Timeline of Pakistani history

This is a timeline of Pakistani history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in today's Pakistan and its predecessor states. To read about the background of these events, see History of Pakistan and History of the Islamic Republic of Pakistan. See also the list of Presidents of Pakistan, the list of Prime Ministers of Pakistan and the list of years in Pakistan.

This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.
Paleolithic Period Lower Paleolithic Period ·

Middle Paleolithic Period ·

Upper Paleolithic Period

Centuries BCE 35th · 27th · 25th · 19th · 17th · 15th · 13th · 12th · 10th · 7th · 6th · 5th · 4th · 3rd · 2nd · 1st
CE 1st · 2nd · 3rd · 4th · 5th · 6th · 7th · 8th · 9th · 10th · 11th · 12th · 13th · 14th · 15th · 16th · 17th · 18th · 19th · 20th · 21st
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Lower Paleolithic
YearDateEvent
2,000,000 BCE – 1,000,000 BCETools crafted by proto-humans that have been dated back two million years have been discovered in the North Pakistan[1][2]

The pebble stones from the archaeological site of Riwat, Murree are discovered, dating back approximately 1.9 million years ago.[3]

The earliest archaeological site in the subcontinent is the palaeolithic hominid site in the Soan River valley.[4] Soanian sites are found in the Sivalik region across what are now Pakistan, India and Nepal.[5][6][7]

500,000 BCESome of the earliest relics of Stone Age man have been found in the Soan Valley of the Potohar region near Rawalpindi, dating back to 500,000 BCE.

Middle Paleolithic
YearDateEvent
300,000 BCE – 100,000 BCE

Flake tools, microliths and other chopping tools have been found in Soan Valley. Most of these tools were composed of the metamorphic quartzite rocks. The stone tool artifacts in this assemblage have been identified as a part of the second inter-pluvial period in Pakistan.

Some of the Bhimbetka shelters were inhabited by Homo erectus more than 100,000 years ago.[8][9]

Upper Paleolithic
YearDateEvent
43,000 BCEThe archaeological site of Riwat 55 dates back to this period. It is modern form of Early Riwat Site.[10]

Riwat 55 contains a structure that includes a low wall footing, a pit, and a stone-lined niche, all associated with a freshly flaked stone assemblage that included blades.[10]

35th century BCE
YearDateEvent
3500 BCE – 3300 BCEMature phases of the Indus Valley Civilization begins. The civilization used an early form of the Indus signs, also called Indus script.

Over the course of next 1000–1500 years, inhabitants of the Civilization developed new techniques in handicraft (carnelian products and seal carving) and metallurgy (copper, bronze, lead, and tin) had elaborate urban planning, baked brick houses, efficient drainage systems, water supply systems, and clusters of large non-residential buildings.[11] The civilization depended significantly on trade, was the first civilization to use wheeled transport in form of bullock carts, and also used boats.[12]

27th century BCE
YearDateEvent
2700 BCE – 2600 BCEThe cities of Harappa[13] and Mohenjo-daro[14] become large metropolises and the civilization expands to over 2,500 cities and settlements across the whole of Pakistan and also some areas of Afghanistan and India,[15] covering a region of around one million square miles, which was larger than the land area of its contemporaries Egypt and Mesopotamia combined, and also had superior urban planning and sewage systems. The civilization began using the mature Indus script for its writing system.

25th century BCE
YearDateEvent
2500 BCE – 2000 BCEThe culture, artichetere, technology and educational system of Indus Valley Civilization reached at its zenith with Harappa and Kot Diji as main centres.[13]

These fluctuations reflect complex and dynamic political, ideological, and economic processes that are an integral part of urban society.[13]

19th century BCE
YearDateEvent
1900 BCE – 1300 BCELate Harappan Phase (Cemetery H Culture)

13th century BCE
YearDateEvent
1300 BCECemetery H culture comes to an end

10th century BCE
1000 BCEMiddle and Late Vedic period (to 500 BCE)
Iron Age of Indian subcontinent (including today's Pakistan)

7th century BCE
YearDateEvent
700 BCEThe Upanishads, a sacred text of Hinduism is written.

