Hijab

Women wearing hijabs

A hijab (/hɪˈdʒɑːb, hɪˈdʒæb, ˈhɪdʒ.æb, hɛˈdʒɑːb/;[1][2][3][4] Arabic: حجاب‎ ḥijāb, pronounced [ħɪˈdʒaːb] or Egyptian Arabic: [ħeˈɡæːb]) is a veil worn by some Muslim women in the presence of any male outside of their immediate family, which usually covers the head and chest. The word ḥijāb in the Qur'an refers not to women's clothing, but rather a spatial partition or curtain.[5] The term can refer to any head, face, or body covering worn by Muslim women that conforms to a certain standard of modesty. Hijab can also be used to refer to the seclusion of women from men in the public sphere, or it may denote a metaphysical dimension, for example referring to "the veil which separates man or the world from God".[6]

Sometimes, it is worn by women as a symbol of fashion, modesty and privacy. According to the Encyclopedia of Islam and Muslim World, modesty in the Quran concerns both men's and women's "gaze, gait, garments, and genitalia."[7] The Qur'an instructs Muslim women to dress modestly.[8] Some Islamic legal systems define this type of modest clothing as covering everything except the face, hands up to wrists, and feet.[6][9] These guidelines are found in texts of hadith and fiqh developed after the revelation of the Qur'an but, according to some, are derived from the verses (ayahs) referencing hijab in the Qur'an.[7] Some believe that the Qur'an itself does not mandate that women wear hijab.[10][11]

In the Qur'an, the term hijab refers to a partition or curtain in the literal or metaphorical sense. The verse where it is used literally is commonly understood to refer to the curtain separating visitors to Muhammad's house from his wives' lodgings. This had led some to argue that the mandate of the Qur'an to wear hijab applied to the wives of Muhammad, and not women generally.[12][13]

In recent times, wearing hijab in public has been required by law in Saudi Arabia (for Muslims), Iran and the Indonesian province of Aceh. Other countries, both in Europe and in the Muslim world, have passed laws banning some or all types of hijab in public or in certain types of locales. Women in different parts of the world have also experienced unofficial pressure to wear or not wear hijab.

In Islamic scripture

Quran

The Quran instructs both Muslim men and women to dress in a modest way, but there is disagreement on how these instructions should be interpreted. The verses relating to dress use the terms khimār (head cover) and jilbāb (a dress or cloak) rather than ḥijāb.[5] In the Quran, there are over 6,000 verses and only about half a dozen refer specifically to the way a woman should dress or walk in public.[14]

The clearest verse on the requirement of modest dress is surah 24:30–31, telling women to guard their private parts and draw their khimār over their bosoms.[15][16]

And say to the believing women that they should lower their gaze and guard their private parts; that they should not display their beauty and ornaments except what (must ordinarily) appear thereof; that they should draw their khimār over their breasts and not display their beauty except to their husband, their fathers, their husband's fathers, their sons, their husbands' sons, their brothers or their brothers' sons, or their sisters' sons, or their women, or the slaves whom their right hands possess, or male servants free of physical needs, or small children who have no sense of the shame of sex; and that they should not strike their feet in order to draw attention to their hidden ornaments.

— Quran 24:31

In Surah 33:59 Muhammad is commanded to ask his family members and other Muslim women to wear outer garments when they go out, so that they are not harassed:[16]

Those who harass believing men and believing women undeservedly, bear (on themselves) a calumny and a grievous sin. O Prophet! Enjoin your wives, your daughters, and the wives of true believers that they should cast their outer garments over their persons (when abroad): That is most convenient, that they may be distinguished and not be harassed.

— Quran 33:58–59

The word ḥijāb in the Quran refers not to women's clothing, but rather a spatial partition or curtain.[5] Sometimes its use is literal, as in the verse which refers to the screen that separated Muhammad's wives from the visitors to his house (33:53), while in other cases the word denotes separation between deity and mortals (42:51), wrongdoers and righteous (7:46, 41:5), believers and unbelievers (17:45), and light from darkness (38:32).[5]

The interpretation of the ḥijāb as separation can be digested in three ways: as a visual barrier, physical barrier, and ethical barrier. The visual barrier has the opportunity to hide something from sight which places emphasis on a symbolic boundary (for example, between the Prophet's family and the surrounding community). The physical barrier is used to create a space that provides comfort and privacy for individuals such as the female elite. The ethical barrier, is known to make something forbidden such as the 'purity of hearts' in reference to the Prophet's wives and the Muslim men who visit them.[17]

Hadith

Moroccan girls wearing the hijab

The Arabic word jilbab is translated as "cloak" in the following passage. Contemporary Salafis insist that the jilbab (which is worn over the Kimaar and covers the body from head to toe) worn today is the same garment mentioned in the Qur'an and the hadith; other translators have chosen to use less specific terms:

  • Narrated Anas ibn Malik: "I know (about) the Hijab (the order of veiling of women) more than anybody else. Ubay ibn Ka'b used to ask me about it. Allah's Apostle became the bridegroom of Zaynab bint Jahsh whom he married at Medina. After the sun had risen high in the sky, the Prophet invited the people to a meal. Allah's Apostle remained sitting and some people remained sitting with him after the other guests had left. Then Allah's Apostle got up and went away, and I too, followed him till he reached the door of 'Aisha's room. Then he thought that the people must have left the place by then, so he returned and I also returned with him. Behold, the people were still sitting at their places. So he went back again for the second time, and I went along with him too. When we reached the door of 'Aisha's room, he returned and I also returned with him to see that the people had left. Thereupon the Prophet hung a curtain between me and him and the Verse regarding the order for (veiling of women) Hijab was revealed." Sahih al-Bukhari, 7:65:375, Sahih Muslim, 8:3334
  • Narrated Umm Salama Hind bint Abi Umayya, Ummul Mu'minin: "When the verse 'That they should cast their outer garments over their persons' was revealed, the women of Ansar came out as if they had crows hanging down over their heads by wearing outer garments." 32:4090. Abū Dawud classed this hadith as authentic.
  • Narrated Safiya bint Shaiba: "Aisha used to say: 'When (the Verse): "They should draw their veils (Khumur) over their necks and bosoms (juyyub)," was revealed, (the ladies) cut their waist sheets at the edges and covered their faces with the cut pieces.'" Sahih al-Bukhari, 6:60:282, 32:4091.

Dress code required by hijab

Traditionalist views

Women wearing tudungs (the Malay term for hijab) in Brunei

Traditionally, Muslims have recognized many different forms of clothing as satisfying the demands of hijab.[18] Debate focused on how much of the male or female body should be covered. Different scholars adopted different interpretations of the original texts.

Detailed scholarly attention has focused on prescribing female dress in conformity with hijab. The four major Sunni schools of thought (Hanafi, Shafi'i, Maliki and Hanbali) hold that the entire body of the woman, except her face and hands – though a few clerics say face, hands – must be covered during prayer and in public settings (see Awrah). There are those who allow the feet to be uncovered as well as the hands and face.[19][20]

It is recommended that women wear clothing that is not form fitting to the body: either modest forms of western clothing (long shirts and skirts), or the more traditional jilbāb, a high-necked, loose robe that covers the arms and legs. A khimār or shaylah, a scarf or cowl that covers all but the face, is also worn in many different styles. Some scholars encourage covering the face, while some follow the opinion that it is not obligatory to cover the face and the hands but only mustahab (Highly recommended). Other scholars oppose face covering, particularly in the West, where the woman may draw more attention as a result. These garments are very different in cut from most of the traditional forms of ħijāb, and they are worn worldwide by Muslims.

A 15th-century Persian depiction of Muhammad visiting hell during Mi'raj and seeing a demon punishing "shameless women" who had exposed their hair to strangers.

