Languages of Vanuatu

Languages of Vanuatu
Official	English, French, Bislama
National	Bislama
Indigenous	138 languages, all Oceanic

The Republic of Vanuatu has the world's highest linguistic density per capita.[1]

For a population of 0.3 million,[2] Vanuatu is home to 138 indigenous Oceanic languages.

In addition, modern history has brought new languages, including the country's three official languages: English, French, and Bislama.

Even more languages have been brought by recent migrations (e.g. Samoan, Hakka Chinese, Mandarin Chinese).

A highly multilingual country

Indigenous languages

There are over one hundred local languages spread (listed below) over the archipelago.

Vanuatu is the country with the highest density of languages per capita in the world: it currently shows an average of about 1760 speakers for each indigenous language, and went through a historical low of 565;[1] only Papua New Guinea comes close. Some of these languages are very endangered, with only a handful of speakers, and indeed several have become extinct in recent times. Generally however, despite the low numbers for most of the indigenous languages, they are not considered especially vulnerable for extinction.[3]

Bislama

Bislama, a creole language derived from English, similar to Tok Pisin of Papua New Guinea and other nearby creoles, is the first language of many urban ni-Vanuatu, that is, the residents of Port Vila and Luganville; it is the most common second language elsewhere in the Vanuatu islands.

In recent years, the use of Bislama as a first language has considerably encroached on indigenous languages, whose use in the population has receded from 73.1 to 63.2 percent between 1999 and 2009.[4]

Out of the three official languages, Bislama is the most spoken in Vanuatu, followed by English, and lastly French.

English and French

From the times when Vanuatu used to be an English-French condominium, there is still an unofficial separation line between regions where English or French are taught at school. English is the first language of about 2% of the population,[5] up from about 1% in 1995.[6] Based on the number of sufficiently educated adults, about 62% of the population speaks English as a second language.[7] French is the first language of 0.6% of the population,[5] down from more than 3% if SIL's figures are comparable.[6] About 31% of the population can at least read and write simple sentences in French.[8]

The majority of the country's population (63.2% in 2009)[4] speak an indigenous language as their first language, with Bislama as a second language. As for English and French, they belong to a third circle, in spite of their official status.

List of Vanuatu’s indigenous languages

Vanuatu is home to more than a hundred indigenous languages: a recent count lists 138.[9] Among them, three became extinct in recent decades. Many are named after the island they are spoken on, though some of the larger islands have several different languages. Espiritu Santo and Malakula are linguistically the most diverse, with about two dozen languages each.

Some language names refer to networks of dialects rather than unified languages. Uripiv, for example, is a dialect continuum spoken across several islands in Malampa Province. In such cases, the decision as to how many languages should be counted is notoriously difficult, and sometimes the object of controversy. The number of 112 listed below may differ from other counts proposed in the literature, depending partly on these difficulties.[10]

All indigenous languages of Vanuatu are Oceanic. Three are Polynesian languages of the Futunic group: Emae, Mele-Fila and Futuna-Aniwa. The remaining languages belong to these three groups of the Southern Oceanic branch of Oceanic:

Ethnologue

Below is the Ethnologue's list of most of the indigenous languages of Vanuatu, which are still spoken or were until recently.[11] It provides links to corresponding Ethnologue entries and to an OLAC list of media resources on the language.[12]

Tip: Click on the column title to change the sort order.