6th century BCE
YearDateEvent
600 BCESixteen Maha Janapadas ("Great Realms" or "Great Kingdoms") emerge.[16]
Vedic period ends.
535 BCE – 518 BCEAchaemenid Emperors launched Persian campaign of Indus Valley and in result Pakistan became easternmost part of Achaemenid Empire[17]
500 BCEGandhara Civilization at first stage of its flourishness.[18]

5th century BCE
YearDateEvent
500 BCE – 450 BCEPersian rule is at its zenith.
500 BCERoruka as capital of Sauvira Kingdom become most important trading center of Indian subcontinent, also mentioned in early Buddhist literature.[19]
450 BCERor Dynasty come to power and captured Sindh, Balochistan and North India with the capital of Rori, Sindh.[20]

4th century BCE
YearDateEvent
333 BCEPersian rule in the Pakistan ends after Darius III is defeated by Alexander the Great, who establishes the Macedonian Empire after inheriting the Persian Achaemenid Empire.[21]
326 BCEAmbhi king of Takshila surrenders to Alexander.[22]
Porus who ruled parts of the Punjab, fought Alexander at the Battle of the Hydaspes River.[23]
325 BCEDuring the Mallian Campaign, Alexander was seriously wounded by an arrow in the chest and this became reason of his death.[24]
321 BCEMauryan Empire is founded by Chandragupta Maurya.[25]
305 BCEChandragupta Maurya defeats Seleucus Nicator of the Seleucid Empire.[26]
304 BCESeleucus gives up his territories (Balochistan) to Chandragupta in exchange for 500 elephants. Seleucus offers his daughter in marriage to Chandragupta to seal their friendship.[27]

2nd century BCE
YearDateEvent
200 BCE – 150 BCEGandhara Civilization (present day Khyber Pakhtunkhwa) flourished in new way by combination of Hellenistic Culture and Ancient Indian Culture.

Taxila became centre of Gandhara Civilization and religion of Buddhism.

1st century BCE
YearDateEvent
75 BCEArrival of Scythians (Sakas) from Central Asia.
58 BCEBeginning of Vikram Era.

1st century
YearDateEvent
20 AD – 35 ADIndo-Parthian Kingdom was established and conquered present northern Pakistan.[28]
35 ADWestern Satraps formed.[29]
68 ADEstablishment of the Kushan empire by Kujula Kadphises.[30]

2nd century
YearDateEvent
100 AD or afterSugar was first produced from sugarcane plants in Punjab.[31]

3rd century
YearDateEvent
240 ADSri Gupta starts the establishment of Gupta Empire in Indian subcontinent (including present Pakistan).[32]
260 ADKushans decline and are dominated by Indo-Sassanians.[33]

4th century
320 ADChandragupta I ascends the throne of Gupta Empire.[34]
Kidarite Kingdom came to power in present Pakistan.[35]
335 ADSamudragupta ascends the Gupta throne and expands the empire.[36]
380 ADChandragupta II, Samudragupta's son becomes the Gupta Emperor.[34]

5th century
YearDateEvent
450 ADWhite Huns (Hephthalites) attacked Gandhara, sacked its cities and burnt down its many monasteries and centres of learning.[37]
489 ADRor dynasty is disestablished.[38]

6th century
YearDateEvent
524 ADRai dynasty come to power in the region of Sindh.[39]
554 ADCollapse of Gupta Empire after the death of Skandagupta.[34]
565 ADSassanians and Turks overthrow Huns.

