East African lion

Panthera leo melanochaita
Lions in Ngorongoro Crater, Tanzania
Scientific classification
Kingdom:Animalia
Phylum:Chordata
Class:Mammalia
Order:Carnivora
Suborder:Feliformia
Family:Felidae
Subfamily:Pantherinae
Genus:Panthera
Species: P. leo
Subspecies: P. l. melanochaita
Trinomial name
Panthera leo melanochaita
(Ch. H. Smith, 1842)

The East African lion is a Panthera leo melanochaita population in East Africa.[1] During the 20th century, lion populations in this part of Africa became fragmented and declined in several range countries due to loss of habitat and prey base, poaching and killing of lions to protect livestock and human life.[2] In 2005, a Lion Conservation Strategy was developed for East and Southern Africa.[3] Today, lion populations are stable only in large protected area complexes.[4]

The scientific name P. l. melanochaita was proposed for the Cape lion in 1842 that was eradicated in the mid-19th century.[5] P. l. melanochaita differs genetically from P. leo leo; the two subspecies probably diverged at least 50,000 years ago.[1]

Characteristics

Lions in East Africa

The lion's fur varies in colour from light buff to dark brown. It has rounded ears and a black tail tuft. Average head-to-body length of male lions is 2.47–2.84 m (8.1–9.3 ft) with a weight of 148.2–190.9 kg (327–421 lb). Females are smaller and less heavy.[6] The Cape lion had a black mane extending beyond the shoulders and under the belly.[7] Until the late 20th century, mane colour and size was thought to be a distinct subspecific characteristic.[8] In 2002, research in Serengeti National Park revealed that mane darkens with age; its colour and size are influenced by environmental factors like temperature and climate, but also by individual testosterone production, sexual maturity and genetic precondition. Mane length apparently signals fighting success in male–male relationships.[9]

Taxonomy

Lions shot in Kenya's Sotik Plains in 1909

Charles Hamilton Smith described the type specimen for Panthera leo melanochaita in 1842 using the scientific name Felis (Leo) melanochaitus.[7] In the 19th and 20th centuries, several naturalists described zoological specimen]]s from East Africa and proposed subspecies, including:

Dispute over the validity of these purported subspecies continued among naturalists and curators of natural history museums until the early 21st century.[17][8][5][18]

In 2017, the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group revised lion taxonomy based on results of phylogeographic research on lion samples. Two lion subspecies are now recognised:[1]

Genetic research

Since the beginning of the 21st century, several phylogenetic studies were conducted to aid clarifying the taxonomic status of lion samples kept in museums and collected in the wild. Scientists analysed between 32 and 480 lion samples from up to 22 countries. They all agree that the species lion comprises two evolutionary groups, one in East and Southern Africa, and the other in the northern and eastern parts of its historical range; these groups diverged about 50,000 years ago. They assume that tropical rainforest and the East African Rift constituted major barriers between the two groups.[19][20][21][22][23][24]

Among six samples from captive lions that originated in Ethiopia, five samples clustered with samples from East Africa, but one clustered with samples from the Sahel.[22] For a subsequent study, also eight wild lion samples from the Ethiopian Highlands were included in the analysis. Of these, three clustered with the Central African lion and five with samples from East Africa. Scientists therefore assume that the Ethiopian Highlands east and west of the Rift Valley is a genetic admixture zone between both phylogeographic groups.[24]

Distribution and habitat

The Serengeti and Maasai Mara National Parks are a lion stronghold in East Africa with a stable lion population[25]

In East Africa, lions inhabit a wide variety of habitats including savanna and arid landscapes, open grasslands and miombo woodlands.[26][27] Lion populations declined in:

Contemporary lion distribution and habitat quality in East Africa was assessed in 2005, and Lion Conservation Units (LCU) mapped.[3] Between 2002 and 2012, educated guesses for size of populations in the East African LCUs ranged from 20,485 to 18,308 individuals.[30][4]