Language	Ethn.	OLAC	Other names	Speakers	% of the total population	Region	Family	Notes
Akei	tsr	tsr	Tasiriki	650	0.2404	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Amblong	alm	alm		300	0.1109	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Anejom̃	aty	aty	Aneityum	900	0.3328	Aneityum	SV
Aore	aor	aor		Extinct	0.0000	Espiritu Santo, Aore	NCV
Apma	app	app		7,800	2.8846	Pentecost	NCV
Araki	akr	akr		8	0.0030	Araki	NCV	Moribund
Aulua	aul	aul		750	0.2774	Malekula	NCV
Avava	tmb	tmb	Katbol	700	0.2589	Malekula	NCV
Axamb	ahb	ahb	Ahamb	750	0.2774	Malekula	NCV
Baetora	btr	btr		1,330	0.4919	Maewo	NCV
Baki	bki	bki	Burumba, Paki	350	0.1294	Epi	NCV
Bierebo	bnk	bnk	Bonkovia-yevali	800	0.2959	Epi	NCV
Bieria	brj	brj	Bieri, Vovo, Wowo	70	0.0259	Epi	NCV	Endangered
Burmbar	vrt	vrt	Banan Bay, Vartavo	900	0.3328	Malekula	NCV
Butmas-Tur	bnr	bnr	Ati	520	0.1923	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Central Maewo	mwo	mwo		1,400	0.5177	Maewo	NCV
Daakie	ptv	ptv	Port-Vato	1,300	0.4808	Ambrym	NCV
Daakaka	bpa	bpa	Baiap, South Ambrym	1,200	0.4438	Ambrym	NCV
Dixon Reef	dix	dix		50	0.0185	Malekula	NCV	Shifting
Dorig	wwo	wwo	Wetamut	300	0.1109	Banks Islands (Gaua)	NCV
Emae	mmw	mmw		400	0.1479	Shepherd Islands (Emae)	Polynesian
Eton	etn	etn		500	0.1849	Efate	NCV
Fortsenal	frt	frt	Kiai	450	0.1664	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Futuna-Aniwa	fut	fut	West Futuna	1,500	0.5547	Futuna, Aniwa	Polynesian
Hano	lml	lml	Raga	6,500	2.4038	Pentecost	NCV
Hiw	hiw	hiw	Hiu	280	0.1035	Torres Islands (Hiw)	NCV
Ifo	iff	iff		Extinct	0.0000	Erromango	SV
Kwamera	tnk	tnk		3,500	1.2944	Tanna	SV
Koro	krf	krf		250	0.0925	Banks Islands (Gaua)	NCV
Lamenu	lmu	lmu	Lamen, Varmali	850	0.3143	Epi, Lamen	NCV
Lakon	lkn	lkn	Lakona; Vurē	800	0.2959	Banks Islands (Gaua)	NCV
Lamap	psw	psw	Port Sandwich	1,200	0.4438	Malekula	NCV
Larevat	lrv	lrv	Laravat	680	0.2515	Malekula	NCV
Lehali	tql	tql		200	0.0740	Banks Islands (Ureparapara)	NCV
Lelepa	lpa	lpa	Havannah Harbour	400	0.1479	Lelepa, Efate	NCV
Lemerig	lrz	lrz	Sasar	2	0.0007	Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)	NCV	Moribund
Lenakel	tnl	tnl		11,500	4.2529	Tanna	SV
Letemboi	nms	nms	Small Nambas	800	0.2959	Malekula	NCV
Lewo	lww	lww	Varsu	2,200	0.8136	Epi	NCV
Lonwolwol	crc	crc	West Ambrym	1,200	0.4438	Ambrym	NCV
Lorediakarkar	lnn	lnn		850	0.3143	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Lo-Toga	lht	lht	Loh, Toga	580	0.2145	Torres Islands (Lo, Toga, Tegua)	NCV
Löyöp	urr	urr	Lehalurup	240	0.0888	Banks Islands (Ureparapara)	NCV
Mae	mme	mme	Dirak	1,000	0.3698	Malekula	NCV
Maii	mmm	mmm		180	0.0666	Epi	NCV
Malfaxal	mlx	mlx	Na’ahai	600	0.2219	Malekula	NCV
Malua Bay	mll	mll	Middle Nambas	500	0.1849	Malekula	NCV
Maragus	mrs	mrs		15	0.0055	Malekula	NCV
Maskelynes	klv	klv		1,100	0.4068	Malekula, Maskelynes Islands	NCV
Mavea	mkv	mkv	Mav̋ea, Mafea	34	0.0126	Mavea	NCV
Mele-Fila	mxe	mxe	Ifira-Mele	3,500	1.2944	Efate, Mele, Ifira	Polynesian
Merei	lmb	lmb		400	0.1479	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Morouas	mrp	mrp		150	0.0555	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Mota	mtt	mtt		750	0.2774	Banks Islands (Mota)	NCV
Mpotovoro	mvt	mvt		430	0.1590	Malekula	NCV
Mwerlap	mrm	mrm	Merlav	1,100	0.4068	Banks Islands (Merelava)	NCV
Mwesen	msn	msn	Mosina	10	0.0037	Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)	NCV
