Gujarat under Aurangzeb

Kásam Khán, Thirtieth Viceroy, 1657–1659 and Sháh Nawáz Khán Safávi, Thirty-first Viceroy, 1659

Dara Shikoh rebelled and defeated, 1659

In 1658, while his father Shah Jahan was still alive, Aurangzeb assumed the imperial titles and ascended the Mugahl throne. In 1659, he appointed Sháh Nawáz Khán Safávi, thirty-first viceroy of Gujarát, with Rahmat Khán as minister replacing Kasam Khan appointed by his father whom he defeated in the battle of Dharmatpur.^[2]

On this occasion Shantidas Jhaveri, a merchant from Ahmedabad who had helped financing his cause during battles of succession, received a decree directing that the provincial officials should settle his accounts and Kutb-ud-dín Kheshgi was appointed to Sorath. Sháh Nawáz Khán was the father-in-law of both Aurangzeb and his brother Murad Bakhsh whom he had imprisoned. Shortly after his appointment, while Murád’s wife was paid a visit to her father. Another prince Dara Shikoh fighting for succession went to Kutch, where he had been hospitably received by the Ráo of Kutch. He made a sudden descent on Gujarát. The viceroy Sháh Nawáz Khán, won over by the entreaties of his daughter who saw in the success of Dara Shikoh, a hope of release for her husband, joined the prince who entered Áhmedábád. After raising funds from Surat and Áhmedábád, he collected an army of 22000 horse and appointing Sayad Áhmed deputy viceroy, marched towards Ajmer, once more to try his chance of empire. He was defeated and fled to Áhmedábád, where Sardár Khán, who had confined Sayad Áhmed, closed the gates of the city in his face. The unhappy prince retired to Kutch, but finding no support fled to Sindh, where he was treacherously seized and handed to his brother Aurangzeb by the chief of Jún.^[2]

Jaswant Singh, Thirty-second Viceroy, 1659–1662

The emperor Aurangzeb, forgiving Jaswant Singh his opposition during battle of Dharmatpur during succession war, conferred on him the government of Gujarát, and in the place of Rahmat Khán appointed Makramat Khán to act as minister.^[2]

Sardár Khán was thanked for his loyal conduct and made governor of Bharuch. Praise was also given to Sher and Ábid of the Bábi family. Presents were bestowed on Kutb-ud-dín, governor of Sorath, and, shortly after, for his refusal to help prince Dara Shikoh, Tamáchi chief of Kutch was rewarded. These measures removed all signs of disaffection at the accession of Aurangzeb. A decree was issued directing Rahmat Khán the minister to forbid the cultivation of the bhang plant. Mohtasibs or censors were appointed to prevent the drinking of wine or the use of intoxicating drugs and preparations. On the formal installation of Aurangzeb in 1658–59, the Áhmedábád Kázi was ordered to read the sermon in his name. The Kázi objected that Sháh Jahán was alive. Sheikh Abdul Wahháb, a Sunni Bohra of Patan, whom on account of his learning and intelligence Aurangzeb had made Kázi of his camp, contended that the weakness and age of Sháh Jahán made a successor necessary. The Bohra prevailed and the sermon was read in Aurangzeb’s name.^[3]

In 1662, Jaswant Singh received orders to march to the Dakhan (Deccan) and join prince Muâzzam against Shivaji, the Maratha leader; and Kutb-ud-dín, governor of Sorath, was directed to act for him in his absence.^[3]

Mahábat Khán, Thirty-third Viceroy, 1662–1668

In 1662, Mahábat Khán was appointed thirty-third viceroy of Gujarát, and Sardár Khán, the governor of [Bharuch, was sent to Idar to suppress disturbances. About 1664, Ranmalji or Satarsála Jám of Nawanagar died, leaving by a Rathod mother a child named Lákha whom the late chief’s brother Ráisinghji with the aid of the Ráo of Kutch and other Jádejás, set aside and himself mounted the throne. Malik Ísa, a servant of the family, took Lákha to Áhmedábád and invoked the aid of the viceroy.^[3]

Capture of Nawánagar (Islámnagar), 1664

Kutb-ud-dín marching on Navánagar, defeated and slew Ráisingh, took possession of Nawánagar, and annexed the territory, changing the name of the city into Islámnagar. Ráisingh’s son, Tamáchi, then an infant, escaped and was sheltered in Kutch. In the same year (1664), a Baluch personating Dara Shikoh, was joined by many Koli]s, and disturbed the peace of the Chunval, north of Viramgam (now in Patan district, Gujarat. With the aid of Sherkhán Bábi, Mahábat Khán quelled these disturbances, and established two new military posts, one at Gájna under Cambay and one at Belpár under Petlad.^[3]