Many Muslim scholars believe that it is a basic requirement of Islamic law that women keep their hair and bodies covered in the presence of people of the opposite sex other than close family members (those close enough to be forbidden to marry—see mahram). These include the Iraqi Shia Marja' (Grand Ayatollah) Ali al-Sistani;[21] the Sunni Permanent Committee for Islamic Research and Issuing Fatwas in Saudi Arabia;[22] and others. According to some interpretations, these requirements extend to non-Muslim women as well. Some believers go so far as to specify exactly which areas of the body must be covered. In some cases, this is everything but the eyes, but most require that women cover everything but the face and hands. In nearly all Muslim cultures, young girls are not required to wear a ħijāb. There is not a single agreed age when a woman should begin wearing a ħijāb—but in many Muslim cultures, puberty is the dividing line.

Bahraini women wearing the hijab

In private, and in the presence of close relatives (mahrams), rules on dress relax. However, in the presence of the husband, most scholars stress the importance of mutual freedom and pleasure of the husband and wife.[23]

It has become tradition that Muslims in general, and Salafis in particular, believe the Qur'an demands women wear the garments known today as jilbāb and khumūr (the khumūr must be worn underneath the jilbāb). However, Qur'an translators and commentators translate the Arabic into English words with a general meaning, such as veils, head-coverings and shawls.[24] Ghamidi argues that verses [Quran 24:30] teach etiquette for male and female interactions, where khumūr is mentioned in reference to the clothing of Arab women in the 7th century, but there is no command to actually wear them in any specific way. Hence he considers head-covering a preferable practice but not a directive of the sharia (law).[25]

Alternative views

Some Muslims take a relativist approach to hijab. They believe that the commandment to maintain modesty must be interpreted with regard to the surrounding society. What is considered modest or daring in one society might not be considered so in another. It is important, they say, for believers to wear clothing that communicates modesty and reserve.[26]

Along with scriptural arguments, Leila Ahmed argues that head covering should not be compulsory in Islam because the veil predates the revelation of the Qur'an. Head-covering was introduced into Arabia long before Muhammad, primarily through Arab contacts with Syria and Iran, where the hijab was a sign of social status. After all, only a woman who need not work in the fields could afford to remain secluded and veiled.[12][27]

Ahmed argues for a more liberal approach to hijab. Among her arguments is that while some Qur'anic verses enjoin women in general to "draw their Jilbabs (overgarment or cloak) around them to be recognized as believers and so that no harm will come to them"[Quran 33:58–59] and "guard their private parts ... and drape down khimar over their breasts [when in the presence of unrelated men]",[Quran 24:31] they urge modesty. The word khimar refers to a piece of cloth that covers the head, or headscarf.[28] While the term "hijab" was originally anything that was used to conceal,[29] it became used to refer to concealing garments worn by women outside the house, specifically the headscarf or khimar.[30]

Indonesian girls at Istiqlal Mosque in Jakarta

Other verses include.

O wives of prophet! You are not like other women; if you want to be righteous do not be too soft to make those in whose heart a disease hopeful; and speak in recognised manner. And stay in your homes and make not a dazzling display like that of the former times of ignorance and offer prayer and pay zakah; and obey God and His messenger; o people of (Prophet’s) house! God wants to remove impurity from you and make you clean and pure.

— Quran 33:32-33

O believers! Do not enter in houses of prophet except if you are permitted for a meal and its readiness is not awaited but when you are invited then enter and when you have eaten disperse and do not linger in conversation; it troubles the prophet and he is shy of you but God is not shy of telling truth; and when ye ask of them [the wives of the Prophet] anything, ask it of them from behind a curtain (hijab) it is purer for you hearts and their hearts; and it is not allowed for you to hurt messenger or marry his wives after him ever; indeed it is great enormity in God’s sight.[31]

— Quran 33:53

According to at least three authors (Karen Armstrong, Reza Aslan and Leila Ahmed), the stipulations of the hijab were originally meant only for Muhammad's wives, and were intended to maintain their inviolability. This was because Muhammad conducted all religious and civic affairs in the mosque adjacent to his home:

Afghan army and police officials wearing hijabs in Kandahar

People were constantly coming in and out of this compound at all hours of the day. When delegations from other tribes came to speak with Prophet Muhammad, they would set up their tents for days at a time inside the open courtyard, just a few feet away from the apartments in which Prophet Muhammad's wives slept. And new emigrants who arrived in Yatrib would often stay within the mosque's walls until they could find suitable homes.[12]

According to Ahmed:

By instituting seclusion Prophet Muhammad was creating a distance between his wives and this thronging community on their doorstep.[13]

They argue that the term darabat al-hijab ("taking the veil") was used synonymously and interchangeably with "becoming Prophet Muhammad's wife", and that during Muhammad's life, no other Muslim woman wore the hijab. Aslan suggests that Muslim women started to wear the hijab to emulate Muhammad's wives, who are revered as "Mothers of the Believers" in Islam,[12] and states "there was no tradition of veiling until around 627 C.E." in the Muslim community.[12][13]

Another interpretation differing from the traditional states that a veil is not compulsory in front of blind men and men lacking physical desire.[32][33][34]

Contemporary practice

Muslim women in northern Nigeria wearing hijabs

The styles and practices of hijab vary widely across the world.

An opinion poll conducted in 2014 by The University of Michigan’s Institute for Social Research asked residents of seven Muslim-majority countries (Egypt, Iraq, Lebanon, Tunisia, Turkey, Pakistan, and Saudi Arabia) which style of women's dress they considered to be most appropriate in public.[35] The survey found that the headscarf (in its tightly- or loosely-fitting form) was chosen by the majority of respondents in Egypt, Iraq, Tunisia and Turkey.[35] In Saudi Arabia 63% gave preference to the niqab face veil; in Pakistan the niqab, the full-length chador robe and the headscarf, received about a third of the votes each; while in Lebanon half of the respondents in the sample (which included Christians and Druze) opted for no head covering at all.[35][36] The survey found "no significant difference" in the preferences between surveyed men and women, except in Pakistan, where more men favored conservative women's dress.[36] However, women more strongly support women's right to choose how to dress.[36] People with university education are less conservative in their choice than those without one, and more supportive of women's right to decide their dress style, except in Saudi Arabia.[36]

Emine Erdoğan wearing a türban

Some fashion-conscious women have been turning to non-traditional forms of hijab such as turbans.[37][38] While some regard turbans as a proper head cover, others argue that it cannot be considered a proper Islamic veil if it leaves the neck exposed.[37]

Muna AbuSulayman wearing a turban

According to a Pew Research Center survey, among the roughly 1 million Muslim women living in the U.S., 43% regularly wear headscarves, while about a half do not cover their hair.[39] In another Pew Research Center poll (2011), 36% of Muslim American women reported wearing hijab whenever they were in public, with an additional 24% saying they wear it most or some of the time, while 40% said they never wore the headcover.[40]

Iranian woman in Isfahan wearing a hijab

In Iran, where wearing the hijab is legally required, many women push the boundaries of the state-mandated dress code, risking a fine or a spell in detention.[41] The Iranian president Hassan Rouhani had vowed to rein in the morality police and their presence on the streets has decreased since he took office, but the powerful conservative forces in the country have resisted his efforts, and the dress codes are still being enforced, especially during the summer months.[42]

In Turkey the hijab was formerly banned in private and state universities and schools. The ban applied not to the scarf wrapped around the neck, traditionally worn by Anatolian peasant women, but to the head covering pinned neatly at the sides, called türban in Turkey, which has been adopted by a growing number of educated urban women since the 1980s. As of the mid-2000s, over 60% of Turkish women covered their head outside home, though only 11% wore a türban.[43][44][45][46] The ban was lifted from universities in 2008,[47] from government buildings in 2013,[48] and from schools in 2014.[49]

Burqa and niqab

A Muslim woman in Yemen wearing a niqab

There are several types of veils which cover the face in part or in full.