Mwotlap	mlv	mlv	Motlav	2,100	0.7766	Banks Islands (Motalava)	NCV
Nahavaq	sns	sns	South West Bay	700	0.2589	Malekula	NCV
Nakanamanga	llp	llp		9,500	3.5133	Efate, Shepherd Islands (Nguna, Tongoa)	NCV
Namakura	nmk	nmk	Makura	3,750	1.3868	Efate, Shepherd Islands (Tongoa, Tongariki)	NCV
Naman	lzl	lzl	Litzlitz	15	0.0055	Malekula	NCV
Narango	nrg	nrg		160	0.0592	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Nasarian	nvh	nvh		5	0.0018	Malekula	NCV
Navut	nsw	nsw		520	0.1923	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Nese				160	0.0592	Malekula	NCV
Neverver	lgk	lgk	Lingarak	1,250	0.4623	Malekula	NCV
Ninde	mwi	mwi	Labo	1,100	0.4068	Malekula	NCV
Nisvai	–		Vetbon	140	0.0518	Malekula	NCV	Unesco
Nokuku	nkk	nkk		160	0.0592	Espiritu Santo	NCV
North Tanna	tnn	tnn		5,000	1.8491	Tanna	SV
North Ambrym	mmg	mmg		5,250	1.9416	Ambrym	NCV
Northeast Ambae	omb	omb	Lolovoli; Aoba	5,000	1.8491	Ambae	NCV
Nume	tgs	tgs	Tarasag	700	0.2589	Banks Islands (Gaua)	NCV
Olrat	olr	olr		3	0.0011	Banks Islands (Gaua)	NCV
Paama	paa	paa	Paamese	6,000	2.2189	Paama	NCV
Piamatsina	ptr	ptr		150	0.0555	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Polonombauk	plb	plb		220	0.0814	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Repanbitip	rpn	rpn		90	0.0333	Malekula	NCV
Rerep	pgk	pgk	Pangkumu, Tisman	380	0.1405	Malekula	NCV
Roria	rga	rga	Mores	75	0.0277	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Saa	sax	sax	Sa	2,500	0.9245	Pentecost	NCV
Sakao	sku	sku	Hog Harbour, N'kep	4,000	1.4793	Espiritu Santo, Sakao	NCV
Shark Bay	ssv	ssv		450	0.1664	Espiritu Santo, Litaro	NCV
Sie	erg	erg	Se, Erromanga	1,900	0.7027	Erromango	SV
Ske	ske	ske	Seke	300	0.1109	Pentecost	NCV
South Efate	erk	erk	Erakor	6,000	2.2189	Efate	NCV
Southeast Ambrym	tvk	tvk		3,700	1.3683	Ambrym	NCV
Southwest Tanna	nwi	nwi		5,000	1.8491	Tanna	SV
Sowa	sww	sww		0	0.0000	Pentecost	NCV
Sungwadia	mrb	mrb	Marino; North Maewo	500	0.1849	Maewo	NCV
Tamambo	mla	mla	Malo; Tamabo	4,000	1.4793	Malo	NCV
Tambotalo	tls	tls		50	0.0185	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Tangoa	tgp	tgp		800	0.2959	Tangoa	NCV
Tasmate	tmt	tmt		150	0.0555	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Tiale	mnl	mnl		400	0.1479	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Tolomako	tlm	tlm		900	0.3328	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Tutuba	tmi	tmi		500	0.1849	Espiritu Santo, Tutuba	NCV
Unua	onu	onu	Onua	520	0.1923	Malekula	NCV
Ura	uur	uur		6	0.0022	Erromango	SV
Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin	upv	upv	Uripiv	9,000	3.3284	Malekula	NCV
Valpei	vlp	vlp		300	0.1109	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Vao	vao	vao		1,900	0.7027	Vao, Malekula	NCV
V’ënen Taut	nmb	nmb	Big Nambas	3,350	1.2389	Malekula	NCV
Vera’a	vra	vra	Vatrata	500	0.1849	Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)	NCV
Vinmavis	vnm	vnm	Neve’ei	500	0.1849	Malekula	NCV
Volow	mlv	mlv	Valuwa	0	0.0000	Banks Islands (Mota Lava)	NCV
Vunapu	vnp	vnp		380	0.1405	Espiritu Santo	NCV
Vurës	msn	msn	Vureas, Mosina	2,000	0.7396	Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)	NCV
Wailapa	wlr	wlr		100	0.0370	Espiritu Santo	NCV
West Ambae	nnd	nnd	Duidui	8,700	3.2174	Ambae	NCV
Whitesands	tnp	tnp		7,500	2.7736	Tanna	SV
Wusi	wsi	wsi		300	0.1109	Espiritu Santo	NCV