Imperial decrees

In 1664, an imperial decree was received requiring the discontinuance of the following abuses: The charging of blackmail by executive subordinates; A tax on private individuals on their cutting their own trees; Forced purchases by state servants; The levy by local officers of a tax on persons starting certain crafts; The levy of a tax on laden carts and on cattle for sale; The closing of shops on the Jain Paryushan festival and at the monthly elevenths or Ekadashi; Forced labour; The exclusive purchase of new grain by revenue officers; The exclusive sale by officers of the vegetables and other produce of their gardens; A tax on the slaughtering of cattle in addition to that on their sale; Payments to the Ahmednagar Kolis to prevent Muslims praying in the Ahmednagar mosque; The re-opening of certain Hindu temples; The aggressive conduct and obscenity practised during the Holi and Diwali festivals; The sale by Hindus of toy horses and elephants during Muslim festivals; The exclusive sale of rice by certain rich Banias; The exclusive purchase by Imperial officers of roses for the manufacture of rosewater; The mixed gatherings of men and women at Muslim shrines; The setting up of nezas or holy hands and the sitting of harlots on roadsides or in markets; The charging by revenue officers of scarcity rates; The special tax in Prantij, Modasa, Vadnagar, Bisnápur, and Harsol on Muslim owners of mango trees; The levy of duty both at Surat and Ahmedabad from English and Dutch merchants.^[4]

Shiváji Plunders Surat, 1664

In the same year (1664), Shivaji made a rapid descent on Surat, then undefended by walls, and, by plundering the city, created great alarm over the whole province. The viceroy Mahábat Khán marched to Surat with the following chiefs and officers: Jagmál, proprietor of Sanand; the governor of Dholka; Shádimal, chief of Idar; Sayad Hasan Khán, governor of Ídar; Muhammad Ábid with 200 superior landholders of the district of Kadi; the Rája of Dungarpur; Sabalsingh Rája of Wadhwan and other chiefs of Jhalawad; Lál Kalián chief of Mandwa near Atarsumba near Baroda; the chief of Ilol under Ahmednagar in the Mahi Kántha region; Prathiráj of Haldarvás; and the chief of Belpár. Before the viceroy’s army arrived at Surat, Shiváji had carried off his plunder to his head-quarters at Raigad fort.^[5][6]

After remaining three months at Surat levying tribute from the superior landholders, the viceroy returned to Ahmedábád, and Ináyat Khán, the revenue collector of Surat, built a wall round the town for its protection. About this time Kutb-ud-dín Khán, governor of Sorath, was sent with an army to aid the Mahárája Jaswant Singh in the Dakhan and Sardár Khán was appointed in his place.^[5]

In 1666, the Maráthás again attacked and plundered Surat, and in the same year the deposed emperor Shah Jahan died. Aurangzeb attempted to induce the English to supply him with European artillerymen and engineers. The request was evaded.^[5]

Copper Coinage Introduced, 1668

In this year the viceroy, Mahábat Khán, in place of the old iron coins, introduced a copper coinage into Gujarát. Sardár Khan, the governor of Junagadh, was put in charge of Islámnagar (Nawánagar) and 500 additional horsemen were placed under him. Special checks by branding and inspection were introduced to prevent nobles and others keeping less than their proper contingent of horse. In the same year the cultivator who paid the rent was acknowledged to be the owner of the land and a system of strengtheners or takáwi after due security was introduced.^[5]

Khán Jehán, Thirty-fourth Viceroy, 1668–1671

In 1668, Bahádur Khán Khán Jehán, who had formerly been viceroy of Allahábád, was appointed viceroy of Gujarát, with Háji Shafi Khán, and afterwards Khwájah Muhammad Háshím, as his ministers.^[5]

Shivaji attacks Surat and Janjira

Khán Jehán joined his government in 1669, and in 1670 Shiváji again plundered Surat. In 1670 Shiváji made an attempt on Janjira, the residence and stronghold of the Sídi or Abyssinian admirals of Bíjápur. Sídi Yákút the commander of Janjira applied for aid to the governor of Surat. On his offering to become a vassal of the emperor and place his fleet at the emperor’s disposal, Sídi Yákút received the title of Yákút Khán, and a yearly subsidy of Rupees 150000 payable from the port of Surat. About the same time Sayad Diler Khán, who had accompanied Mahárája Jaswant Singh to the Dakhan, was recalled by the viceroy Khán Jehán and appointed governor of Sorath in place of Sardár Khán, who was sent to Ídar. Sayad Haidar, in charge of the military post of Haidarábád, about twenty-four miles south of Áhmedábád, reported that he had put down the rebellion but recommended that a small fort should be built. In 1670 the emperor summoned Diler Khán to discuss Dakhan affairs, and sent him to the seat of war, replacing him in the government of Sorath by Sardár Khán.^[7]