7th century
YearDateEvent
601 ADRai dynasty reached at its zenith and covered whole of Pakistan and Afghanistan with the capital of Aror, Sindh.[40]
632 ADBrahman dynasty come into power and Chach of Aror become Maharaja of Sindh.[41]
644 ADIslam arrived in Indian subcontinent. Rashidun Caliphate defeated Rai dynasty in the Battle of Rasil and Balochistan become easternmost frontier of Rashidun Caliphate.[42]
665 ADTurk Shahi gain control west of Indus River, including Gandhara.[43]
671 ADAt the death of Chach of Alor, Brahmin dynasty reached at its zenith and he was succeeded by his brother Chandar of Sindh.[44]
679 ADChandar of Sindh died and succeeded by his nephew Raja Dahir, last Hindu Maharaja of Sindh.[45]

8th century
YearDateEvent
700 ADAccording to the Qissa-i Sanjan, the Parsi immigrants are granted permission to stay by the local ruler Jadi Rana.
712 ADMuhammad Bin Qasim defeated Raja Dahir and established Ummayad Islamic rule on Sindh and South Punjab (Multan) on the orders of Al-Hajjaj ibn Yusuf.[46]
747 AD – 751 ADUmmayad Era finished and Abbasid Era begins.[47]

Mansur ibn Jumhur al-Kalbi revolted against Ummayad Dynasty during Abbasid Revolution and after Abbasid victory in revolution, he was confirmed as Abbasid Governor of Sindh.[48]

9th century
YearDateEvent
841 ADDynastic rule of Habbaris over Sindh begin under suzerainty of Abbasid Caliphate.[49]
870 ADHindu Shahis captured Kingdom of Kabul Shahi and expanded their rule in Khyber Pukhtunkhwa and Punjab.[50]
875 ADHabbari dynasty rule expanded over whole of Sindh, Balochistan and South Punjab (Multan).[51]

10th century
YearDateEvent
977 AD – 997 ADSabuktigin of Ghaznavid dynasty defeated many times Hindu Shahi ruler Jayapala and became ruler of domains east to Indus River.[52]

11th century
YearDateEvent
1001Mahmud Ghazni defeated Raja Jayapala of Hindu Shahi; afterthat Jayapala commits suicide.[53]
1021Mahmud Ghazni defeats Raja Tarnochalpal and Punjab becomes part of Ghaznavid dynasty.[54]

In this way whole of Pakistan comes under Muslim rule; Punjab and Khyber Pukhtunkhwa under Ghaznavid Empire, Sindh under Habbari dynasty while Makran (Balochistan) under Caliphate.

This Muslim rule continued for next 8 centuries under different Muslim dynasties.

1030Alberuni arrives in Indian subcontinent; death of Mahmud Ghazni.[55]
1058Muslim Rajput Soomra Dynasty ends the rule of Habbari dynasty and starts to rule on the behave of Abbasid Caliph.[56][57]
1092Reign of Zainab Tari begins; first absolute female ruler in the history of South Asia as well as only female who ruled Sindh.[58]

12th century
YearDateEvent
1175Muhammad of Ghurid dynasty defeats Qarmatians rulers of Multan in 1175.[59][60]
1186Muhammad Ghori along with Ghiyath al-Din Muhammad ends the rule of Ghaznavid dynasty after having captured Lahore.[61][62][63]
1191"Victory of Prithviraj Chauhan". First Battle of Tarain fought between Muhammad Ghori and Prithviraj III. Ghori is defeated by Prithivi Raj Chauhan III.[64]
1192"Victory of Muhammad Ghori". Second Battle of Tarain fought between Muhammad Ghori and Prithivi Raj Chauhan III. Chauhan is defeated by Muhammad Ghori.[64]
1193Qutb al-Din Aibak becomes deputy of Ghurid Empire in Indian subcontinent.[65]

13th century
YearDateEvent
120615 MarchKhukhrains kill Muhammad Ghori during a raid on his camp on the Jhelum River.[66]
120612 JuneEnd of Ghurid Era.
120625 JuneQutb-ud-din Aibak establishes Delhi Sultanate by becoming first Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate from Mamluk dynasty.[67]
1210NovemberQutb-ud-din Aibak died while playing polo.[68]
1210DecemberAram Shah becomes new Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[69]
1211JuneShams ud-Din Iltutmish defeats Aram Shah in the Battle of Delhi and become third Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[70]
1221Genghis Khan invades Punjab during rule of Iltutmish.
123630 AprilIltutmish dies and Rukn ud din Firuz become fourth Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[71]
123610 OctoberRazia Sultana abolishes the rule of Rukn ud din Firuz and become fifth Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[72]
124017 MayMuiz ud din Bahram becomes sixth Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[73]
124014 OctoberMurder of Razia Sultan by nobles of Chalisa.[74]
124215 MayMurder of Muiz ud din Bahram by army.