François (2015)

The following list of 138 Vanuatu languages is from François (2015:18-21).

No.	Language	Other names	Speakers	Ethnologue	ISO 639-3	Region
1	Hiw	Hiu	280	hiw	hiw	Torres Islands (Hiw)
2	Lo-Toga	Loh, Toga	580	lht	lht	Torres Islands (Lo, Toga, Tegua)
3	Lehali		200	tql	tql	Banks Islands (Ureparapara)
4	Löyöp	Lehalurup	240	urr	urr	Banks Islands (Ureparapara)
5	Mwotlap	Motlav	2100	mlv	mlv	Banks Islands (Motalava)
6	Volow	Valuwa	1	mlv	mlv	Banks Islands (Motalava)
7	Mota		750	mtt	mtt	Banks Islands (Mota)
8	Lemerig	Sasar	2	lrz	lrz	Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)
9	Vera'a	Vatrata	500	vra	vra	Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)
10	Vurës	Vureas, Mosina	2000	msn	msn	Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)
11	Mwesen	Mosina	10	msn	msn	Banks Islands (Vanua Lava)
12	Nume	Tarasag	700	tgs	tgs	Banks Islands (Gaua)
13	Dorig	Wetamut	300	wwo	wwo	Banks Islands (Gaua)
14	Koro		250	krf	krf	Banks Islands (Gaua)
15	Olrat		3	olr	olr	Banks Islands (Gaua)
16	Lakon	Lakona, Vurē	800	lkn	lkn	Banks Islands (Gaua)
17	Mwerlap	Merlav	1100	mrm	mrm	Banks Islands (Merelava)
18	Sungwadia	Marino, North Maewo	500	mrb	mrb	Maewo
19	Sungwadaga	Central Maewo	1400	mwo	mwo	Maewo
20	Baetora	South Maewo, Sungaloge	1330	btr	btr	Maewo
21	East Ambae	Lolovoli, Aoba	5000	omb	omb	Ambae
22	West Ambae	Duidui	8700	nnd	nnd	Ambae
23	Raga	Hano	6500	lml	lml	Pentecost
24	Apma		7800	app	app	Pentecost
25	Ske	Seke	300	ske	ske	Pentecost
26	Sa	Saa	3900	sax	sax	Pentecost
27	Tolomako	Bigbay	900	tlm	tlm	Espiritu Santo
28	Piamatsina		250	ptr	ptr	Espiritu Santo
29	Vunapu		380	vnp	vnp	Espiritu Santo
30	Valpei		300	vlp	vlp	Espiritu Santo
31	Nokuku		250	nkk	nkk	Espiritu Santo
32	Meri	Tasmate, Oa	300	tmt	tmt	Espiritu Santo
33	Wusi	Kula	350	wsi	wsi	Espiritu Santo
34	Bura		300			Espiritu Santo
35	Merei	Tiale, Lametin	400	lmb, mnl	lmb, mnl	Espiritu Santo
36	Mores	Ko	200	mrp	mrp	Espiritu Santo
37	Ande	Morouas	500			Espiritu Santo
38	Toksiki	Soisoru, Roria	200	rga	rga	Espiritu Santo
39	Kiai	Fortsenal	450	frt	frt	Espiritu Santo