Mahárája Jaswant Singh, Thirty-fifth Viceroy, 1671–1674

In 1671, Bahádur Khán Khán Jehán was sent as viceroy to the Dakhan. He was relieved by the Mahárája Jaswant Singh, who, as viceroy, received an assignment of the districts of Dhandhuka and Petlad.^[8]

In 1673, through the intercession of the viceroy, Jám Ṭamáchi, the son of Ráisingh of Nawanagar, on condition of serving the viceroy and of keeping order was restored to Nawánagar, and twenty-five villages were granted to certain dependent Jádeja Rájputs. So long as the emperor Aurangzeb lived, the city of Nawánagar (Islámnagar) remained in the hands of a Muslim noble, the Jám residing at Khambhalia, a town about thirty miles south-west of the head-quarters of the state. In 1707, on Aurangzeb’s death, the Jám was allowed to return to Nawánagar where he built a strong fort. Similarly so long as Aurangzeb lived, the Jám forbore to work the pearl fisheries in the Gulf of Kutch, but afterwards again made use of this source of revenue.^[8]

Early in 1674, an order issued forbidding the levy from Muslims of rahádari or transit dues, of taxes on fish vegetables grass firewood and other forest produce, on Muslim artisans, and many other miscellaneous dues. The officer in charge of Morbi, which was then an imperial district, was ordered to strive to increase its population and revenue, and the chief of Porbandar, also an imperial district, on condition of service and of protecting the port was allowed a fourth share of its revenue. Much discontent was caused by enforcing an imperial order confiscating all wazífah land, that is all land held on religious tenure by Hindus.^[8]

Muhammad Amín Khán Umdat-ul-Mulk, Thirty-sixth Viceroy, 1674–1683

About the close of the year 1674, Mahárája Jaswant Singh was relieved and sent to Kabul, and Muhammad Amín Khán Umdat-ul-Mulk, who had just been defeated at Kábul, was appointed thirty-sixth viceroy of Gujarát, receiving an assignment of the districts of Patan and Viramgam. Among the military posts mentioned in the Mirăt-i-Áhmedi is that of Sadra (Islamabad) near Godhra which was under the command of Sayad Kamál, son of Sayad Kámil.^[9]

Increased Power of the Bábi Family.

The Bábi family were now rising into importance. Muhammad Muzaffar, son of Sher Khán Bábi, was governor of Kadi, and Muhammad Mubáriz, another son of Sher Bábi, was in charge of one of the posts under Kadi. Kamál Khán Jhálori, who had been removed from the government of Palanpur and replaced by Muhammad Fateh, was now restored to his former post. About the same time, at the representation of Mulla Hasan Gujaráti, twenty-one villages were taken from Vijapur and Kadi and Pátan and formed into the separate division of Visalnagar (Visnagar). In 1676, the fort of Junagadh was put into repair, and Sheikh Nizám-ud-dín Áhmed, minister of Gujarát, was sent to Malwa, and was succeeded by Muhammad Sharíf. The Kánkrej Kolis were again rebellious, and Muhammad Amín Khán Umdat-ul-Mulk went against them and remained four months in their country, subduing them and enforcing tribute. In the end of 1678, the viceroy paid his respects to the emperor at Ajmer. The emperor forbade the fining of Muslim officials as contrary to the Muslim law and directed that if guilty of any fault they should be imprisoned or degraded from office, but not fined. An order was also given to change the name of the new Visalnagar district to Rasúlnagar (now Visnagar).^[9]

At this time (1679) the emperor was doing his utmost to crush both the Rána of Udaipur and the Ráthoḍs of Marwar. While the emperor was at Chittor, Bhímsing the Rána’s youngest son raided into Gujarát plundering Vadnagar, Visalnagar and other towns and villages.^[10]

Revolt of Ídar, 1679

The chief of Idar, thinking the opportunity favourable for regaining his independence, expelled the Mughal garrison from Ídar and established himself in his capital. Muhammad Amín Khán sent Muhammad Bahlol Khán Shirwáni who with the help of the Kasbátis of Prantij re-took Ídar, and the chief pursued by Bahlol Khán fled to the hills, where he died in a cave from want of his usual dose of opium to which he was much addicted. His body was found by a woodcutter who brought the head to Bahlol Khán. The head was recognized by the chief’s widow, who from that day put on mourning. Muhammad Bahlol Khán was much praised, and was appointed to the charge of Ídar, and at the same time the minister Muhammad Sharíf was succeeded by Abdúl Latíf.^[10]

