British Bangladeshi

Bangladeshis in the UK are largely a young population, heavily concentrated in London's inner boroughs. In the 2011 Census 451,529 UK residents specified their ethnicity as Bangladeshi, forming 0.7% of the total population.[1] About half live in London, with a heavy concentration in Tower Hamlets borough of East London.[37] The UK is also the third single largest export destination for Bangladesh[38] and Britain has the largest Bengali population outside of Bangladesh and West Bengal.[39] As of 2015, 600,000 British Bangladeshis live in the UK and 70% of British Bangladeshis live in London.[40]

London's Bangladeshi population in 2011 was 222,127 representing 49.2% of the UK Bangladeshi population.[41] The highest concentrations were found in Tower Hamlets, where Bangladeshis constituted 32% of the borough population (18% of the UK Bangladeshi population),[41] and in Newham, accounting for 9% of the borough population.[6] and in Somers Town 15% of the local population (West and North of Euston).[42] The largest Bangladeshi populations outside London are in Birmingham, where there were an estimated 32,532 Bangladeshis in 2011,[43] Oldham with 16,310,[44] and Luton, Bedfordshire with a population of 13,606.[45]

More than half of the United Kingdom's Bangladeshis—approximately 53%—were born in Bangladesh.[46] Bangladesh ranks third in the list of countries of birth for Londoners born outside the United Kingdom.[47] Bangladeshis are one of the youngest of the UK's ethnic populations; 38% under the age of 16, 59% aged between 16–64, and only 3% aged 65 and over. The census also revealed a heavy predominance in the male population, which was 64% of the total.[46][48]

Since 2011, an estimated 6,000 Bangladeshi families have come to the UK from Italy, with the majority settling in East London. According to the most recent census, there were 110,000 Bangladeshi immigrants living in Italy in 2013. Many were skilled graduates who left their homes in South Asia attracted by jobs in Italy's industrial north, but moved to the UK when Italian manufacturing jobs went into decline.[49]

Bangladeshis are now mainly employed in the distribution, hotel and restaurant industries.[50] New generation Bangladeshis, however, aspire to professional careers, becoming doctors, IT management specialists, teachers and in business.[51] In 2011 within England and Wales, nearly-half (48%) of British Bangladeshis in the 16 to 64 age group were reported to be employed, while 40% were economically inactive and 10% unemployed. Men were more likely to employed than women, with 65% of men in employment against 30% of women. Of those employed, 53% were working within the low-skill sector.[52] Bangladeshis were most likely to be employed in accommodation and food services (27.3%), 18.8% in wholesale and retail trade, 9.2% in education, 8.8% in human health and social work, and the rest in many other sectors of employment.[53]

Ofsted reports from secondary schools have shown that many Bangladeshi pupils are making significant progress, compared with other ethnic minority groups.[54] Girls are more likely to do better in education than boys; 55% of girls are achieving 5 or more A*-C at GCSE, compared to 41% boys, as of 2004. The overall achievement rate for Bangladeshi pupils was 48%, compared with 53% for all UK pupils, in 2004.[55] By 2013, the British Bangladeshi achievement rate (5 or more A*-C at GCSE) had increased considerably to 61%, compared to 56% for White British students and 51% for British Pakistani students.[56] It was reported in 2014, there were a total of 60,699 graduates of Bangladeshi descent.[57] In November 2015, an Institute for Fiscal Studies (IFS) report said that Bangladeshi children living in the UK have a nearly 49 percent higher chance on average of a university education than white British pupils.[58]

Until 1998, Tower Hamlets, where the concentration of British Bangladeshis is greatest was the worst performing local authority in England. Until 2009, Bangladeshis in England performed worse than the national average. In 2015, 62 per cent of British Bangladeshis got five good GCSEs, including English and Maths which is five per cent above the average, and Bangladeshi girls outperformed boys by eight per cent.[40] In February 2018, according to a report from social mobility by the Sutton Trust, British Bangladeshi students are over six times more likely than white students to stay living at home and studying nearby.[59][60][61][62]