40	Moiso		100			Espiritu Santo
41	Kene		300			Espiritu Santo
42	Daruru		100			Espiritu Santo
43	Akei	Tasiriki	4000	tsr	tsr	Espiritu Santo
44	Retlatur		100			Espiritu Santo
45	Wailapa	Ale	500	wlr	wlr	Espiritu Santo
46	Farsaf	Narango, Nambel	400	nrg	nrg	Espiritu Santo
47	Varavara	Amblong, Aje	300	alm	alm	Espiritu Santo
48	Narmoris		220	plb	plb	Espiritu Santo
49	Biliru	Tambotalo	3	tls	tls	Espiritu Santo
50	Atin		120			Espiritu Santo
51	Ati	Polonombauk, Meris	85			Espiritu Santo
52	Farnanto		100			Espiritu Santo
53	Se	Fanafo	20			Espiritu Santo
54	Sinia	Navut	520	nsw	nsw	Espiritu Santo
55	Butmas-Tur	Ati, Farafi	520	bnr	bnr	Espiritu Santo
56	Ngen	Shark Bay	450	ssv	ssv	Espiritu Santo, Litaro
57	Tholp	Nethalp	0			Espiritu Santo
58	Sakao	Hog Harbour, Nkep	4000	sku	sku	Espiritu Santo
59	Mavea	Mav̋ea, Mafea	34	mkv	mkv	Espiritu Santo, Mavea
60	Tutuba		500	tmi	tmi	Espiritu Santo, Tutuba
61	Aore		0	aor	aor	Espiritu Santo, Aore
62	Tamambo	Malo, Tamabo	4000	mla	mla	Espiritu Santo, Malo
63	Tangoa	Movono	370	tgp	tgp	Espiritu Santo, Tangoa
64	Araki		8	akr	akr	Espiritu Santo, Araki
65	Axamb	Ahamb	750	ahb	ahb	Malakula
66	Lendamboi	Small Nambas, Letemboi	800	nms	nms	Malakula
67	Nasvang		275			Malakula
68	Sörsörian		3			Malakula
69	Avok		500			Malakula, Avok
70	Uliveo	Maskelynes	1100	klv	klv	Malakula, Maskelynes
71	Port Sandwich	Lamap	1200	psw	psw	Malakula
72	Nisvai	Vetbon	200			Malakula
73	Burmbar	Banam Bay, Vartavo	900	vrt	vrt	Malakula
74	Mbwenelang		<10			Malakula
75	Aulua		750	aul	aul	Malakula
76	Niolean	Repanbitip	90	rpn	rpn	Malakula
77	Rerep	Pangkumu, Tisman	380	pgk	pgk	Malakula
78	Unua	Onua	520	onu	onu	Malakula
79	Vivti		<5			Malakula
80	Nitita		<5			Malakula
81	Avava	Katbol, Navava, Bangsa’	700	tmb	tmb	Malakula
82	Neverver	Lingarak, Nevwervwer	1250	lgk	lgk	Malakula
83	Litzlitz	Naman	15	lzl	lzl	Malakula
84	Uripiv	Uripiv-Wala-Rano-Atchin, Northeast Malakula	9000	upv	upv	Malakula, Atchin, Uripiv
85	Rutan		?			Malakula
86	Botovro	Mpotovoro	430	mvt	mvt	Malakula
87	Vao		1900	vao	vao	Malakula, Vao
88	Alovas		?			Malakula