Ala ud din Masud becomes seventh Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[75]

124610 JuneNasiruddin Mahmud becomes eighth Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate with the support of Corps of Forty.[71]

Balban rules on the behave of Nasiruddin Mahmud as a deputy of empire.

126618 FebruaryNasiruddin Mahmud dies without any hier.

Ghiyas ud din Balban becomes ninth Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[71]

1285Delhi Sultanate decisively defeats the army of Mongol Empire at the battle of Beas River.[76]
1287MarchMuiz ud din Qaiqabad becomes tenth Sultan of Delhi Sultanate after the death of his grandfather Ghiyas ud din Balban.[77]
12901 FebruaryMurder of Muiz ud din Qaiqabad by Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji, an army commander.[78]

Shamsuddin Kayumars becomes eleventh Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.

129013 JuneJalaluddin Firuz Khalji ends the Mamluk Dynasty by murdering Shamsuddin Kayumars.

Establishment of Khalji dynasty. Jalaluddin becomes twelfth Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[79]

129619 JulyAlauddin Khalji murders Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji and become thirteen Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[79]
1296OctoberAllauddin Khalji conquers Multan and eliminates all surviving members of his predecessor Jalaluddin Firuz Khalji.[80]
1297-1298Mongol Army invades Punjab and Sindh but Delhi Sultanate decisively defeats them and crushes away from Pakistan.[81]
1298Mongols once again invades Sindh and occupies fort of Sivistan but Delhi Sultanate decisively defeats them.[82]

14th century
YearDateEvent
13164 JanuaryAlauddin Khalji died due to severe illness.[83]
13165 JanuaryShihabuddin Omar succeeded Alauddin Khalji with the help of Malik Kafur and becomes the 14th Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[80]
131614 AprilAfter the assassination of Malik Kafur, Qutbuddin Mubarak Shah detroned his brother Shihabuddin Omar and himself becomes 15th Sultan of the Delhi Sultanate.[80]

CE
  • 1351: Samma Dynasty assumed rule over Sindh
  • 1398: Tamerlane plunders Lahore
  • 1472: Sher Shah Suri (original name Farid Khan born in Multan)
  • 1526 – 1857: Mughal ascendancy (1526–1707), nominal rule by Mughals (1707–1857)
  • 1541 – 1545: Sher Shah Suri built the Rohtas Fort
  • 1586: Yusufzais defeat Akbar in the Karakar pass[84]
  • 1701: Kalhoro Dynasty establishes its rule over Sindh
  • 1739: Nadir Shah of Persia invades Mughal Empire
  • 1751–52: Ahmed Shah Abdali annexes Punjab to his kingdom
  • 1758–59: Maratha conquest of North-west India
  • 1782: The Baloch tribe of Talpur defeats the last Kalhora ruler Mian Abdul Nabi in the battle of Halani
  • 12 April 1801— 27 June 1839: Sikhs become dominant force in Punjab, Ranjit Singh rules (1799–1839),
  • 1843: British defeat Talpurs in the battle of Miani and annex Sindh[85]
  • 29 March 1849: British defeat Sikhs and annex Punjab
  • 1 November 1857 The British control most present-day Pakistan region and incorporate it as part of the British Indian Empire.
  • 30 December 1906: A new political party All-India Muslim League formed to protect rights of Muslims in British Indian Empire.
  • 1909: Muhammad Ali Jinnah was elected to the Legislative Council in 1909
  • 1913: Prominent Muslim leader Muhammad Ali Jinnah, acknowledging that Hindu dominant Indian Congress failing to protect Indian Muslim rights, joined the All India Muslim League (AIML). Now he was member of both the political parties, later became leader of the All-India Muslim League and instrumental in the creation of Pakistan.
  • 1920: Having disagreement with Gandhi on the issue of Swaraj (self-rule), complete freedom from the British and on using extra-constitutional means, Jinnah resigned from the Congress in 1920
  • 1921:
    • MAO College Ali Grah upgrade to Ali Grah University
  • 29 December 1930: Dr. Muhammad Allama Iqbal, a great Muslim philosopher and poet suggested creation of separate Muslim state in Indian sub-continent to protect Muslim population dominated by Hindu majority.
  • 31 May 1935: A strong earthquake with a magnitude of 7.7 jolted Quetta killing over 50,000 people
  • 14 August 1947: Pakistan is created.