In March 2015, Nick de Bois, MP for Enfield North, persuaded the British government to stop plans by the exam boards to drop Bengali GCSE and A Level qualifications.[63] In June 2017, British schools included Sylheti as a separate subject, with the dialect being included as a listed language alongside Bengali.[39]

According to research by Yaojun Li from the University of Manchester in 2016, while the employment rate of Bangladeshis has improved and the proportion of women in work has risen by one-third in the last five years, it is still weaker than educational performance. Nine per cent of working age Bangladeshis are unemployed which is almost twice the national average.[40]

In December 2016, according to a Social Mobility Commission study, children of Bangladeshi origin are among the British Asians who 'struggle for top jobs despite better school results'.[64][65] The UK's Social Mobility Commission commissioned an 'Ethnicity, Gender and Social Mobility' report with research carried out by academics from LKMco and Education Datalab which found that there has been an increase in educational attainment for Bangladeshi origin pupils in the UK and their performance has improved at a more rapid rate than other ethnic groups in recent years at almost every key stage of education. Almost half of young Bangladeshi people from the poorest quintile go to university. However, this is not reflected or translating in labour market outcomes because although young people from Bangladeshi backgrounds are more likely to "succeed in education and go to university," they are less likely to go on to "find employment or secure jobs in managerial or professional occupations." The report also found that female Bangladeshi graduations are less likely to gain managerial and professional roles than male Bangladeshis graduates, despite achieving at school. British Bangladeshi women earn less than other ethnic minority groups.[66]

A survey in the 1990s on the visible communities in Britain by the Policy Studies Institute concluded that British Bangladeshi continues to be among the most severely disadvantaged.[67] Bangladeshis had the highest rates of illness in the UK, in 2001. Bangladeshi men were three times as likely to visit their doctor as men in the general population. Bangladeshis also had the highest rates of people with disabilities,[68] and were more likely to smoke than any other ethnic group, at a rate of 44% in 1999 in England. Smoking was very common amongst the men, but very few women smoked, perhaps due to cultural customs.[21][69]

The average number of people living in each Bangladeshi household is 5,[70] larger than all other ethnic groups. Households which contained a single person were 9%; houses containing a married couple were 54%, pensioner households were 2%. Bangladeshis living in London were 40 times more likely to be living in cramped and poor housing types of housing than anyone else in the country. There were twice as many people per room as white households, with 43% living in homes with insufficient bedroom space.[71] A third of Bangladeshi homes contain more than one family—64% of all overcrowded households in Tower Hamlets are Bangladeshi.[72] In England and Wales, only 37% of Bangladeshis owned households compared to 69% of the population, those with social rented tenure is 48%, the largest of which in Tower Hamlets (82%) and Camden (81%).[73]

Bangladeshis in Britain, who are heavily concentrated in London, particularly in the East End, are among the poorest and most deprived communities in the United Kingdom, suffering from high rates of poverty, unemployment and undereducation. Of an estimated half-million Bangladeshis living in the UK, about half live in London, with a heavy concentration in Tower Hamlets borough of East London. In Tower Hamlets, an estimated one-third of young Bangladeshis are unemployed, one of the highest such rates in the country.[37]

British Bangladeshis are around three times more likely to be in poverty compared to their white counterparts, according to a 2015 report entitled 'Ethnic Inequalities' by the Centre for Social Investigation (CSI) at Nuffield College at University of Oxford. The research found that poverty rate is 46% of people of Bangladeshi background – compared with 16% for the white British in 2009–11. "Bangladeshi background are also more likely to have a limiting long-term illness or disability and to live in more crowded conditions," it noted.[74]