The burqa (also spelled burka) is a garment that covers the entire body, including the face.[50] It is commonly associated with the Afghan chadri, whose face-veiling portion is typically a piece of netting that obscures the eyes but allows the wearer to see out.

The niqab is a term which is often incorrectly used interchangeably with burqa.[50] It properly refers to a garment that covers a woman's upper body and face, except for her eyes.[50] It is particularly associated with the style traditionally worn in the Arabian Peninsula, where the veil is attached by one side and covers the face only below the eyes, thereby allowing the eyes to be seen.

Only a minority of Islamic scholars believe that covering the face is mandatory, and the use of niqab beyond its traditional geographic strongholds has been a subject of political controversy.[51][52]

In a 2014 survey of men and women in seven Muslim-majority countries, the Afghan burqa was the preferred form of woman's dress for 11% of respondents in Saudi Arabia, 4% in Iraq, 3% in Pakistan, 2% in Lebanon, and 1% or less in Egypt, Tunisia, and Turkey.[35] The niqab face veil was the preferred option for 63% of respondents in Saudi Arabia, 32% in Pakistan, 9% in Egypt, 8% in Iraq, and 2% or less in Lebanon, Tunisia, and Turkey.[35]

History

Pre-Islamic veiling practices

Greek bronze statuette of a veiled and masked dancer, 2nd–3rd century BC.

Veiling did not originate with the advent of Islam. Statuettes depicting veiled priestesses precede all major Abrahamic religions (Christianity, Judaism, and Islam), dating back as far as 2500 BCE.[53] Elite women in ancient Mesopotamia and in the Byzantine, Greek, and Persian empires wore the veil as a sign of respectability and high status.[54] In ancient Mesopotamia, Assyria had explicit sumptuary laws detailing which women must veil and which women must not, depending upon the woman's class, rank, and occupation in society.[54] Female slaves and prostitutes were forbidden to veil and faced harsh penalties if they did so.[5] Veiling was thus not only a marker of aristocratic rank, but also served to "differentiate between 'respectable' women and those who were publicly available".[5][54]

Strict seclusion and the veiling of matrons were also customary in ancient Greece. Between 550 and 323 B.C.E, prior to Christianity, respectable women in classical Greek society were expected to seclude themselves and wear clothing that concealed them from the eyes of strange men.[55]

Pre-Islamic relief showing veiled Arab women, Temple of Baal, Palmyra, Syria, 1st century CE.

It is not clear whether the Hebrew Bible contains prescriptions with regard to veiling, but rabbinic literature presents it as a question of modesty (tzniut).[56] Modesty became an important rabbinic virtue in the early Roman period, and it may have been intended to distinguish Jewish women from their non-Jewish counterparts in the Greco-Roman and later in the Babylonian society.[56] According to rabbinical precepts, married Jewish women have to cover their hair, although the surviving representations of veiled Jewish women may reflect general Roman customs rather than particular Jewish practices.[56] According to Fadwa El Guindi, at the inception of Christianity, Jewish women were veiling their head and face.[5]

Roman statue of a Vestal Virgin

There is archeological evidence suggesting that early Christian women in Rome covered their heads.[56] Writings of Tertullian indicate that a number of different customs of dress were associated with different cults to which early Christians belonged around 200 CE.[56] The best known early Christian view on veiling is the passage in 1 Corinithians (11:4-7), which states that "every woman who prays or prophesies with her head uncovered dishonors her head".[56] This view may have been influenced by Roman pagan customs, such as the head covering worn by the priestesses of Vesta (Vestal Virgins), rather than Jewish practices.[56] In turn, the rigid norms pertaining to veiling and seclusion of women found in Christian Byzantine literature have been influenced by ancient Persian traditions, and there is evidence to suggest that they differed significantly from actual practice.[57]

Intermixing of populations resulted in a convergence of the cultural practices of Greek, Persian, and Mesopotamian empires and the Semitic peoples of the Middle East.[5] Veiling and seclusion of women appear to have established themselves among Jews and Christians before spreading to urban Arabs of the upper classes and eventually among the urban masses.[5] In the rural areas it was common to cover the hair, but not the face.[5]

Leila Ahmed argues that "Whatever the cultural source or sources, a fierce misogyny was a distinct ingredient of Mediterranean and eventually Christian thought in the centuries immediately preceding the rise of Islam."[58] Ahmed interprets veiling and segregation of sexes as an expression of a misogynistic view of shamefulness of sex which focused most intensely on shamefulness of the female body and danger of seeing it exposed.[58]

During Muhammad's lifetime

Available evidence suggests that veiling was not introduced into Arabia by Muhammad, but already existed there, particularly in the towns, although it was probably not as widespread as in the neighboring countries such as Syria and Palestine.[59] Similarly to the practice among Greeks, Romans, Jews, and Assyrians, its use was associated with high social status.[59] In the early Islamic texts, term hijab does not distinguish between veiling and seclusion, and can mean either "veil" or "curtain".[60] The only verses in the Qur'an that specifically reference women’s clothing are those promoting modesty, instructing women to guard their private parts and wear scarves that fall onto their breast area in the presence of men.[61] The contemporary understanding of the hijab dates back to Hadith when the "verse of the hijab" descended upon the community in 627 CE.[62] Now documented in Sura 33:53, the verse states, "And when you ask [his wives] for something, ask them from behind a partition. That is purer for your hearts and their hearts".[63] This verse, however, was not addressed to women in general, but exclusively to Muhammad's wives. As Muhammad's influence increased, he entertained more and more visitors in the mosque, which was then his home. Often, these visitors stayed the night only feet away from his wives' apartments. It is commonly understood that this verse was intended to protect his wives from these strangers.[64] During Muhammad's lifetime the term for donning the veil, darabat al-hijab, was used interchangeably with "being Muhammad's wife".[59]

Later pre-modern history

Young woman from Nablus in a hijab (c. 1867-1885)

The practice of veiling was borrowed from the elites of the Byzantine and Persian empires, where it was a symbol of respectability and high social status, during the Arab conquests of those empires.[65] Reza Aslan argues that "The veil was neither compulsory nor widely adopted until generations after Muhammad's death, when a large body of male scriptural and legal scholars began using their religious and political authority to regain the dominance they had lost in society as a result of the Prophet's egalitarian reforms".[64]

Because Islam identified with the monotheistic religions of the conquered empires, the practice was adopted as an appropriate expression of Qur'anic ideals regarding modesty and piety.[66] Veiling gradually spread to upper-class Arab women, and eventually it became widespread among Muslim women in cities throughout the Middle East. Veiling of Arab Muslim women became especially pervasive under Ottoman rule as a mark of rank and exclusive lifestyle, and Istanbul of the 17th century witnessed differentiated dress styles that reflected geographical and occupational identities.[5] Women in rural areas were much slower to adopt veiling because the garments interfered with their work in the fields.[67] Since wearing a veil was impractical for working women, "a veiled woman silently announced that her husband was rich enough to keep her idle."[68]

By the 19th century, upper-class urban Muslim and Christian women in Egypt wore a garment which included a head cover and a burqa (muslin cloth that covered the lower nose and the mouth).[5] The name of this garment, harabah, derives from early Christian and Judaic religious vocabulary, which may indicate the origins of the garment itself.[5] Up to the first half of the twentieth century, rural women in the Maghreb and Egypt put on a form of niqab when they visited urban areas, "as a sign of civilization".[69]

Modern history

A model displaying a fashionable hijab at "Moslema In Style Fashion Show" (show for Muslim women apparels) in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Western clothing largely dominated in Muslim countries the 1960s and 1970s.[70][71] For example, in Pakistan, Afghanistan and Iran, many liberal women wore short skirts, flower printed hippie dresses, flared trousers,[72] and went out in public without the hijab.[73][74] This changed following the Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, military dictatorship in Pakistan, and Iranian revolution of 1979, when traditional conservative attire including the abaya, jilbab and niqab made a comeback.[75][76] There were demonstrations in Iran in March 1979, after the hijab law was brought in, decreeing that women in Iran would have to wear scarves to leave the house.[77]

In 1953 Egyptian leader President Gamal Abdel Nasser was told by the leader of the Muslim Brotherhood that they wanted to enforce the wearing of the hijab, to which Nasser responded, "Sir, I know you have a daughter in college - and she doesn't wear a headscarf or anything! Why don't you make her wear the headscarf? So you can't make one girl, your own daughter, wear it, and yet you want me to go and make ten million women wear it?"