Post-Independence
  • 11 September 1948: Muhammad Ali Jinnah, the first governor general of Pakistan, passes away.
  • March 12, 1949 – Objectives Resolution passes moved by Prime Minister Liaquat Ali Khan.
  • 16 October 1951: Prime minister Liaqat Ali Khan assassinated.

October 16 – Liaquat Ali Khan assassinated in Rawalpindi. October 17 – Finance Minister Ghulam Mohammad (1895–1956) of Muslim League becomes the third Governor General. Governor General Khawaja Nazimuddin of Muslim League becomes second Prime Minister.

  • 1955: Constitutional crisis, Bogra removed, new assembly, new cabinet.
  • 1956: The Constituent Assembly promulgates first indigenous constitution
  • 1956: Constituent Assembly decides the country shall be a Federal Republic known as Islamic Republic of Pakistan.
  • 7 October 1958: After a military coup dictorial Ayub Khan takes over.
  • 1960: Ayub Khan becomes first elected president
  • 1 August 1960: Islamabad is declared as the principal seat of the Government of Pakistan.

In 1962 the second temporary constitution was made which didn't last long and ended soon till the final Constitution of Pakistan was made in 1973.

2001

  • 20 June: General Pervez Musharraf dismissed the president and named himself to the post.
  • 15 July: Agra Summit starts. President Pervez Musharraf and Indian Prime Minister Vajpayee holds talks over long-standing issues.
  • 14 August: New Local Government system installed, after holding of elections in three phases.
  • 16 September: US Secretary of State Powell told that Pakistan's President Musharraf had agreed to support the U.S. anti-terrorist campaign.
  • 10 November: US President Bush meets President Musharraf in New York and assures additional aid of one billion dollars.

2002

  • 5 January: Musharraf stunned Vajpayee by a hand-shake at the last 11th SAARC summit in Kathmandu.
  • 1 February: Wall Street Journal reporter, Daniel Pearl killed in Karachi.
  • 16 March: War in North-West Pakistan begins.
  • 30 April: General Pervez Musharraf wins a referendum thus ensures 5 more years in office.
  • 8 May: 2002 Karachi bus bombing, 15 killed.
  • 24 August: President General Musharraf issues the Legal Framework Order 2002.
  • 10 October: 2002 Pakistani general election, First general elections since the 1999 military coup held.
  • 23 November: Mir Zafarullah Khan Jamali sworn in as Prime Minister.

2003

  • 24 February: Senate elections: Ruling party wins most seats in voting to the upper house.
  • 23 March: AAJ TV, Pakistan's premier channel inaugurated.
  • 24 June: President Pervez Musharraf meets G.W. Bush in Camp David. US announces $3-billion five-year economic assistance package for Pakistan.
  • 4 July: 2003 Quetta mosque bombing, 44 killed.
  • 11 July: Lahore-Delhi bus service resumed after suspension of 18 months.
  • 14 December: General Musharraf survived an assassination attempt in Rawalpindi.

2004

  • 1 January: General Musharraf won a vote of confidence in the Senate, National Assembly, and provincial assemblies.
  • 5 January: Musharraf meets Vajpayee in Islamabad, discusses Kashmir dispute.
  • 22 May: Pakistan readmitted to Commonwealth.
  • 26 June: Prime Minister Zafarullah Khan Jamali steps down and nominates Ch. Shujaat Hussain as his interim successor.
  • 28 August: Shaukat Aziz becomes Prime Minister.
  • 17 October: Pakistani physician Dr.Muhammad Saeed Fazal Karim Beebani sets new world record for having the smallest Holy Qur'an of the world. His claim was accepted by Guinness world record administration.