89	Vovo		475			Malakula
90	Nese	Matanvat	160			Malakula
91	Najit		<5			Malakula
92	Malua Bay	Middle Nambas	500	mll	mll	Malakula
93	Njav		10			Malakula
94	Tirax	Mae, Dirak	1000	mme	mme	Malakula
95	V'ënen Taut	Big Nambas	3350	nmb	nmb	Malakula
96	Tape	Maragus	15	mrs	mrs	Malakula
97	Larëvat	Laravat, Larevat	680	lrv	lrv	Malakula
98	Neve'ei	Vinmavis	500	vnm	vnm	Malakula
99	Nivat		<10			Malakula
100	Nasarian		5	nvh	nvh	Malakula
101	Aveteian	Dixon Reef	50	dix	dix	Malakula
102	Ninde	Labo	1100	mwi	mwi	Malakula
103	Nahavaq	South West Bay, Siesip	700	sns	sns	Malakula
104	Nāti		25			Malakula
105	Naha'ai	Malvaxal, Malfaxal	600	mlx	mlx	Malakula
106	Navwien		5			Malakula
107	North Ambrym		5250	mmg	mmg	Ambrym
108	Orkon	Fanbak	30			Ambrym
109	Southeast Ambrym		3700	tvk	tvk	Ambrym
110	Daakie	Port Vato	1300	ptv	ptv	Ambrym
111	Daakaka	South Ambrym, Baiap	1200	bpa	bpa	Ambrym
112	Dalkalaen		1000			Ambrym
113	Raljago	West Ambrym, Lonwolwol	<10	crc	crc	Ambrym
114	Paama	Paamese	6000	paa	paa	Paama
115	Lamen	Lamenu, Varmali	850	lmu	lmu	Epi, Lamen
116	Lewo	Varsu	2200	lww	lww	Epi
117	Bierebo	Bonkovia-Yevali	900	bnk	bnk	Epi
118	Baki	Burumba, Paki	350	bki	bki	Epi
119	Mkir	Maii	180	mmm	mmm	Epi
120	Bieria	Bieri, Vovo, Wowo	25	brj	brj	Epi
121	Namakura	Makura, Namakir	3750	nmk	nmk	Efate, Shepherd Islands (Tongoa, Tongariki)
122	Emae	Makatea	400	mmw	mmw	Shepherd Islands (Emae)
123	Nakanamanga		9500	llp	llp	Efate, Shepherd Islands (Nguna, Tongoa)
124	Lelepa	Havannah Harbour	400	lpa	lpa	Efate, Lelepa
125	Eton		500	etn	etn	Efate
126	South Efate	Erakor	6000	erk	erk	Efate
127	Mele-Fila	Ifira-Mele	3500	mxe	mxe	Efate, Mele, Ifira
128	Sie	Se, Sie, Erromanga	1900	erg	erg	Erromango
129	Ura		6	uur	uur	Erromango
130	Utaha		0	iff	iff	Erromango
131	North Tanna		5000	tnn	tnn	Tanna
132	Lenakel	Netvaar	11500	tnl	tnl	Tanna
133	Southwest Tanna	Nawal	5000	nwi	nwi	Tanna
134	Whitesands	Narak	7500	tnp	tnp	Tanna
135	Kwamera	Nafe, Nɨfe	3500	tnk	tnk	Tanna
137	Anejom̃	Aneityum	900	aty	aty	Aneityum
138	Futuna-Aniwa	West Futuna	1500	fut	fut	Futuna, Aniwa