To this time belongs an imperial decree imposing the jizya or head tax on all subjects not professing the Muslim faith, and another regulating the levy from Muslims of the zakát or poor rate.^{[upper-alpha 1]} In 1681, a severe famine led to riots in Áhmedábád..^[10] As the viceroy Muhammad Amín was returning in state from the Eid prayers; Abu Bakr, an Áhmedábád Sheikh instigated the people to throw stones and dust. The viceroy’s bodyguard attacked the mob, but owing to the viceroy’s forbearance no serious results followed. On hearing of the riot the emperor ordered the city to be put under martial law. The more politic viceroy contented himself by inviting Sheikh Abu Bakr and others to a banquet. After dinner, he gave a piece of a poisoned watermelon to Abu Bakr, who died and the riot with him. In 1683, Muhammad Amín, the viceroy died. According to the Mirăt-i-Áhmedi, Muhammad Amín was one of the best of Gujarát governors. The emperor Aurangzeb used to say, "No viceroy of mine keeps order like Amín Khán."^[11]

Mukhtár Khán, Thirty-seventh Viceroy, 1683–1684

Amín Khán was succeeded by Mukhtár Khán as thirty-seventh viceroy, Abdul Latíf continuing to hold the office of minister. Fresh orders were passed forbidding import dues on merchandise, fruit, grass, firewood, and similar produce entering Áhmedábád. In 1682, a decree was received ordering pauper prisoners to be provided with rations and dress at the cost of the state. In 1683, the Sabarmati river rose so high that the water reached as far as the Teen Darwaza or Triple Gateway in the west of Áhmedábád city. In consequence of disturbances in Sorath, the viceroy called on the minister to advance funds for an expedition. The minister refused to make advances without special orders from the emperor. On a reference to court the minister was directed to make advances in emergent cases. In 1684, at the request of the inhabitants of that city Abdúr Rahmán Krori, the governor of Deva Pátan, was removed and in his place Muhammad Sayad chose Sardár Khán as governor of Sorath. In the following year, on the death of Sardár Khán at Thatta in Sindh, where he had gone as viceroy, he was, in the first instance, succeeded in the government of Sorath by Sayad Muhammad Khán. Not long after Sorath was assigned as a personal estate to the emperor’s second son prince Muhammad Azam Shah Bahádur and during the prince’s absence Sháhwardi Khán was sent to manage its affairs.

Famine, 1684

In 1684, a famine in Gujarát raised the price of grain in Áhmedábád to such a degree that Sheikh Muhy-ud-dín, the son of the Kázi and regulator of prices, was mobbed.^[12]

Shujáât Khán (Kártalab Khán), Thirty-eighth Viceroy, 1684–1703

On the death of the viceroy in 1684, prince Muhammad Azam Shah was nominated to succeed him with Kártalab Khán, governor of Sorath, as his deputy. Before the prince took charge, Kártalab Khán was raised to the post of viceroy, and Muhammad Táhir appointed minister. In addition to his command as viceroy of Gujarát, Kártalab Khán was afterwards placed in charge of Jodhpur. In this rearrangement besides his previous personal estate, the district of Petlád was assigned to prince Muhammad Ázam Sháh, and Sher Afghan Khán, son of Sháhwardi Khán, was appointed governor of Sorath.^[12] In 1687, Sher Afghan Khán was relieved by Bahlol Shirwáni, but in the following year was restored to his command.^[13]

Mutiny quelled, 1689.

In 1689, on the news of the death of its governor Ináyat Khán, Kártalab Khán started to settle the affairs of Jodhpur. As soon as he left Áhmedábád, a rumour spread that a new viceroy was coming, and the troops, with whom as well as with the people of Gujarát Kártalab was most popular, grew mutinous. On hearing of this disturbance Kártalab Khán at once returned to Áhmedábád and quelled the mutiny. His firmness so pleased the emperor that he gave him the title of Shujaât Khán, and placed the governor of Jodhpur under his orders.^[13]

Shujaât Khán now proceeded to Jodhpur, where Durgádás Ráthoḍ, who had incited prince Abkar to rebellion, and Ajítsingh, the son of Mahárája Jaswant Singh, were causing disturbance. Finding that a strong resident governor was required to keep the insurgents in check, Shujaât Khán appointed Kázim Beg Muhammad Amín, a brave and resolute soldier, to be his deputy and returned to Áhmedábád.^[13]

During this viceroyalty the pay of the leader or jamádár of a troop of fifty horse was fixed at Ruppes 100; of a do-aspah or two-horse trooper at Rupees 60; and of an ek-aspah or one-horse trooper at Rupees 30 a month. An imperial order was also issued directing the levy on merchandise to be taken at the place and time of sale instead of the time and place of purchase. As this change caused loss to the revenue the old system was again adopted. In a.d. 1690 the minister Amánat Khán, with the title of Ítimád Khán, was made military governor of Surat, and Sayad Muhsín was chosen minister in his place. To prevent the peons of great officials extorting fees and dues officials were forbidden to entertain peons without payment.^[13]