Range countriesLion Conservation UnitsArea in km2
Democratic Republic of CongoMassif D'itombwe, Luama8,441[3]
Democratic Republic of Congo, UgandaQueen Elizabeth-Virunga5,583[34]
UgandaToro-Semulik, Lake Mburo, Murchison Falls4,800[35]
SomaliaArboweerow-Alafuuto24,527[3]
Somalia, KenyaBushbush-Arawale22,540[3]
KenyaLaikipia-Samburu, Meru and Nairobi National Parks43,706[4]
Kenya, TanzaniaSerengeti-Mara and Tsavo-Mkomazi75,068[25]
TanzaniaDar-Biharamulo, Ruaha-Rungwa, Mpanga-Kipengere, Tarangire, Wami Mbiki-Saadani, Selous384,489[25]

The LCUs Serengeti-Mara, Tsavo-Mkomazi, Ruaha-Rungwa and Selous are currently considered lion strongholds in East Africa. They host more than 500 individuals each, and the population trend is stable.[4]

Ecology and behaviour

Young lions in the Serengeti National Park

In the Serengeti National Park, lion prides have been monitored since 1966.[36] Between 1966 and 1972, two observed lion prides comprised between seven and 10 females each that had litters once in 23 months on average.[37] Litters contained two to three cubs. Females suckled cubs of other females, when their cubs were of similar age. Of 87 cubs born until 1970, only 12 reached the age of two years. Cubs died due to starvation in months when large prey was not available, following take-over of prides by new males, or of unknown causes.[38] Male lion coalitions were more successful in taking over prides than single males. Coalitions of six males stayed longer with a pride than smaller male groups.[39] Between 1974 and 2012, 471 coalitions comprising 796 male lions entered a study area of 2,000 km2 (770 sq mi). Of these, 35 nomadic coalitions included male lions that were born in the area but had left and returned after about two years of absence. Coalitions became resident at between 3.5 and 7.3 years of age.[40]

Threats

In Somalia's Lower Shabeelle area, hunters kill female lions and collect cubs to trade them in wildlife markets, where they fetch at between US$ 500 and 600 per cub. In southern Somalia, people also keep lion cubs for export.[41]

Conservation

All lion populations in Africa have been included in CITES Appendix II since 1975.[2] Because of the negative impact of trophy hunting, it was proposed in 2004 to list them all in CITES Appendix I to reduce exports of lion trophies and implement a stricter permission process.[42]

In 2006, a Lion Conservation Strategy for East and Southern Africa was developed in cooperation between IUCN regional offices and several wildlife conservation organisations. The strategy envisages to maintain sufficient habitat, ensure a sufficient wild prey base, make lion-human coexistence sustainable and reduce factors that lead to further fragmentation of populations.[3]