Notes

See François et al. (2015:8-9); and also Crowley (2000:50); François (2012:86).
The estimate is 298,333 for July 2020 (source: “Vanuatu”, CIA World Factbook).
Nettle, Daniel and Suzanne Romaine (2016). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-19-515246-8.
François (2012:104).
“Vanuatu” – CIA World Factbook.
“Languages of Vanuatu” – 2013 archive from Ethnologue.
Note: the “current” Ethnologue figure for English first language speakers is sourced from the CIA World Factbook.
David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2003
David Crystal, English as a Global Language, 2003.
Note: Both books are by the same author and use the same source data. Either way, this is the reference Ethnologue uses. Note that Ethnologue arrives at a total figure by adding estimates for L1 and L2 speakers from different years, even though these figures are incomparable due to significant population growth in the intervening period.
Estimation des francophones dans le monde en 2015.
Note: the figures don't quite seem to match, but this is Ethnologue's source.
See François et al. (2015).
Thus while Tryon (1976) lists 113 separate languages, Lynch & Crowley (2001), using different criteria, propose a lower figure of 88 languages, many of which are dialect continua. See the discussion in François et al. (2015:4-7).
This table lists 112 languages. See François et al. (2015:18-21) for a list of 138 items.
The bibliographical references that underlie this table can be found with each individual language entry.

References

Crowley, Terry (2000), "The language situation in Vanuatu", Current Issues in Language Planning, 1 (1): 47–132
François, Alexandre (2012), "The dynamics of linguistic diversity: Egalitarian multilingualism and power imbalance among northern Vanuatu languages", International Journal of the Sociology of Language, 214: 85–110, doi:10.1515/ijsl-2012-0022.
François, Alexandre; Franjieh, Michael; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Schnell, Stefan (2015), "The exceptional linguistic density of Vanuatu" (PDF), in François, Alexandre; Lacrampe, Sébastien; Franjieh, Michael; Schnell, Stefan (eds.), The Languages of Vanuatu: Unity and Diversity, Studies in the Languages of Island Melanesia, Canberra: Asia Pacific Linguistics Open Access, pp. 1–21, ISBN 9781922185235.
Lynch, John; Crowley, Terry (2001). Languages of Vanuatu: A new survey and bibliography. Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies. ISBN 0-85883-469-3

External links

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[density-1] See François et al. (2015:8-9); and also Crowley (2000:50); François (2012:86).

[2] The estimate is 298,333 for July 2020 (source: “Vanuatu”, CIA World Factbook).

[3] Nettle, Daniel and Suzanne Romaine (2016). Vanishing Voices: The Extinction of the World's Languages. Oxford: Oxford University Press. p. 9. ISBN 0-19-515246-8.

[diversity-4] François (2012:104).

[cia-twf-5] “Vanuatu” – CIA World Factbook.

[eth-6] “Languages of Vanuatu” – 2013 archive from Ethnologue.
Note: the “current” Ethnologue figure for English first language speakers is sourced from the CIA World Factbook.

[7] David Crystal, The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the English Language, 2003
David Crystal, English as a Global Language, 2003.
Note: Both books are by the same author and use the same source data. Either way, this is the reference Ethnologue uses. Note that Ethnologue arrives at a total figure by adding estimates for L1 and L2 speakers from different years, even though these figures are incomparable due to significant population growth in the intervening period.

[8] Estimation des francophones dans le monde en 2015.
Note: the figures don't quite seem to match, but this is Ethnologue's source.

[9] See François et al. (2015).

[10] Thus while Tryon (1976) lists 113 separate languages, Lynch & Crowley (2001), using different criteria, propose a lower figure of 88 languages, many of which are dialect continua. See the discussion in François et al. (2015:4-7).

[11] This table lists 112 languages. See François et al. (2015:18-21) for a list of 138 items.

[12] The bibliographical references that underlie this table can be found with each individual language entry.

Languages of Oceania
Sovereign states	Australia Federated States of Micronesia Fiji Kiribati Marshall Islands Nauru New Zealand Palau Papua New Guinea Samoa Solomon Islands Tonga Tuvalu Vanuatu
Associated states of New Zealand	Cook Islands Niue
Dependencies and other territories	American Samoa Christmas Island Cocos (Keeling) Islands Easter Island French Polynesia Guam Hawaii New Caledonia Norfolk Island Northern Mariana Islands Pitcairn Islands Tokelau Wallis and Futuna