Revolt of Matiás and Momnás, 1691

In the following year (1691), an attempt on the part of the emperor to suppress a body of Muslim sectarians led to a somewhat serious insurrection. Sayad Sháhji was the religious preceptor of the Matiás of Khandesh and the Momnás of Gujarát, two classes of converted Hindus closely allied to the Khojas of Kathiawad, all of them being followers of Sayad Imám-ud-dín, an Shia Ismáîliá missionary who came to Gujarát during the reign of Gujarat Sultan Mahmud Begada (r.1459–1513). Hearing that his followers paid obeisance to their veiled spiritual guide by kissing his toe, the emperor ordered the guide to be sent to court to be examined before the religious doctors. Afraid of the result of this examination, the Sayad committed suicide and was buried at Karamtah nine miles south of Áhmedábád. The loss of their leader so enraged his followers that, collecting from all sides, they marched against Bharuch, seized the fort, and slew the governor. The insurgents held the fort of Bharuch against the governor of Baroda who was sent to punish them, and for a time successfully resisted the efforts of his successor Nazar Áli Khán. At last, at an unguarded spot, some of the besiegers stole over the city wall and opening the gates admitted their companions. The Momnás were defeated and almost all slain as they sought death either by the sword or by drowning to merit their saint’s favour in the next world.^[13]

Disturbances in Kathiawad, 1692

In 1692, Shujáât Khán, during his tribute-gathering campaign in Jhalawad and Sorath, stormed the fort of Than, the head-quarters of the plundering Káthis and after destroying the fort returned to Áhmedábád.^[14] Shujáât Khán was one of the ablest of Gujarát viceroys. He gave so much of his attention to the management of Jodhpur, that he used to spend about six months of every year in Márwár. He beautified Áhmedábád by building the college and mosque still known by his name near the Lál Darwaza area of Ahmedabad. In 1642, two hundred cart-loads of marble were received from the ancient buildings at Pátan and the deputy governor Safdar Khán Bábi wrote that if a thousand cart-loads more were required they could be supplied from the same source. At this time the emperor ordered that Sheikh Akram-ud-dín, the local tax-collector, should levy the head tax from the Hindus of Palanpur and Jalore. The viceroy deputed Muhammad Mujáhid, son of Kamál Khán Jhálori, governor of Pálanpur to help in collecting.^[15]

Disturbances in Márwár. As Durgádás Ráthoḍ was again caused disturbance in Márwár, the viceroy went to Jodhpur, and by confirming their estates to the chief vassals and landholders and guaranteeing other public measures on condition of service, persuaded them to abandon their alliance with Durgádás against whom he sent his deputy Kázim Beg, who expelled him from Márwár. After appointing Kunvár Muhkamsingh, governor of Mertha in Márwár, Shujáât Khán returned to Áhmedábád. In 1693, at the request of Sher Afghan Khán, governor of Sorath, the walls of the fort of Jagat (Dwarka) were restored. In this year the viceroy went to Jhalawad to exact tribute.^[15]

On his return to Áhmedábád Safdar Khán Bábi, governor of Pátan, wrote to the viceroy, and at his request the forts of Kambhoi and Sámprah were repaired. The viceroy now went to Jodhpúr and from that returned to Áhmedábád. A circumstance in connection with a sum of Rupees 7000 spent on the repairs of forts illustrates the close imperial supervision of provincial accounts. The item having come to imperial notice from the provincial disbursement sheets was disallowed as unfair and ordered to be refunded under the rule that such charges were to be met out of their incomes by the local governors and military deputy governors. Imperial officers were also from time to time deputed to collect from the books of the desái’s statements of provincial disbursements and receipts for periods of ten years that they might render an independent check.^[15]

Hatkeshwar Mahadev Temple at Vadnagar which was ordered by the emperor to be destroyed.

In this year the emperor hearing that Ajítsingh and Durgádás were again contemplating rebellion ordered the viceroy to Jodhpur. Muhammad Mubáriz Bábi was at the same time appointed deputy governor of Vadnagar, and an order was issued that the revenue of Pátan should be paid to Shujáât Khán instead of as formerly into the imperial treasury. In this year also Safdar Khán Bábi, governor of Pátan, was succeeded by Mubáriz Khán Bábi. Not long afterwards under imperial orders the viceroy directed Muhammad Mubáriz Bábi to destroy the Vadnagar temple of Hatkeshwar Mahádev, the Nágar Bráhmans’ special guardian.^[15]

In 1696, Muhammad Bahlol Shírwáni, governor of Baroda, died, and his place was supplied by Muhammad Beg Khán. During this year the viceroy again went to Jodhpúr and remained there for some months. In 1697 Buláki Beg the mace-bearer arrived from the imperial court to settle disputes connected with the Nawánagar succession, and to inquire into complaints made by the inhabitants of Sorath. In 1696, an imperial circular was addressed to all officers in charge of districts ordering them to show no respect or consideration for royalty in their efforts to capture or kill the rebel prince Akbar.^[16]

Durgádás Ráthoḍ reconciled to the Emperor, 1697.