References

  1. 1 2 3 Kitchener, A. C.; Breitenmoser-Würsten, C.; Eizirik, E.; Gentry, A.; Werdelin, L.; Wilting, A.; Yamaguchi, N.; Abramov, A. V.; Christiansen, P.; Driscoll, C.; Duckworth, J. W.; Johnson, W.; Luo, S.-J.; Meijaard, E.; O’Donoghue, P.; Sanderson, J.; Seymour, K.; Bruford, M.; Groves, C.; Hoffmann, M.; Nowell, K.; Timmons, Z.; Tobe, S. (2017). "A revised taxonomy of the Felidae: The final report of the Cat Classification Task Force of the IUCN Cat Specialist Group" (PDF). Cat News (Special Issue 11): 71–73.
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  3. 1 2 3 4 5 6 IUCN Cat Specialist Group (2006). Conservation Strategy for the Lion Panthera leo in Eastern and Southern Africa. Pretoria, South Africa: IUCN.
  4. 1 2 3 4 Riggio, J.; Jacobson, A.; Dollar, L.; Bauer, H.; Becker, M.; Dickman, A.; Funston, P.; Groom, R.; Henschel, P.; De Iongh, H.; Lichtenfeld, L. (2013). "The size of savannah Africa: a lion's (Panthera leo) view". Biodiversity and Conservation. 22 (1): 17–35. doi:10.1007/s10531-012-0381-4.
  5. 1 2 Mazak, V. (1975). "Notes on the Black-maned Lion of the Cape, Panthera leo melanochaita (Ch. H. Smith, 1842) and a Revised List of the Preserved Specimens". Verhandelingen Koninklijke Nederlandse Akademie van Wetenschappen (64): 1–44.
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  7. 1 2 Smith, C.H. (1842). "Black maned lion Leo melanochaitus". In Jardine, W. The Naturalist's Library. Vol. 15 Mammalia. London: Chatto and Windus. p. Plate X, 177.
  8. 1 2 Hemmer, H. (1974). "Untersuchungen zur Stammesgeschichte der Pantherkatzen (Pantherinae) Teil 3. Zur Artgeschichte des Löwen Panthera (Panthera) leo (Linnaeus, 1758)". Veröffentlichungen der Zoologischen Staatssammlung. 17: 167–280.
  9. ↑ West, P.M.; Packer, C. (2002). "Sexual Selection, Temperature, and the Lion's Mane". Science. 297 (5585): 1339–1943. Bibcode:2002Sci...297.1339W. doi:10.1126/science.1073257. PMID 12193785.
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  16. ↑ Zukowsky, L. (1964). "Eine neue Löwenrasse als weiterer Beleg für die Verzwergung der Wirbeltierfauna des afrikanischen Osthorns". Milu, Wissenschaftliche und Kulturelle Mitteilungen aus dem Tierpark Berlin (1): 269–273.
  17. ↑ Allen, G. M. (1939). "A Checklist of African Mammals". Bulletin of the Museum of Comparative Zoology at Harvard College. 83: 1–763.
  18. ↑ Wozencraft, W.C. (2005). "Panthera leo". In Wilson, D.E.; Reeder, D.M. Mammal Species of the World: A Taxonomic and Geographic Reference (3rd ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 546. ISBN 978-0-8018-8221-0. OCLC 62265494.
  19. ↑ Barnett, R.; Yamaguchi, N.; Barnes, I.; Cooper, A. (2006). "The origin, current diversity and future conservation of the modern lion (Panthera leo)" (PDF). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 273 (1598): 2119–2125. doi:10.1098/rspb.2006.3555. PMC 1635511. PMID 16901830. Archived from the original (PDF) on 8 August 2007.
  20. ↑ Antunes, A.; Troyer, J. L.; Roelke, M. E.; Pecon-Slattery, J.; Packer, C.; Winterbach, C.; Winterbach, H.; Johnson, W. E. (2008). "The Evolutionary Dynamics of the Lion Panthera leo Revealed by Host and Viral Population Genomics". PLOS Genetics. 4 (11): e1000251. doi:10.1371/journal.pgen.1000251. PMC 2572142. PMID 18989457.
  21. ↑ Mazák, J.H. (2010). "Geographical variation and phylogenetics of modern lions based on craniometric data". Journal of Zoology. doi:10.1111/j.1469-7998.2010.00694.x. ISSN 0952-8369.
  22. 1 2 Bertola, L. D.; Van Hooft, W. F.; Vrieling, K.; Uit De Weerd, D.R.; York, D. S.; Bauer, H.; Prins, H.H.T.; Funston, P.J.; Udo De Haes, H.A.; Leirs, H.; Van Haeringen, W.A.; Sogbohossou, E.; Tumenta, P.N.; De Iongh, H.H. (2011). "Genetic diversity, evolutionary history and implications for conservation of the lion (Panthera leo) in West and Central Africa" (PDF). Journal of Biogeography. 38 (7): 1356–1367. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2699.2011.02500.x.