2005

YearDateEvent
200513 July136 people killed and about 170 injured in a collision of three passenger trains near Ghotki.
14 JulyNWFP Assembly passes the Hasba bill with a majority vote.
19 JulyGovernment of Pakistan launches country-wide crackdown against extremist elements.
8 OctoberThe 7.6 Mw  Kashmir earthquake affects Azad Kashmir with a maximum Mercalli intensity of VIII (Severe), killing more than 79,000 people and displacing several million more.
11 OctoberRenowned littérateur, linguist and poet, Shanul Haq Haqqee, passes away in Toronto. He was 88.
20062 JanuaryDr. Shamshad Akhtar assumes office of State Bank Governor having the first woman Governor of SBP.
14 MayCharter of democracy (CoD) is signed by two former prime ministers of Pakistan, Nawaz Sharif and Benazir Bhutto in London.
26 AprilPervez Musharraf lays foundation-stone of Diamir-Bhasha dam.
8 JulyProcess to release over 1600 women prisoners from 55 jails across starts after Presidential Ordinance.
10 JulyNoted poet, writer and columnist, Ahmed Nadeem Qasmi, passes away in Lahore. He was 89.
26 AugustProminent Baloch leader and politician Sirdar Akbar Bugti killed by military
20079 MarchPresident Musharraf dismissed Chief Justice of Pakistan, Iftikhar.
3 JulyPakistani security forces started operation Sunrise to liberate Lal Masjid from the fundamentalist Islamic militants
20 JulyIftikhar restored as Chief Justice of Pakistan.
18 OctoberBhutto, Benazir returned to Pakistan, after exile of about 8 years.
3 NovemberPervez Musharraf imposed emergency, most of the senior judges of Supreme Court ousted.
16 NovemberAfter completion of 5 years, National Assembly dissolved, Caretaker government of Muhammad Mian Soomro took oath.
25 NovemberNawaz Sharif returned Pakistan after 7 years of forced exile.
16 DecemberEmergency lifted, banned civil rights and suspended constitution restored
27 DecemberFormer Pakistani Prime Minister Benazir Bhutto assassinated in Rawalpindi
20082 JanuaryThe Election Commission announces elections will now be held on February 18.
18 FebruaryElections are held amidst tight security. PPP, PML-N, PML-N and ANP win 124, 91, 54 and 13 seats respectively.
24 MarchYusuf Raza Gilani is elected as the new Prime Minister.
18 AugustPervaiz Musharraf steps down as President of Pakistan. Mohammadmian Soomro takes over as President.
6 SeptemberAsif Zardari wins presidential election with 481 votes.
9 SeptemberAsif Zardari takes oath as President of Pakistan.
200916 FebruaryPakistan government announces a truce with Taliban, accepting a system of Islamic law in the Swat valley, conceding the area as a Taliban sanctuary.
9 MarchMilitants attack bus with the touring Sri Lankan cricket team. All international cricket matches in Pakistan are suspended. Pakistan also loses its status as hosts for the cricket World Cup 2011.
16 MarchAs the result of long march Lawyers' Movement succeeded. Iftikhar Mohammed Chaudhry was restored as Chief Justice of Pakistan and other judges dismissed by Musharraf.
23 MayPakistan Army launched Operation Rah-e-Rast and cleared Swat Valley of all Taliban elements. It is regarded as one of the most successful counter-insurgency operations in modern age (to 15 July)

2007

2008

2009

2010

2011

2012

  • 26 February: Sharmeen Obaid-Chinoy won her first Academy Award for Best Documentary Short Subject for Saving Face, becoming the very first Pakistani Oscar winner

2013

2014

2015

2016

2017

2018

2019

  • 26 February: Officially spurns Indian claims of Balakot airstrike
  • 27 February: Pakistan Air Force shot down two Indian Warplanes in a skirmish and captured Indian pilot wing commander Abhinandan Varthaman
  • 2 March: Pakistan released Abhinandan Varthaman and returned him to India in a simple ceremony via Wagha border.
  • 5 August: India revoked article 370 of the constitution and partitioned the state of Jammu and Kashmir.
  • 27 November: Gusi Peace Prize (Asia's highest peace award) achieved by a Pakistani philanthropist and social activist, Farhan Wilayat Butt.
  • 14 December: Named the top holiday destination for travelers for the year 2020 by the United States-based luxury and lifestyle publication Conde Nast Traveler.