About the same time (1697) Durgádás Ráthoḍ, in whose charge were the son and daughter of prince Akbar, made an application to Shujáât Khán, proposing a truce, and saying that he wished personally to hand the children to their grandfather. Shujaât Khán agreed and Durgádás restored Akbar’s children to the emperor. Aurangzeb finding the children able to repeat the whole Quran was much pleased with Durgádás, and made peace with him, assigning him as a personal estate the lands of Mertha in Jodhpur, and afterwards adding to this the grant of Dhandhuka and other districts of Gujarát. In consequence of a failure of crops the price of grain rose so high that the government share of the produce was brought to Áhmedábád and sold in public to the poor and needy. About this time Muhammad Mubáriz Bábi was killed by a Koli who shot him with an arrow while he was sacking the village of Sámprah. Safdar Khán Bábi was appointed deputy governor of Pátan in his stead.^[17]

Scarcity, 1698

In 1698, on the death of Ítimád Khán, his son Muhammad Muhsín was made minister, and he was ordered to hand the district of Mertha to Durgádás Ráthoḍ. Among other changes Muhammad Muním was raised to the command of the fort of Jodhpur and Khwájáh Abdul Hamíd was appointed minister. Owing to a second failure of rain 1698 was a year of much scarcity in Márwár and north Gujarát. The accounts of this year notice a petition addressed to the viceroy by a Sinor Bráhman, praying that he might not be seized as a carrier or labourer.^{[17][upper-alpha 2]}

In connection with some revenue and civil affairs, a difference of opinion arose between Shujáât Khán and Safdar Khán Bábi, deputy governor of Pátan. Safdar Khán resigned, and, until a successor was appointed, Muhammad Bahlol Shírwáni was directed to administer the Pátan district. In the same year the emperor bestowed the government of Sorath on Muhammad Beg Khán.^[17] In 1699, Durgádás Ráthoḍ obtained from the emperor not only a pardon for Ajítsingh, son of the late Mahárája Jaswant Singh, but procured him an assignment of lands in, as well as the official charge of, the districts of Jalore and Sanchor in Márwár. Mujáhid Khán Jhálori, who as representing a family of landholders dating as far back as the Gujarát Sultáns, had held Jhálor and Sáchor, now received in their stead the lands in Pálanpur and Disa which his descendants still hold. In this year also (1699) Amánat Khán, governor of Surat, died, and the Maráthás making a raid into the province, Shujáât Khán sent Nazar Áli Khán to drive them out. About this time an imperial order arrived, addressed to the provincial díwán directing him to purchase 1000 horses for the government at the average rate of Rupees 200.^[18]

In 1700, on the death of Fírúz Khán Mewáti, deputy governor of Jodhpúr, the viceroy appointed in his place Muhammad Záhid from Víramgám. Rája Ajítsingh of Márwár was now ordered to repair to court, and as he delayed, a mohsal or speed fine was imposed upon him in agreement with Shujáât Khán’s directions. About this time an order came to Kamál Khán Jhálori for the despatch to the emperor of some of the Pálanpur chítáhs or hunting leopards which are still in demand in other parts of India. In the same year the manager of Dhandhúka on behalf of Durgádás Ráthoḍ, asked the viceroy for aid against the Káthis, who were plundering that district. The viceroy ordered Muhammad Beg, governor of Sorath, to march against them. At this time Shujáât Khán despatched Nazar Áli Khán with a large force to join the imperial camp which was then at Panhála in Kolhápur. Shujáât Khán, who had so long and ably filled the office of viceroy in a most critical time, died in 1703.^[19]

Prince Muhammad Azam Shah, Thirty-ninth Viceroy, 1703–1705

In Shujaat Khan's place prince Muhammad Azam Shah, who was then at Dhár in Málwa, was appointed thirty-ninth viceroy of Gujarát, as well as governor of Ajmír and Jodhpur; and until his arrival the minister Khwájáh Abdul Hamíd Khán was ordered to administer the province. Owing to the recall of the late governor’s troops from many of the posts disorders broke out in the Pátan districts and the Kolis plundered the country and made the roads impassable.^[19]

n his way from the Dakhan to Áhmedábád, the chief of Jhábua near Bhopal, paid his respects to the new viceroy and presented him with a tribute of Rupees 16000. Among other arrangements the prince sent to Jodhpur, Jáfar Kuli, son of Kázim Beg, as deputy governor, and appointed Durgádás Ráthoḍ governor of Pátan. Shortly after, on suspicion of his tampering with the Ráthoḍ Rájputs, an order came from the emperor to summon Durgádás to the prince’s court at Áhmedábád, and there confine him or slay him.^[19]

