTA) between China and New Zealand was signed on 7 April 2008 by Premier of the People's Republic of China Wen Jiabao and Prime Minister of New Zealand Helen Clark in Beijing.[39] Under the agreement, about one third of New Zealand exports to China will be free of tariffs from 1 October 2008, with another third becoming tariff free by 2013, and all but 4% by 2019.[39] In return, 60% of China's exports to New Zealand will become tariff free by 2016 or earlier; more than a third are already duty-free.[40] Investment, migration, and trade in services will also be facilitated.[41]

The free trade agreement with China is New Zealand's most significant since the Closer Economic Relations agreement with Australia was signed in 1983. It was also the first time China has entered into a comprehensive free trade agreement with a developed country.[42]

The agreement took more than three years to negotiate. On 19 November 2004 Helen Clark and President of the People's Republic of China, Hu Jintao announced the commencement of negotiations towards an FTA at the APEC Leaders meeting in Santiago, Chile. The first round of negotiations was held in December 2004. Fifteen rounds took place before the FTA was signed in April 2008.[43]

While the FTA enjoys the support of New Zealand's two largest political parties, Labour and National, other parties such as the Green Party and the Māori Party opposed the agreement at the time.[44][45] Winston Peters was also a vocal opponent of the agreement, but agreed not to criticise it while acting as Minister of Foreign Affairs overseas (a position he held from 2005 to 2008).[46]

In early November 2019, New Zealand and China agreed to upgrade their free trade agreement. China has eased restrictions on New Zealand exports and given New Zealand preferential access to the wood and paper trade with China. In return, New Zealand agree to lessen visa restrictions for Chinese tour guides and Chinese language teachers.[47][48]

In May 2015, The Hollywood Reporter reported that several Chinese, New Zealand, and Canadian film companies including the China Film Group, the Qi Tai Culture Development Group, New Zealand's Huhu Studios, and the Canadian Stratagem Entertainment had entered into an US$800 million agreement to produce 17 live-action and animated films over the next six to eight years. As part of the agreement, the China Film Group's animation division China Film Animation would be working with Huhu Studios to produce an animated film called Beast of Burden with a US$20 million budget.[49] This partnership between Huhu Studios and China Film Animation was the first official New Zealand–Chinese film co-production agreement. The film was subsequently released as Mosley on 10 October 2019.[50][51]

New Zealand is represented in China through the New Zealand Embassy in Beijing, with consulates in Shanghai, Guangzhou, Hong Kong and Chengdu.[55] The Chengdu Consulate-General was opened by the New Zealand Prime Minister the Rt Hon John Key in November 2014.[56][57] China is represented in New Zealand through the Embassy of the People's Republic of China in Wellington, with consulates in Auckland and Christchurch.[58][59][60]

In addition to its diplomatic relations with mainland of China, New Zealand also maintains diplomatic and economic relations with the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. In March 2010, New Zealand and Hong Kong entered into a bilateral economic partnership agreement. New Zealand maintains a Consulate-General in Hong Kong, which is also accredited to the Macau SAR. Hong Kong's interests in New Zealand are represented by the Chinese Embassy in Wellington and the Hong Kong Economic and Trade Office in Sydney.[61][62]

Though New Zealand no longer has diplomatic relations with Taiwan, New Zealand still maintains trade, economic, and cultural relations with Taiwan. Taiwan has two Economic and Cultural offices in Auckland and Wellington. New Zealand also has a Commerce and Industry Office in Taipei.[63][64]

New Zealand Ministerial Visits to the People's Republic of China:[5]