The late-twentieth century saw a resurgence of the hijab in Egypt after a long period of decline as a result of westernization. Already in the mid-1970s some college aged Muslim men and women began a movement meant to reunite and rededicate themselves to the Islamic faith.[78][79] This movement was named the Sahwah,[80] or awakening, and sparked a period of heightened religiosity that began to be reflected in the dress code.[78] The uniform adopted by the young female pioneers of this movement was named al-Islāmī (Islamic dress) and was made up of an "al-jilbāb—an unfitted, long-sleeved, ankle-length gown in austere solid colors and thick opaque fabric—and al-khimār, a head cover resembling a nun's wimple that covers the hair low to the forehead, comes under the chin to conceal the neck, and falls down over the chest and back".[78] In addition to the basic garments that were mostly universal within the movement, additional measures of modesty could be taken depending on how conservative the followers wished to be. Some women choose to also utilize a face covering (al-niqāb) that leaves only eye slits for sight, as well as both gloves and socks in order to reveal no visible skin.

Soon this movement expanded outside of the youth realm and became a more widespread Muslim practice. Women viewed this way of dress as a way to both publicly announce their religious beliefs as well as a way to simultaneously reject western influences of dress and culture that were prevalent at the time. Despite many criticisms of the practice of hijab being oppressive and detrimental to women’s equality,[79] many Muslim women view the way of dress to be a positive thing. It is seen as a way to avoid harassment and unwanted sexual advances in public and works to desexualize women in the public sphere in order to instead allow them to enjoy equal rights of complete legal, economic, and political status. This modesty was not only demonstrated by their chosen way of dress but also by their serious demeanor which worked to show their dedication to modesty and Islamic beliefs.[78]

Taekwondo medalists from Spain, Britain, Iran and Egypt at Rio Olympics, 2016[81]

Controversy erupted over the practice. Many people, both men and women from backgrounds of both Islamic and non-Islamic faith questioned the hijab and what it stood for in terms of women and their rights. There was questioning of whether in practice the hijab was truly a female choice or if women were being coerced or pressured into wearing it.[78] Many instances, such as the Islamic Republic of Iran's current policy of forced veiling for women, have brought these issues to the forefront and generated great debate from both scholars and everyday people.

As the awakening movement gained momentum, its goals matured and shifted from promoting modesty and Islamic identity towards more of a political stance in terms of retaining support for Pan-Islamism and to resist western influences. Today the hijab means many different things for different people. For Islamic women who choose to wear the hijab it allows them to retain their modesty, morals and freedom of choice.[79] They choose to cover because they believe it is liberating and allows them to avoid harassment. Many people (both Muslim and non-Muslim) are against the wearing of the hijab and argue that the hijab causes issues with gender relations, works to silence and repress women both physically and metaphorically, and have many other problems with the practice. This difference in opinions has generated a plethora of discussion on the subject, both emotional and academic, which continues today.

Ever since September 11, 2001, the discussion and discourse on the hijab has intensified. Many nations have attempted to put restrictions on the hijab, which has led to a new wave of rebellion by women who instead turn to covering and wearing the hijab in even greater numbers.[79][82]

Compulsion and pressure

Some governments encourage and even oblige women to wear the hijab, while others have banned it in at least some public settings. In many parts of the world women also experience informal pressure for or against wearing hijab, including physical attacks.

The Kingdom of Saudi Arabia requires Muslim women to cover their hair and all women have to wear a full-body garment.[83] Saudi women commonly wear the traditional abaya robe, while foreigners sometimes opt for a long coat.[83] These regulations are enforced by the religious police and vigilantes.[83] In 2002 the Saudi religious police were accused by Saudi and international press of hindering the rescue of schoolgirls from a fire because they were not wearing hijab, which resulted in 15 deaths.[84]

Iran went from banning all types of veils in 1936 to making Islamic dress mandatory for women following the Islamic Revolution in 1979. [85] In April 1980, it was decided that women in government offices and educational institutions would be mandated to veil.[85] The 1983 penal code prescribed punishment of 74 lashes for women appearing in public without Islamic hijab (hijab shar'ee), leaving the definition of proper hijab ambiguous.[86][87] The same period witnessed tensions around the definition of proper hijab, which sometimes resulted in vigilante harassment of women who were perceived to wear improper clothing.[85][86] In 1984 Tehran’s public prosecutor announced that a stricter dress-code should observed in public establishments, while clothing in other places should correspond to standards observed by the majority of the people.[85] A new regulation issued in 1988 by the Ministry of the Interior based on the 1983 law further specified what constituted violations of hijab.[88] Iran's current penal code stipulates a fine or 10 days to two months in prison as punishment for failure to observe hijab in public, without specifying its form.[89][90] The dress code has been subject of alternating periods of relatively strict and relaxed enforcement over the years, with many women pushing its boundaries, and its compulsory aspect has been a point of contention between conservatives and the current president Hassan Rouhani.[89][91][92] In governmental and religious institutions, the dress code requires khimar-type headscarf and overcoat, while in other public places women commonly wear a loosely tied headscarf (rousari). Iranian government endorses and officially promotes stricter types of veiling, praising it by invoking both Islamic religious principles and pre-Islamic Iranian culture.[93]

The Indonesian province of Aceh requires Muslim women to wear hijab in public.[94] Indonesia's central government granted Aceh's religious leaders the right to impose Sharia in 2001, in a deal aiming to put an end to the separatist movement in the province.[94]

Muslim world

The tradition of veiling hair in Iranian culture has ancient pre-Islamic origins,[95] but the widespread custom was forcibly ended by Reza Shah's regime in 1936, as he claimed hijab to be incompatible with his modernizing ambitions and ordered "unveiling" act or Kashf-e hijab. The police arrested women who wore the veil and would forcibly remove it, and these policies outraged the Shi'a clerics, and ordinary men and women, to whom appearing in public without their cover was tantamount to nakedness. Many women refused to leave the house out of fear of being assaulted by Reza Shah's police.[96] In 1941 the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned.

Turkey, Tunisia, and Tajikistan are Muslim-majority countries where the law prohibits or recently prohibited the wearing of hijab in government buildings, schools, and universities. In Tunisia, women were banned from wearing hijab in state offices in 1981 and in the 1980s and 1990s more restrictions were put in place.[97] In 2008 the Turkish government attempted to lift a ban on Muslim headscarves at universities, but were overturned by the country's Constitutional Court.[98] In December 2010, however, the Turkish government ended the headscarf ban in universities, government buildings and schools.[99] In 2017, Tajikistan banned hijabs. Minister of Culture, Shamsiddin Orumbekzoda, told Radio Free Europe Islamic dress was "really dangerous". Under existing laws, women wearing hijabs are already banned from entering the country's government offices.[100][101]

Europe

On March 15, 2004, France passed a law banning "symbols or clothes through which students conspicuously display their religious affiliation" in public primary schools, middle schools, and secondary schools. In the Belgian city of Maaseik, the niqāb has been banned since 2006.[102] On July 13, 2010, France's lower house of parliament overwhelmingly approved a bill that would ban wearing the Islamic full veil in public. It became the first European country to ban the full-face veil in public places,[103] followed by Belgium, Latvia, Bulgaria, Austria, Denmark and some cantons of Switzerland in the following years.