  23. ↑ Dubach, J.M., Briggs, M.B., White, P.A., Ament, B.A., & Patterson, B.D. (2013). "Genetic perspectives on "Lion Conservation Units" in Eastern and Southern Africa". Conservation Genetics. 14 (4): 741−755.
  24. 1 2 Bertola, L.D.; Jongbloed, H.; Van Der Gaag, K.J.; De Knijff, P.; Yamaguchi, N.; Hooghiemstra, H.; Bauer, H.; Henschel, P.; White, P.A.; Driscoll, C.A. & Tende, T. (2016). "Phylogeographic patterns in Africa and High Resolution Delineation of genetic clades in the Lion (Panthera leo)". Scientific Reports. 6: 30807. Bibcode:2016NatSR...630807B. doi:10.1038/srep30807. PMC 4973251. PMID 27488946.
  25. 1 2 3 Mésochina, P., Mbangwa, O., Chardonnet, P., Mosha, R., Mtui, B., Drouet, N. and Kissui, B. (2010). Conservation status of the lion (Panthera leo Linnaeus, 1758) in Tanzania. Paris: SCI Foundation, MNRT-WD, TAWISA & IGF Foundation.
  26. ↑ Hanby, J. P., Bygott, J. D., Packer, C. (1995). "Ecology, demography and behavior of lions in two contrasting habitats: Ngorongoro Crater and the Serengeti Plains". In Sinclair, A.R.E., Arcese, P. Serengeti II: Dynamics, Management, and Conservation of an Ecosystem. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press. pp. 315–331.
  27. ↑ Crosmary, W. G., Ikanda, D., Ligate, F. A., Sandini, P., Mkasanga, I., Mkuburo, L., Chardonnet, P. (2018). "Lion densities in Selous Game Reserve, Tanzania". South African Journal of Wildlife Research. 48 (1): 014001.
  28. ↑ Funaioli, U.; Simonetta, A.M. (1966). "The Mammalian Fauna of the Somali Republic: Status and Conservation Problems". Monitore Zoologico Italiano, Supplemento. 1 (1): 285–347.
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  30. 1 2 3 4 Chardonnet, P. (2002). "Chapter II: Population Survey" (PDF). Conservation of the African Lion : Contribution to a Status Survey. Paris: International Foundation for the Conservation of Wildlife, France & Conservation Force, USA. pp. 21–101. Archived from the original (PDF) on 10 November 2013.
  31. ↑ Treves, A.; Naughton-Treves, L. (1999). "Risk and opportunity for humans coexisting with large carnivores" (PDF). Journal of Human Evolution. 36 (3): 275–282. doi:10.1006/jhev.1998.0268. ISSN 0047-2484.
  32. 1 2 Plumptre, A.J., Kujirakwinja, D., Treves, A., Owiunji, I. and Rainer, H. (2007). "Transboundary conservation in the greater Virunga landscape: its importance for landscape species". Biological Conservation. 134 (2): 279−287.
  33. ↑ Frank, L., Maclennan, S., Hazzah, L., Hill, T., Bonham, R. (2006). Lion Killing in the Amboseli-Tsavo Ecosystem, 2001–2006, and its Implications for Kenya's Lion Population (PDF). Nairobi: Living with Lions.
  34. ↑ Treves, A.; Plumptre, A. J.; Hunter, L.T.B.; Ziwa, J. (2009). "Identifying a potential lion Panthera leo stronghold in Queen Elizabeth National Park, Uganda, and Parc National des Virunga, Democratic Republic of Congo". Oryx. 43 (1): 60–66. doi:10.1017/S003060530700124X.
  35. ↑ Mudumba, T., Mulondo, P., Okot, E., Nsubuga, M., Plumptre, A. (2010). National census of lions and hyaenas in Uganda. Uganda: Uganda Wildlife Authority.
  36. ↑ Schaller, G. B. (1972). The Serengeti lion: A study of predator–prey relations. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 978-0-226-73639-6.
  37. ↑ Bertram, B.C.R. (1973). "Lion population regulation". East Africa Wildlife Journal. 11 (3–4): 215−225. doi:10.1111/j.1365-2028.1973.tb00088.x.
  38. ↑ Bertram, B. (1975). "Social factors influencing reproduction in wild lions". Journal of Zoology. 177: 463–482.
  39. ↑ Bygott, J.D., Bertram, B.C.R., Hanby, J.P. (1979). "Male lions in large coalitions gain reproductive advantages". Nature. 282: 839–841.
  40. ↑ Borrego, N., Ozgul, A., Slotow, R. and Packer, C. (2018). "Lion population dynamics: do nomadic males matter?". Behavioral Ecology. 29 (3): 660–666. doi:10.1093/beheco/ary018.
  41. ↑ Amir, O.G. (2006). "5.2.2. Lion" (PDF). Wildlife trade in Somalia. Report to the IUCN/SSC Antelope Specialist Group. Darmstadt, Germany. pp. 14−15.
  42. ↑ Nowell, K. (2004). "The Cat Specialist Group at CITES 2004". Cat News. 41: 29.

See also

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