Durgádás Ráthoḍ, 1703

Safdar Khán Bábi, who, in displeasure with Shujáât Khán had retired to Málwa, returned and offered to slay or capture Durgádás, who was accordingly invited to the prince’s court at Áhmedábád. Durgádás came and pitched his camp at the village of Báreja on the Sábarmati near Áhmedábád. On the day Durgádás was to present himself, the prince, on pretence of a hunt, had ordered the attendance of a strong detachment of the army.^[19] When all was ready and Safdar Khán Bábi and his sons appeared mailed and gauntleted the prince sent for Durgádás. As this day was an eleventh or agiáras Durgádás had put off waiting on the prince until the fast was over.^[20]

Growing suspicious of the number of messengers from the prince, he burned his tents and fled. Safdar Khán Bábi was sent in pursuit. He was overtaking Durgádás when Durgádás’ grandson praying his grandfather to make good his escape, stayed behind with a band of followers, charged the pursuers, and after a gallant combat, he and his Rájputs were slain. The grandson of Durgádás was killed in a hand-to-hand fight with Salábat Khán, the son of Safdar Khán Bábi. Meanwhile Durgádás had reached Unjha-Unáwa, forty miles east of Pátan, and from Unjha made his way to Pátan. From Pátan, taking his family with him, he retired to Tharad, and from that to Márwár, where he was afterwards joined by Ajítsingh of Márwár, whom the emperor opposed on the ground of illegitimacy. The imperial troops followed and took possession of Pátan, putting to death the head of the city police.^[20]

In his old age the emperor Aurangzeb became more and more strict in religious matters. In 1702, an imperial order forbad the making of almanacs as contrary to the Muslim law. Hindus were also forbidden to keep Muslim servants.^[20]

Surat under threat

About this time (1700) news arrived that the Marathas with a force of 10,000 horse were threatening Surat from the foot of the Kására pass and the confines of Sultánpur and Nandurbar. The viceroy despatched a body of troops to guard Surat against their incursions. Disputes between the government and the Portuguese were also injuring the trade of the province. In 1701, the viceroy received an order from Court directing him to destroy the Somnath temple beyond possibility of repair. The despatch adds that a similar order had been issued at the beginning of Aurangzeb’s reign. In 1703, at the request of the merchants of Gujarát, with the view of inducing the Portuguese to let ships from Surat pass unmolested and release some Muslim who had been imprisoned on their way back from Mecca, orders were issued that certain confiscated Portuguese merchandise should be restored to its owners. An imperial order was also received to encourage the art of brocade weaving in Áhmedábád. In 1704, Safdar Khán Bábi was raised to be governor of Vijapur. Sarandáz Khán was at the same time appointed to Sorath instead of Muhammad Beg Khán, who was placed in charge of the lands round Áhmedábád. As the Maráthás once more threatened Surat, Mustafa Kuli, governor of Bharuch, was sent with 1000 horse to defend the city.^[20]

Ibráhím Khán, Fortieth Viceroy, 1705

In 1705, as the climate of Gujarát did not agree with prince Azam, Ibráhím Khán, viceroy of Kashmír, was appointed fortieth viceroy of Gujarát, and his son Zabardast Khán, viceroy of Lahore, was appointed to the government of Ajmer and Jodhpur. Prince Azam at once went to Burhánpur in Khándesh, handing charge of Gujarát to the minister Abdúl Hamíd Khán until the new viceroy should arrive. Durgádás Ráthoḍ now asked for and received pardon. Abdúl Hamíd Khán was ordered to restore the lands formerly granted to Durgádás, and Durgádás was directed to act under Abdúl Hamíd’s orders. In 1705, the emperor learned that Khánji, a successor of Kutb the high priest of the Shia Ismáîli Bohrás, had sent out twelve missionaries to win people to his faith, and that his followers had subscribed Rupees 114000 to relieve those of their number who were imprisoned. The emperor ordered that the twelve missionaries should be secured and sent to him and appointed Sunni Mullás to preach in their villages and bring the Bohras’ children to the Sunni form of faith.^[21]