2020

See also

References
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  2. Murray, Tim (1999). Time and archaeology. London; New York: Routledge. p. 84. ISBN 978-0-415-11762-3.
  3. Rendell, H. and Dennell, R.W. 1987 Thermoluminescence Dating of an Upper Pleistocene Site, Northern Pakistan. Geoarchaeology 2, 63-67.
  4. Rendell, H. R.; Dennell, R. W.; Halim, M. (1989). Pleistocene and Palaeolithic Investigations in the Soan Valley, Northern Pakistan. British Archaeological Reports International Series. Cambridge University Press. p. 364. ISBN 978-0-86054-691-7. OCLC 29222688.
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  6. Lycett, Stephen J (2007), "Is the Soanian techno-complex a Mode 1 or Mode 3 phenomenon? A morphometric assessment", Journal of Archaeological Science, 34 (9): 1434–1440, doi:10.1016/j.jas.2006.11.001
  7. Distribution of Acheulian sites in the Siwalik region Archived 4 January 2012 at the Wayback Machine
  8. Javid, Ali and Javeed, Tabassum. World Heritage Monuments and Related Edifices in India. 2008, page 19
  9. "Bhimbetka, Auditorium Cave, Madhya Pradesh: Acheulian Petroglyph Site, c. >100,000 - 500,000 BP". Archived from the original on 5 March 2015. Retrieved 11 September 2014.
  10. Dennell, Robin W.; Rendell, Helen M.; Halim, Mohammad; Moth, Eddie (1992). "A 45,000-Year-Old Open-Air Paleolithic Site at Riwat, Northern Pakistan". Journal of Field Archaeology. 19 (1): 17–33. doi:10.2307/530366. ISSN 0093-4690. JSTOR 530366.
  11. Wright 2010, pp. 115–125.
  12. Hasenpflug, Rainer, The Inscriptions of the Indus civilisation Norderstedt, Germany, 2006.
  13. "Recent Indus Discoveries and Highlights from Excavations at Harappa 1998-2000". www.harappa.com. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
  14. "Mohenjo-daro!". www.harappa.com. Retrieved 2019-03-14.
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  17. (Fussman, 1993, p. 84). "This is inferred from the fact that Gandhara (OPers. Gandāra) is already mentioned at Bisotun, while the toponym Hinduš (Sindhu) is added only in later inscriptions."
  18. Gandhara Civilization
  19. Derryl N. MacLean (1989), Religion and Society in Arab Sind, p.63
  20. Reign of Ror Emperors
  21. Alexander the Great in Fact and Fiction, edited by A.B. Bosworth, E.J. Baynham. New York: Oxford University Press (USA), 2002 (Paperback, ISBN 0-19-925275-0).
  22. Sastri, K. A. Nilakanta, ed. (1988) [1967], Age of the Nandas and Mauryas (Second ed.), Delhi: Motilal Banarsidass, ISBN 978-81-208-0465-4
  23. Bosworth, A. B. (26 March 1993). Conquest and Empire: The Reign of Alexander the Great. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521406796 – via Google Books.
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  26. Grainger, John D. (2014), Seleukos Nikator: Constructing a Hellenistic Kingdom, Routledge, ISBN 978-1-317-80099-6
  27. Kosmin, Paul J. (2014), The Land of the Elephant Kings: Space, Territory, and Ideology in Seleucid Empire, Harvard University Press, ISBN 978-0-674-72882-0
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    • Bopearachchi, Osmund (2003). De l'Indus à l'Oxus, Archéologie de l'Asie Centrale (in French). Lattes: Association imago-musée de Lattes. ISBN 978-2-9516679-2-1.
    • Sato, Tsugitaka (2014). Sugar in the Social Life of Medieval Islam. BRILL. p. 01. ISBN 9789004277526.
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