Belgium banned the full-face veil in 2011 in places like parks and on the streets. In September 2013, the electors of the Swiss canton of Ticino voted in favour of a ban on face veils in public areas.[104] In 2016, Latvia and Bulgaria banned the burqa in public places.[105][106] In October 2017, wearing a face veil became also illegal in Austria. This ban also includes scarves, masks and clown paint that cover faces to avoid discriminating against Muslim dress.[103] In 2016, Bosnia-Herzegovina's supervising judicial authority upheld a ban on wearing Islamic headscarves in courts and legal institutions, despite protests from the Muslim community that constitutes 40% of the country.[107][108] In 2017, the European Court of Justice ruled that companies were allowed to bar employees from wearing visible religious symbols, including the hijab. However, if the company has no policy regarding the wearing of clothes that demonstrate religious and political ideas, a customer cannot ask employees to remove the clothing item.[109] In 2018, Danish parliament passed a law banning the full-face veil in public places.[110]

In 2016, more than 20 French towns banned the use of the burqini, a style of swimwear intended to accord with rules of hijab.[111][112][113] Dozens of women were subsequently issued fines, with some tickets citing not wearing "an outfit respecting good morals and secularism", and some were verbally attacked by bystanders when they were confronted by the police.[111][114][115][116] Enforcement of the ban also hit beachgoers wearing a wide range of modest attire besides the burqini.[111][116] Media reported that in one case the police forced a woman to remove part of her clothing on a beach in Nice.[114][115][116] The Nice mayor's office denied that she was forced to do so and the mayor condemned what he called the "unacceptable provocation" of wearing such clothes in the aftermath of the Nice terrorist attack.[111][116]

A team of psychologists in Belgium have investigated, in two studies of 166 and 147 participants, whether the Belgians' discomfort with the Islamic hijab, and the support of its ban from the country's public sphere, is motivated by the defense of the values of autonomy and universalism (which includes equality), or by xenophobia/ethnic prejudice and by anti-religious sentiments. The studies have revealed the effects of subtle prejudice/racism, values (self-enhancement values and security versus universalism), and religious attitudes (literal anti-religious thinking versus spirituality), in predicting greater levels of anti-veil attitudes beyond the effects of other related variables such as age and political conservatism.[117]

Unofficial pressure to wear hijab

Successful informal coercion of women by sectors of society to wear hijab has been reported in Gaza where Mujama' al-Islami, the predecessor of Hamas, reportedly used "a mixture of consent and coercion" to "'restore' hijab" on urban educated women in Gaza in the late 1970s and 1980s.[118]

Similar behaviour was displayed by Hamas itself during the First Intifada in Palestine. Though a relatively small movement at this time, Hamas exploited the political vacuum left by perceived failures in strategy by the Palestinian factions to call for a "return" to Islam as a path to success, a campaign that focused on the role of women.[119] Hamas campaigned for the wearing of the hijab alongside other measures, including insisting women stay at home, segregation from men and the promotion of polygamy. In the course of this campaign women who chose not to wear the hijab were verbally and physically harassed, with the result that the hijab was being worn "just to avoid problems on the streets".[120]

Wearing of the hijab was enforced by the Taliban regime in Afghanistan. The Taliban required women to cover not only their head but their face as well, because "the face of a woman is a source of corruption" for men not related to them.[121]

In Srinagar, the capital of Indian-administered Kashmir, a previously unknown militant group calling itself Lashkar-e-Jabbar claimed responsibility for a series of acid attacks on women who did not wear the burqa in 2001, threatening to punish women who do not adhere to their vision of Islamic dress. Women of Kashmir, most of whom are not fully veiled, defied the warning, and the attacks were condemned by prominent militant and separatist groups of the region.[122][123]

In 2006, radicals in Gaza have been accused of attacking or threatening to attack the faces of women in an effort to intimidate them from wearing allegedly immodest dress.[125]

In 2014 the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant was reported to have executed several women for not wearing niqab with gloves.[126]

Unofficial pressure against wearing hijab

After the initial 1936 ban on hijab in Iran, the rules of dress code were relaxed, and after Reza Shah's abdication in 1941 the compulsory element in the policy of unveiling was abandoned. According to Mohammad Reza Shah Pahlavi, between 1941 and 1979, wearing hijab was no longer offensive, but still considered it to be a real hindrance to climbing the social ladder, a badge of backwardness and a marker of class. A headscarf, let alone the chador, prejudiced the chances of advancement in work and society not only of working women but also of men, who were increasingly expected to appear with their wives at social functions.

In recent years, women wearing hijab have been subject of verbal and physical attacks in Western countries, particularly following terrorist attacks.[127][128][129][130] Louis A. Cainkar writes that the data suggest that women in hijab rather than men are the predominant target of anti-Muslim attacks not because they are more easily identifiable as Muslims, but because they are seen to represent a threat to the local moral order that the attackers are seeking to defend.[128] Some women stop wearing hijab out of fear or following perceived pressure from their acquaintances, but many refuse to stop wearing it out of religious conviction even when they are urged to do so for self-protection.[128]

Kazakhstan has no official ban on wearing hijab, but those who wear it have reported that authorities use a number of tactics to discriminate against them.[131]

In 2015 authorities in Uzbekistan organized a "deveiling" campaign in the capital city Tashkent, during which women wearing hijab were detained and taken to a police station. Those who agreed to remove their hijab were released "after a conversation", while those who refused were transferred to the counterterrorism department and given a lecture. Their husbands or fathers were then summoned to convince the women to obey the police. This followed an earlier campaign in the Fergana Valley.[132]

In 2016 in Kyrgyzstan the government has sponsored street banners aiming to dissuade women from wearing the hijab.[133]

Hijab Discrimination in the Workplace

The issue of discrimination of Muslims is more prevalent among Muslim women due to the hijab being an observable declaration of faith. Particularly after the events of 9/11 and the coining of the term Islamophobia, some of Islamophobia’s manifestations are seen within the workplace.[134] Women wearing the hijab are at risk of discrimination in their workplace because the hijab helps identify them for anyone who may hold Islamophobic attitudes.[135][136]Their association with the Islamic faith automatically projects any negative stereotyping of the religion onto them[137]. As a result of the heightened discrimination, some Muslim women in the workplace resort to taking off their hijab in hopes to prevent any further prejudice acts.[138]

A number of Muslim women who were interviewed expressed that perceived discrimination also poses a problem for them.[139] To be specific, Muslim women shared that they chose not to wear the headscarf out of fear of future discrimination.[139]

The discrimination Muslim women face goes beyond affecting their work experience, it also interferes with their decision to uphold religious obligations. In result of discrimination Muslim women in the United States have worries regarding their ability to follow their religion because it might mean they are rejected employment.[140] Ali, Yamada, and Mahmoud (2015)[141] state that women of color who also follow the religion of Islam are considered to be in what is called “triple jeopardy”, due to being a part of two minority groups subject to discrimination.