Prince Muhammad Bídár Bakht, Forty-First Viceroy, 1705–1706

Prince Muhammad Bidar Bakht arrived in 1705 as forty-first viceroy, and appointed Amánat Khán governor of the ports of Surat and Cambay. News was now received that Ajítsingh of Jodhpur and Verisálji of Rájpípla were about to rebel, and the prince took measures to check their plans.^[24] About this time the emperor, hearing that an attack had been made on the Muslim post at Dwarka, ordered the Dwarkadhish temple to be levelled to the ground. It seems doubtful whether this order was carried out.^[25]

Nazar Áli Khán, who had formerly enjoyed a grant of Halvad in Jhalawad, had been driven out by Chandrasingh, chief of Vankaner; but, on condition of his expelling Chandrasingh, these lands were again granted to him. Kamál Khán Jhálori, leaving under his son Fírúz Khán at Pálanpur a body of men for the defence of his charge, advanced to Áhmedábád to guard the city from Marátha attack. He petitioned that according to Gujarát custom his troops should receive rations so long as they were employed on imperial service. To this request the emperor agreed and issued orders to the provincial minister.^[25]

Durgádás Ráthoḍ again in Rebellion.

Shortly after Durgádás Ráthoḍ took advantage of the general confusion to rejoin Ajítsingh, and an army was sent to Tharad against them. Ajítsingh was at first forced to retire. Finally he succeeded in defeating Kunvar Muhkamsingh, and marching on Jodhpur recovered it from Jaâfar Kuli, son of Kázím Beg. Durgádás meanwhile had taken shelter with the Kolis. At the head of a band of robbers, meeting Sháh Kúli the son of Kázím Beg on his way to join his appointment as deputy governor of Pátan, Durgádás attacked and killed him. And soon after at Chaniár in the Chunvál, laying in wait for Maâsúm Kúli, the governor of Víramgám, he routed his escort, Maâsum Kúli escaping with difficulty. On condition of being appointed governor of Pátan, Safdar Khán Bábi now offered to kill or capture Durgádás. His offer was accepted, and as from this time Durgádás is no more heard of, it seems probable that Safdar Khán succeeded in killing him.^[25]

Ibráhím Khán, Forty-second Viceroy, 1706

As the disturbed state of the province seemed to require a change of government Ibráhím Khán, who had been appointed viceroy in the previous year, was ordered to join his post. This order he reluctantly obeyed in 1706.^[25]

With the death of the emperor Aurangzeb, early in 1707, the period of strong government which had latterly from year to year been growing weaker came to an end.^[25]

The Maráthás advance to Áhmedábád and levy tribute, 1707

As soon as Aurangzeb’s death was known, the Maráthás under Balaji Vishwanath burst into east Gujarát, marching by Jhábua and Godhra, where they were ineffectually opposed by the governor Murád Baksh. From Godhra, they went to and plundered the town of Mahuda in Kaira (Kheda), and proposed marching on Áhmedábád by way of Nadiad. The viceroy prepared to resist them, and, enlisting special troops, camped outside of the city near the Kankaria Lake. Of the warlike population on the north bank of the Sabarmati river, opposite Áhmedábád nearly eight thousand Mughal horse and three thousand foot together with four thousand Rájpúts and Kolis in three days gathered at the Kánkaria camp. The viceroy was also joined by Abdúl Hádi Pandemal the viceroy’s minister, Abdúl Hamíd Khán provincial minister, Muhammad Beg Khán, Nazar Áli Khán, Safdar Khán Bábi, and several other deputy governors with their retinues and artillery.^[25] Though strong in numbers the practised eye of the viceroy failed to find in the host that firmness and unity of purpose which could alone ensure victory over the Marátha hordes.^[26] The Maráthás did much mischief, plundering as far as Vatva, only four-and-a-half miles from the viceroy’s camp. The author of the Mirăt-i-Áhmedi, whose father was an actor in these scenes, describes the panic in the capital of Gujarát which since its capture by last Gujarat Sultan Muzaffar Shah III in 1583 had been free from the horrors of war. Crowds of scared and terror-stricken men, women and children laden with as much of their property as they could carry were pressing from the suburbs into the city. In the city the streets were crowded with squatters. The cries of parents bereft of children, added to the din and turmoil of the soldiery, was like the horror of the Day of Resurrection. The dejected faces of the soldiers beaten in the late engagements added to the general gloom. The viceroy, thoroughly alarmed, concluded a treaty with Báláji, and on receiving a tribute of Rupees 210000 the Maráthás withdrew.^[27]

Meanwhile, in the contest between the princes for the throne of Delhi, prince Muhammad Azam Shah was defeated and slain, and prince Muhammad Muâzzam Sháh mounted the throne with the title of Bahadur Shah. Ibráhím Khán was confirmed in the post of viceroy of Gujarát, but, fearing that the emperor might be displeased at his concession of tribute to the Maráthás, he went to Delhi to explain his conduct, and there resigned office.^[27]

Bibliography