Chinese dancers welcome the new year in Dunedin

Chinese Ministerial Visits to New Zealand

In September 2017, the University of Canterbury political scientist and China expert Dr Anne-Marie Brady presented a conference paper entitled "Magic Weapons: China's political influence activities under Xi Jinping" alleging that the Chinese Government was using local Chinese community organisations and ethnic media as part of a "united front" strategy and the One Belt One Road initiative to advance Chinese soft power influence in New Zealand. Alleged Chinese activities have included using "united front" organizations to promote support for Beijing among the Chinese New Zealand community, monitoring Chinese students academics, cultivating relations with New Zealand's political and business elites, and encouraging Chinese diaspora participation in New Zealand politics. Key "united front" organizations have included the New Zealand China Friendship Society, Peaceful Reunification of China Association of New Zealand (PRCANZ), the New Zealand Overseas Chinese Service Centre, and local branches of the Chinese Students and Scholars Association.[71]

According to Brady's research, Chinese state agencies like the Xinhua News Agency had forged cooperation agreements with several NZ Chinese media outlets including the Chinese Herald, FM 90.6, Panda TV, Channel 37, Chinese Times, Kiwi Style, SkyKiwi, World TV, and NCTV, bringing them in line with Beijing's agenda. Brady also raised concerns about Chinese united front efforts to cultivate the support of politicians from the New Zealand National, Labour, and ACT parties including National Member of Parliament Jian Yang, Labour candidate Raymond Huo, and ACT candidate Kenneth Wang. Brady's paper suggested that Yang had once been a Chinese intelligence officer since he had taught at the People's Liberation Army's Air Force Engineering University and Luoyang PLA University of Foreign Language. In addition, Brady's paper noted that several former National MPs and ministers including Ruth Richardson, Chris Tremain, Don Brash, and former Prime Minister Jenny Shipley had joined the boards of several Chinese banks.[71]

Brady's paper coincided with the 2017 New Zealand general election and attracted substantial attention from New Zealand politicians, commentators and the media.[72] The-then Prime Minister Bill English said he had no concerns about the issues raised by the report while Labour leader Jacinda Ardern said that she did not see a need to follow Australia's lead in scrutinizing Chinese influence in domestic affairs but vowed to look at the issue further. Don Brash, who was named in the report for his co-directorship of the Industrial Bank of China in New Zealand, stated that China was no different than other great powers in wanting to extend its influence and cultivate allies. Huo, who was named in the report, stated "that there was a fine line between what Brady has alleged and the genuine promotion of the NZ-China relationship." Former Prime Minister Helen Clark responded that New Zealand should engage with major powers in the Asia-Pacific region but "should not be naive in its interaction with them." Shipley denied being a "mouthpiece" of the Chinese Government.[73][74]

Huawei was excluded from Spark's 5GB on national security grounds

In late November 2018, the New Zealand Government banned the Chinese telecommunications company Huawei from supplying mobile equipment to national telecommunications company Spark New Zealand's 5GB network. This was done at the advice of NZ's signals intelligence agency, the Government Communications Security Bureau, which cited a "significant network security risk." The New Zealand ban has been linked to similar efforts by other Western governments including the United States, the United Kingdom, and Australia to restrict the usage of Huawei products and services in their 5GB networks as well as the ongoing China-United States trade war.[75][76] GCSB Minister Andrew Little has defended the ban citing China's National Intelligence Law which compels Chinese corporates and citizens to co-operate and collaborate with Chinese intelligence.[77]

Huawei New Zealand managing director Yanek Fan has criticized the New Zealand Government for treating the company unfairly while telecommunications provider 2degrees has criticized the ban for harming competition.[78][79] Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Geng Shuan has called on New Zealand to provide a level playing field for Chinese companies. Meanwhile, the state-owned Global Times has warned that the Huawei ban would hurt New Zealand's industry and consumers.[80][81]