Ali et al. (2015)[141] study found a relationship between the discrimination Muslims face at work and their job satisfaction. In other words, the discrimination Muslim women face at work is associated with their overall feeling of contentment of their jobs, especially compared to other religious groups.[142]

Muslim women not only experience discrimination whilst in their job environment, they also experience discrimination in their attempts to get a job. An experimental study conducted on potential hiring discrimination among Muslims found that in terms of overt discrimination there were no differences between Muslim women who wore traditional Islamic clothing and those who did not. However, covert discrimination was noted towards Muslim who wore the hijab, and as a result were dealt with in a hostile and rude manner.[143] While observing hiring practices among 4,000 employers in the U.S , experimenters found that employers who self-identified as Republican tended to avoid making interviews with candidates who appeared  Muslim on their social network pages.[144]

One instance of hijab discrimination in the workplace that gained public attention and made it to the supreme court was EEOC v. Abercrombie & Fitch. The U.S Equal Employment Opportunity Commission took advantage of its power granted by Title VII and made a case for a young hijabi female who was qualified for a job, but was rejected in result of wearing the headscarf.[145] Regardless of legislation that are there for protection of religious expressions like title VII and the first amendment rights, there remains a gap in security for Muslim women who wear the hijab as it continues to violate the “look” policy most companies uphold.[145]

Discrimination levels differ depending on geographical location; for example, South Asian Muslims in the United Arab Emirates do not perceive as much discrimination as their South Asian counterparts in the U.S.[146] Although, South Asian Muslim women in both locations are similar in describing discrimination experiences as subtle and indirect interactions.[146]  The same study also reports differences among South Asian Muslim women who wear the hijab, and those who do not. For non-hijabis, they reported to have experienced more perceived discrimination when they were around other Muslims.[146]

Perceived discrimination is detrimental to well-being, both mentally and physically.[147] However, perceived discrimination may also be related to more positive well-being for the individual. [148] A study in New Zealand concluded that while Muslim women who wore the headscarf did in fact experience discrimination, these negative experiences were overcome by much higher feelings of religious pride, belonging, and centrality.[148]

See also

Covering variants
Non-Muslim

Notes

  1. ↑ "Definition of hijab in Oxford Dictionaries (British & World English)". Oxforddictionaries.com. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  2. ↑ "Hijab – Definition and More from the Free Merriam-Webster Dictionary". Merriam-webster.com. 2012-08-31. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  3. ↑ "Hijab noun – definition in British English Dictionary & Thesaurus – Cambridge Dictionary Online". Dictionary.cambridge.org. 2013-04-16. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  4. ↑ "Definition of hijab". Collins English Dictionary. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  5. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 El Guindi, Fadwa; Sherifa Zahur (2009). Hijab. The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195305135.001.0001. ISBN 9780195305135.
  6. 1 2 Glasse, Cyril, The New Encyclopedia of Islam, Altamira Press, 2001, p.179-180
  7. 1 2 Encyclopedia of Islam and the Muslim World (2003), p. 721, New York: Macmillan Reference USA
  8. ↑ Martin et al. (2003), Encyclopedia of Islam & the Muslim World, Macmillan Reference, ISBN 978-0028656038
  9. ↑ Fisher, Mary Pat. Living Religions. New Jersey: Pearson Education, 2008.
  10. ↑ Irfi.org
  11. ↑ Moroccoworldnews.com
  12. 1 2 3 4 5 Aslan, Reza, No God but God, Random House, (2005), p.65–6
  13. 1 2 3 Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. ISBN 9780300055832. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  14. ↑ Bucar, Elizabeth, The Islamic Veil. Oxford, England: Oneworld Publications, 2012.
  15. ↑ Evidence in the Qur'an for Covering Women's Hair, IslamOnline.
  16. 1 2 Hameed, Shahul. "Is Hijab a Qur’anic Commandment?," IslamOnline.net. October 9, 2003.
  17. ↑ Bucar, Elizabeth, The Islamic Veil. Oxford, England: Oneworld Publications, 2012.
  18. ↑ Kausar Khan, "Veiled Feminism: The dating scene looks a little different from behind the veil," Current (Winter 2007): 14-15.
  19. ↑ The Hanbali school of thought also views the face as the awrah, though this view is rejected by Hanafis, Malikis and Shafi'is.
  20. ↑ Hsu, Shiu-Sian. "Modesty." Encyclopaedia of the Qur'an. Ed. Jane McAuliffe. Vol. 3. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill Academic Publishers, 2003. 403-405. 6 vols.
  21. ↑ al-Sistani, Ali. "Question & Answer » Hijab (Islamic Dress)". The Official Website of the Office of His Eminence Al-Sayyid Ali Al-Husseini Al-Sistani. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
  22. ↑ "Fatwas of the Permanent Committee: Women covering their faces and hands". General Presidency of Scholarly Research and Ifta'. Kingdom of Saudi Arabia. Retrieved 9 January 2016.
  23. ↑ Heba G. Kotb M.D., Sexuality in Islam, PhD Thesis, Maimonides University, 2004
  24. ↑ See "collection of Qur'an translations". Archived from the original on 2010-06-01. , compared verse by verse
  25. ↑ Javed Ahmed Ghamidi, Mizan, Chapter: The Social Law of Islam, Al-Mawrid.
  26. ↑ Syed, Ibrahim B. (2001). "Women in Islam: Hijab".
  27. ↑ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0300055832.
  28. ↑ V.A. Mohamad Ashrof (2005). Islam and gender justice. Gyan Books, 2005. p. 130. ISBN 9788178354569. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
  29. ↑ Asma Afsaruddin; A. H. Mathias Zahniser (1997). Humanism, culture, and language in the Near East. Eisenbrauns, 1997. p. 87. ISBN 9781575060200. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
  30. ↑ Asma Afsaruddin; A. H. Mathias Zahniser (1997). Humanism, culture, and language in the Near East. Eisenbrauns, 1997. p. 95. ISBN 9781575060200. Retrieved 8 April 2011.
  31. ↑ Quran Surah Al-Ahzaab ( Verse 53 )
  32. ↑ "Is it ok to take off the kimar and niqab in front of a blind man?". Islamqa.info. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  33. ↑ Women revealing their adornment to men who lack physical desire retrieved 25 June 2012
  34. ↑ Queer Spiritual Spaces: Sexuality and Sacred Places – Page 89, Kath Browne, Sally Munt, Andrew K. T. Yip - 2010
  35. 1 2 3 4 5 "Female Muslim Dress Survey Reveals Wide Range Of Preferences On Hijab, Burqa, Niqab, And More". Huffington Post. Jan 23, 2014.
  36. 1 2 3 4 RICH MORIN (Jan 14, 2014). "Q&A with author of U. Mich. study on preferred dress for women in Muslim countries". Pew Research Center.
  37. 1 2 Shounaz Meky (Oct 9, 2014). "Under wraps: Style savvy Muslim women turn to turbans". Al Arabiya.
  38. ↑ Yasmin Nouh (May 11, 2016). "The Beautiful Reasons Why These Women Love Wearing A Hijab". The Huffington Post.
  39. ↑ "Lifting The Veil: Muslim Women Explain Their Choice". NPR. April 21, 2011.
  40. ↑ "Muslim Americans: No Signs of Growth in Alienation or Support for Extremism; Section 2: Religious Beliefs and Practices". Pew Research Center. Aug 30, 2011.
  41. ↑ "Playing cat and mouse with Iran′s morality police". Qantara.de. Retrieved Aug 23, 2016.
  42. ↑ Yara Elmjouie (June 19, 2014). "Iran's morality police: patrolling the streets by stealth". Tehran Bureau/The Guardian.
  43. ↑ Rainsford, Sarah (November 7, 2006). "Headscarf issue challenges Turkey". BBC News.
  44. ↑ Rainsford, Sarah (2007-10-02). "Women condemn Turkey constitution". BBC News. Retrieved 2008-08-04.
  45. ↑ Jonathan Head (December 31, 2010). "Quiet end to Turkey's college headscarf ban". BBC News.
  46. ↑ Clark-Flory, Tracy (2007-04-23). "Head scarves to topple secular Turkey?". Salon. Retrieved 2008-08-04.
  47. ↑ Ayman, Zehra; Knickmeyer, Ellen. Ban on Head Scarves Voted Out in Turkey: Parliament Lifts 80-Year-Old Restriction on University Attire. The Washington Post. 2008-02-10. Page A17.
  48. ↑ "Turkey Lifts Longtime Ban on Head Scarves in State Offices". NY Times. 8 October 2013. Retrieved 1 February 2014.
  49. ↑ "Turkey-lifts-ban-on-headscarves-at-high-schools". news24.com/. 2014-09-23. Retrieved 3 November 2014.
  50. 1 2 3 "From hijab to burqa - a guide to Muslim headwear". Channel 4 News. Oct 24, 2013.
  51. ↑ "Niqab". BBC. Retrieved Aug 23, 2016.
  52. ↑ "The Islamic veil across Europe". BBC News. July 1, 2014.
  53. ↑ Kahf, Mohja (2008). From Royal Body the Robe was Removed: The Blessings of the Veil and the Trauma of Forced Unveiling in the Middle East. University of California Press. p. 27.
  54. 1 2 3 Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 15.
  55. ↑ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 27–28.
  56. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Richard Freund. "The Veiling of Women in Judaism, Christianity and Islam. A Guide to the Exhibition" (PDF). University of Hartford. Retrieved Aug 22, 2016.
  57. ↑ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 26–28.
  58. 1 2 Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 35.
  59. 1 2 3 Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 55–56.
  60. ↑ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. pp. 53–54.
  61. ↑ >Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 55.
  62. ↑ Aslan, Reza (2005). No God but God. Random House. p. 65. ISBN 978-1-4000-6213-3.
  63. ↑ "Surat Al-'Ahzab". Retrieved December 1, 2012.
  64. 1 2 Aslan, Reza (2005). No God but God. Random House. p. 66. ISBN 978-1-4000-6213-3.
  65. ↑ John L. Esposito, ed. (2014). "Hijab". The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford: Oxford University Press. doi:10.1093/acref/9780195125580.001.0001. ISBN 9780195125580.
  66. ↑ Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam. New Haven: Yale University Press. p. 36.
  67. ↑ Esposito, John (1991). Islam: The Straight Path (3 ed.). Oxford University Press. p. 99.
  68. ↑ Bloom (2002), p.47
  69. ↑ Sara Silverstri (2016). "Comparing Burqa Debates in Europe". In Silvio Ferrari; Sabrina Pastorelli. Religion in Public Spaces: A European Perspective. Routledge. p. 276. ISBN 9781317067542.
  70. ↑ Leila Ahmed (2014). A Quiet Revolution: The Veil's Resurgence, from the Middle East to America. Yale University Press.
  71. ↑ "Retro Middle East: The rise and fall of the miniskirt". albawaba.com. August 18, 2013. Retrieved 23 October 2016.
  72. ↑ Bhutto's Pakistan
  73. ↑ Iranian womens fashion
  74. ↑ Afghanistan before the war
  75. ↑ Pakistan's swinging 70s
  76. ↑ Iran before the revolution
  77. ↑ theguardian.com, 3 September 2015, accessed 23 October 2016
  78. 1 2 3 4 5 El Guindi, Fadwa; Zuhur, Sherifa. "Ḥijāb". The Oxford Encyclopedia of the Islamic World. Retrieved 11 October 2012.
  79. 1 2 3 4 Bullock, Katherine (2000). "Challenging Medial Representations of the Veil". The American Journal of Islamic Social Sciences. 17 (3): 22–53.
  80. ↑ Elsaie, Adel. "Dr". United States of Islam. Archived from the original on 2012-12-24.
  81. ↑ Patrick Johnston (Aug 19, 2016). "Kimia Alizadeh Zenoorin Becomes The First Iranian Woman To Win An Olympic Medal". Reuters/Huffington Post.
  82. ↑ Winter, Bronwyn (2006). "The Great Hijab Coverup". Off Our Backs; A Women's Newsjournal. 36 (3): 38–40. JSTOR 20838653.
  83. 1 2 3 "Saudi Arabia's dress code for women". The Economist. Jan 28, 2015.
  84. ↑ "Saudi police 'stopped' fire rescue". BBC. March 15, 2002.
  85. 1 2 3 4 Ramezani, Reza (spring 2007). Hijab dar Iran az Enqelab-e Eslami ta payan Jang-e Tahmili [Hijab in Iran from the Islamic Revolution to the end of the Imposed war] (Persian), Faslnamah-e Takhassusi-ye Banuvan-e Shi’ah [Quarterly Journal of Shiite Women] 11, Qom: Muassasah-e Shi’ah Shinasi, pp. 251-300, ISSN 1735-4730
  86. 1 2 Elizabeth M. Bucar (2011). Creative Conformity: The Feminist Politics of U.S. Catholic and Iranian Shi'i Women. Georgetown University Press. p. 118. ISBN 9781589017528.
  87. ↑ "قانون مجازات اسلامی (Islamic Penal Code), see ‌ماده 102 (article 102)". Islamic Parliament Research Center. Retrieved Oct 12, 2016.
  88. ↑ Elizabeth M. Bucar (2011). Creative Conformity: The Feminist Politics of U.S. Catholic and Iranian Shi'i Women. Georgetown University Press. p. 118. ISBN 9781589017528. exposure of head, hair, arms or legs, use of makeup, sheer or tight clothing, and clothes with foreign words or pictures