In early 2019, various New Zealand media have speculated that the Chinese cancellation of the 2019 New Zealand-China Year of Tourism event at Te Papa Museum in Wellington and the decision to deny an Air New Zealand flight landing rights were connected to the Huawei ban. Air New Zealand Flight NZ289 had initially been denied landing rights due to references in the flight plan to Taiwan as an independent state; something at odds with the One China Policy.[82][83][84] In response to media reportage, Prime Minister Jacinda Ardern has publicly denied that there has been a breakdown in Sino-New Zealand relations and stated that the denial of the Air New Zealand flight landing rights was the result of administrative errors. Opposition Leader Simon Bridges has criticized the Labour-led coalition government for allegedly damaging Sino-New Zealand relations.[85][86] According to clarification posts in Weibo, the plane was never registered in the CCAR part 125 required by Civil Aviation Administration of China, and landing without that registration will result in loss of points, affecting their operations in China. The particular plane registered as ZK-NZQ has a cabin configuration is not usually used to operate flights to mainland China, and in its 5 months of service have never been to mainland China before.

During a press conference held in mid-February 2019, Chinese Foreign Ministry Spokesperson Geng Shuang denied that there was a breakdown in bilateral relations in response to the cancellation of the 2019 China-New Zealand Year of Tourism event and Chinese media reports discouraging Chinese tourists from visiting New Zealand. He clarified that the Chinese Embassy and consulate generals in New Zealand had issued statements advising their nationals to take precautions against theft and robbery while visiting New Zealand. Shuang characterized the Chinese-New Zealand relationship as "sound and steady."[87][88]

In July 2019, the UN ambassadors from 22 nations, including New Zealand, signed a joint letter to the UNHRC condemning China's mistreatment of the Uyghurs as well as its mistreatment of other minority groups, urging the Chinese government to close the Xinjiang re-education camps.[89]

In early August 2019, the New Zealand government rebuked Chinese diplomats over recent comments and actions in which they sought to suppress freedom of speech and voiced support for violent opposition to Hong Kong protestors in New Zealand.[90] Earlier, the Chinese Consulate-General in Auckland had praised the "patriotic actions" of Chinese students who had confronted a group of pro-Hong Kong democracy student activists at the University of Auckland.[91] The Hong Kong student activists had set up a Lennon Wall to express solidarity with the 2019 Hong Kong anti-extradition bill protests. One of the Chinese students had reportedly assaulted a Hong Kong student during an altercation at the university in late July 2019.[92][93] Ministry of Foreign Affairs and Trade officials cautioned Chinese officials about their interference in New Zealand affairs, and Prime Minister Ardern reiterated New Zealand's commitment to free speech on university campuses.[90] ACT Party leader David Seymour also sent a letter to the Consulate-General criticizing it for interfering in New Zealand internal affairs.[94]

In response, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Hua Chunying defended the actions of Chinese international students and the Consulate-General in Auckland, blaming "Hong Kong independence" activists for stirring up anti-China sentiments at the University of Auckland. While sympathising with the patriotic feelings of Chinese students, Hua reminded Chinese students to abide by New Zealand law and the regulations of their university. Hua also defended the actions of the Consulate-General as "fulfilling its duty" and "beyond reproach." He also called on certain New Zealanders to stop condoning "anti-China separatist activities" under the guise of free speech. Hua also defended the response of the Chinese Consulate-General in Brisbane following similar clashes between pro-Hong Kong and pro-China students at the University of Queensland.[95][96]

In early May 2020, Foreign Minister Winston Peters expressed support for Taiwan rejoining the World Health Organization during a press conference. Taiwan has been excluded from the international organisation due to the One China Policy.[97] The Taiwanese Government welcomed Peter's remarks while the Chinese Embassy objected to Peters' remarks, reiterating that New Zealand should abide by the One China Policy.[98][99] The New Zealand Government has since backed Taiwan's bid to join the WHO, placing NZ alongside Australia and the United States who have taken similar positions during the COVID-19 pandemic.[100]

On 12 May, Chinese Foreign Ministry spokesperson Zhao Lijian responded by warning that Peters' remarks violated the One China Policy and would hurt bilateral relations during the two countries. He claimed that Beijing had made proper arrangements for Taiwan's participation in global health events and accused Taipei of exploiting the COVID-19 pandemic to seek Taiwanese independence.[101] Peters has stood by his earlier remarks.[102]