  89. 1 2 Sanja Kelly; Julia Breslin (2010). Women's Rights in the Middle East and North Africa: Progress Amid Resistance. Rowman & Littlefield Publishers. p. 126. ISBN 9781442203976.
  90. ↑ Behnoosh Payvar (2016). Space, Culture, and the Youth in Iran: Observing Norm Creation Processes at the Artists' House. Springer. p. 73. ISBN 9781137525703.
  91. ↑ BBC Monitoring (Apr 22, 2016). "Who are Islamic 'morality police'?". BBC.
  92. ↑ "Iranians worry as morality police go undercover". AP/CBS News. Apr 27, 2016.
  93. ↑ Strategies for promotion of chastity (Persian), the official website of Iranian Majlis (04/05/1384 AP, available online)
  94. 1 2 Jewel Topsfield (April 7, 2016). "Ban on outdoor music concerts in West Aceh due to Sharia law". The Sydney Morning Herald.
  95. ↑ CLOTHING ii. In the Median and Achaemenid periods at Encyclopædia Iranica
  96. ↑ El-Guindi, Fadwa, Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance, Berg, 1999
  97. ↑ "Tunisia's Hijab Ban Unconstitutional". 11 October 2007. Archived from the original on 20 July 2013. Retrieved 2013-04-20.
  98. ↑ "Turkey's AKP discusses hijab ruling". Al Jazeera. 6 June 2008.
  99. ↑ "Quiet end to Turkey's college headscarf ban". BBC News. 31 December 2010.
  100. ↑ "Country passes law 'to stop Muslim women wearing hijabs'". September 2017.
  101. ↑ "Majority-Muslim Tajikistan passes law to discourage wearing of hijabs".
  102. ↑ Mardell, Mark. "Dutch MPs to decide on burqa ban", BBC News, January 16, 2006. Accessed June 6, 2008.
  103. 1 2 Köksal Baltaci (Sep 27, 2017). "Austria becomes latest European country to ban burqas — but adds clown face paint, too". USA Today.
  104. ↑ "The Islamic veil across Europe". BBC News. 2017. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
  105. ↑ "A European government has banned Islamic face veils despite them being worn by just three women". The Independent. 2016-04-21. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
  106. ↑ "Another European country just banned the burqa". The Independent. 2016-10-01. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
  107. ↑ "Bosnian women protest at headscarf ban". BBC News. 2016-02-07. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
  108. ↑ "Bosnia Judicial Authorities Uphold Hijab Ban, Despite Protests". RadioFreeEurope/RadioLiberty. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
  109. ↑ Rankin, Jennifer; Oltermann, Philip (2017-03-14). "Europe's right hails EU court's workplace headscarf ban ruling". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-02-05.
  110. ↑ Staff and agencies (2018-05-31). "Denmark passes law banning burqa and niqab". The Guardian. Retrieved 2018-08-15.
  111. 1 2 3 4 ALISSA J. RUBIN (Aug 24, 2016). "French 'Burkini' Bans Provoke Backlash as Armed Police Confront Beachgoers". New York Times.
  112. ↑ "Cannes bans burkinis over suspected link to radical Islamism". BBC News. 12 August 2016. Retrieved 12 August 2016.
  113. ↑ "Nice joins growing list of French towns to ban burqini". The Local.fr. 19 August 2016. Retrieved 22 August 2016.
  114. 1 2 Harry Cockburn (Aug 24, 2016). "Burkini ban: Armed police force woman to remove her clothing on Nice beach". The Independent.
  115. 1 2 Ben Quinn (Aug 23, 2016). "French police make woman remove clothing on Nice beach following burkini ban". The Guardian.
  116. 1 2 3 4 Angelique Chrisafis (Aug 24, 2016). "French burkini ban row escalates after clothing incident at Nice beach". The Guardian.
  117. ↑ Saroglou, Vassilis; Lamkaddem, Bahija; Van Pachterbeke, Matthieu; Buxant, Coralie (2009). "Host society's dislike of the Islamic veil: The role of subtle prejudice, values, and religion". International Journal of Intercultural Relations. 33 (5): 419–428. doi:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2009.02.005.
  118. ↑ Hammami, Rema (1990). "Women, the Hijab and the Intifada". Middle East Report (164/165): 24–78. JSTOR 3012687.
  119. ↑ Rubenberg, C., Palestinian Women: Patriarchy and Resistance in the West Bank (USA, 2001) p.230
  120. ↑ Rubenberg, C., Palestinian Women: Patriarchy and Resistance in the West Bank (USA, 2001) p.231
  121. ↑ M. J. Gohari (2000). The Taliban: Ascent to Power. Oxford: Oxford University Press, pp. 108-110.
  122. ↑ Popham, Peter (in Delhi) (30 August 2001). "Kashmir women face threat of acid attacks from militants". The Independent. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
  123. ↑ "Kashmir women face acid attacks". BBC News. 10 August 2001. Retrieved 20 April 2013.
  124. ↑ "Gaza women warned of immodesty". December 2, 2006. Archived from the original on June 24, 2011.
  125. ↑ In 2006, a group in Gaza calling itself "Just Swords of Islam" is reported to have claimed it threw acid at the face of a young woman who was dressed "immodestly", and warned other women in Gaza that they must wear hijab.[124]
  126. ↑ Syrian Women Face Whipping and Execution for Breaking Sharia Dress Code
  127. ↑ Basia Spalek (2013). Basia Spalek, ed. Muslim women's safety talk and their experience of victimisation. Islam, Crime and Criminal Justice. Routledge. pp. 63–64. ISBN 9781134032839.
  128. 1 2 3 Louis A. Cainkar (2009). Homeland Insecurity: The Arab American and Muslim American Experience After 9/11. Russell Sage Foundation. pp. 244–245. ISBN 9781610447683.
  129. ↑ Kirk Semple (Nov 25, 2015). "'I'm Frightened': After Attacks in Paris, New York Muslims Cope With a Backlash". New York Times.
  130. ↑ Michelle Mark (Dec 23, 2015). "Muslim Hate Crimes Soar In UK: After Paris Attacks, Women Wearing Hijab Targeted By Young White Men". International Business Times.
  131. ↑ Farangis Najibullah (March 20, 2011). "Hijab Now A Hot Topic In Kazakhstan". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
  132. ↑ Bruce Pannier, Farruh Yusupov (June 14, 2015). "'Deveiling' Drive Moves To Uzbekistan's Capital". Radio Free Europe/Radio Liberty.
  133. ↑ BBC Trending (13 August 2016). "Kyrgyzstan president: 'Women in mini skirts don't become suicide bombers'". BBC.
  134. ↑ Tahmincioglu, E. (2010, September 13). Muslims face growing bias in the workplace. NBC News. Retrieved from http://www.nbcnews.com
  135. ↑ Ali, Saba Rasheed; Liu, William Ming; Humedian, Majeda (2004). "Islam 101: Understanding the Religion and Therapy Implications". Professional Psychology: Research and Practice. 35 (6): 635–642. CiteSeerX 10.1.1.569.7436. doi:10.1037/0735-7028.35.6.635.
  136. ↑ Council on American-Islamic Relations. (2008). The status of Muslim civil rights in the United States. [DX Reader version]. Retrieved from  http://cairunmasked.org/wp-content/uploads/2010/07/2008-Civil-Rights-Report.pdf
  137. ↑ Ghumman, S., & Jackson, L. (2010). The downside of religious attire: the Muslim headscarf and expectations of obtaining employment. Journal of Organizational Behavior, 31(1), 4-23
  138. ↑ Cole, Darnell; Ahmadi, Shafiqa (2003). "Perspectives and Experiences of Muslim Women Who Veil on College Campuses". Journal of College Student Development. 44: 47–66. doi:10.1353/csd.2003.0002.
  139. 1 2 Reeves, T., Mckinney, A., & Azam, L. (2012). Muslim women's workplace experiences: Implications for strategic diversity initiatives. Equality, Diversity and Inclusion: An International Journal, 32(1), 49-67.
  140. ↑ Hamdani, D. (2005, March). Triple jeopardy: Muslim women’s experience of discrimination. Canadian Council of Muslim Women. Retrieved from http://archive.ccmw.com/publications/triple_jeopardy.pdf  (do we italicize the council?)
  141. 1 2 Ali, S., Yamada, T., & Mahmood, A. (2015). Relationships of the practice of Hijab, workplace discrimination, social class, job stress, and job satisfaction among Muslim American women. Journal of Employment Counseling, 52(4), 146-157
  142. ↑ Younis, M. (2009, March 2). Muslim Americans exemplify diversity, potential. Gallup. Retrieved from http://www.gallup.com/poll/116260/muslim-americans-exemplify-diversity-potential.aspx
  143. ↑ Ahmad, A. S., King, E. B.(2010). An experimental field study of interpersonal discrimination toward Muslim job applicants. Personnel Psychology, 63(4), 881–906
  144. ↑ Acquisti, A., & Fong, C. M. (2013). An experiment in hiring discrimination via online social networks. Social Science Research Network. Retrieved from http://papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=2031979
  145. 1 2 Harrison, A. K. (2016). Hiding under the veil of “dress policy”: Muslim women, hijab, and employment discrimination in the United States. Georgetown Journal of Gender and the Law, 17(3), 831
  146. 1 2 3 Pasha-Zaidi, N. (2015). Judging by appearances: Perceived discrimination among South Asian Muslim women in the US and the UAE. Journal of International Women's Studies,16(2), 70-97
  147. ↑ Pascoe, E. A., & Smart Richman, L. (2009). Perceived discrimination and health: a meta-analytic review. Psychological Bulletin, 135(4), 531
  148. 1 2 Jasperse, Marieke Lyniska (2009). "Persevere in Adversity: Perrceived Religious Discrimination and Islamic Identity as Predictors of Psychological Wellbeing in Muslim Women in New Zealand" (PDF). New Zealand: Victoria University of Wellington. hdl:10063/1005.

References

  • Ahmed, Leila (1992). Women and Gender in Islam: Historical Roots of a Modern Debate. New Haven: Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-05583-2.
  • Aslan, Reza, No god but God: The Origins, Evolution, and Future of Islam, Random House, 2005
  • Bloom, Jonathan; Blair, Sheila (2002). Islam: A Thousand Years of Faith and Power. Yale University Press. ISBN 978-0-300-09422-0.
  • El Guindi, Fadwa (1999). Veil: Modesty, Privacy, and Resistance. Oxford: Berg. ISBN 978-1-85973-929-7.
  • Elver, Hilal. The Headscarf Controversy: Secularism and Freedom of Religion (Oxford University Press; 2012); 265 pages; Criticizes policies that serve to exclude pious Muslim women from the public sphere in Turkey, France, Germany, and the United States.
  • Esposito, John (2003). The Oxford Dictionary of Islam. Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-512558-0.
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.