According to the 2011 census, 49.5% of British Bangladeshis consider Bengali (includes Sylheti and Chatgaya) as their main language while 47.9% stated English.[75] Of those who stated their main language as Bengali (with Sylheti and Chatgaya), 69.6% were proficient in speaking English.[76] As 95% of British Bangladeshis originate from the north-east Bangladesh region of Sylhet,[77][78][79] majority therefore speak Sylheti which is often considered as a dialect of Bengali or a closely related language.[80][81][82][83] As of 2018, according to the British Office for National Statistics, Britain has around 231,000 Bengali-speaking people, making it the fifth-most spoken language. The British census of 2011 also reflected this data. Bengalis are the fourth biggest ethnic minority community in UK.[39]

To some, standard Bengali is considered as a more prestige language which helps to foster a cultural or national identity linked with Bangladesh,[84] parents therefore encourage young people to attend Bengali classes to learn the language.[55] Although many of Sylheti-speaking background find this learning progress difficult in the UK.[72][85] English tends to be spoken among younger brothers and sisters and peer groups, and Bengali/Sylheti with parents.[86] Although many Sylheti speakers say they speak Bengali, this is because they do not expect outsiders to be well informed about dialects.[87] Sylheti does not have a written form and is mainly a vernacular language. During the 1970s, the first mother-tongue classes were established for Bangladeshis by community activists in standard Bengali, which later led to a campaign for Sylheti classes in the area of Spitalfields, East End of London, however its organisation collapsed in 1985 and with its demise.[88] There have been revivals of Sylheti Nagari in London, a near extinct script that was used for Sylheti. James Lloyd Williams is notable for reproducing Sylheti Nagari poetry books, translating them also in Bengali and English.[89]

One way in which British Bangladeshis try to hold on to their links to Bangladesh is by sending their British-born children to school there. Pupils are taught the British curriculum and children born in the UK are dotted among those in the classroom.[90]

Many families originate from different upazilas or thanas across Sylhet, mainly from Jagannathpur, Beanibazar, Bishwanath,[91][92] Moulvibazar, Golapganj, and Nabiganj.[93]

The East London Mosque located in Whitechapel, London, is one of the largest mosque in the UK with a majority Bangladeshi congregation

Majority of the Bangladeshi population are Sunni Muslim;[94] a small minority follow other religions. In London, Bangladeshi Muslims make up 24% of all London Muslims, more than any other single ethnic group in the capital.[73] The largest affiliations are the Deobandi movement (mainly of Tablighi Jamaat),[95] the Jamaat-e-Islami movement,[96] and the Sufi Barelvi[97] and Fultali movements. The Hizb ut-Tahrir, and the Salafi movement also have a small following.[6]

A majority of older women wear the burqa,[98] and many young women are opting to wear a hijab, a traditional women's headscarf—whereas in Bangladesh, comparatively few women do so; this has been described as a "British phenomenon".[99] Arabic is also learned by children, many of whom attend Qur'an classes at mosques or the madrasah.[55] Many male youths are also involved with Islamic groups,[100] which include the Young Muslim Organisation, affiliated with the Islamic Forum Europe. This group is based in Tower Hamlets, and has thus attracted mainly young Bangladeshi Muslims.[101] It has been increasingly associated with the East London Mosque, which is one of the largest mosques used predominantly by Bangladeshis.[102][103] In 2004, the mosque created a new extension attached, the London Muslim Centre which holds up to 10,000 people.[104][105]

Crowds at the Baishakhi Mela 2009

Significant Bengali events or celebrations are celebrated by the community annually. The Boishakhi Mela is a celebration of the Bengali New Year, celebrated by the Bangladeshi community every year. Held each April–May since 1997 in London's Banglatown, it is the largest Asian open-air event in Europe, and the largest Bengali festival outside Bangladesh. In Bangladesh and West Bengal it is known as the Pohela Boishakh. The event is broadcast live across different continents; it features a funfair, music and dance displays on stages, with people dressed in colourful traditional clothes, in Weavers Field and Allen Gardens in Bethnal Green.[106] The Mela is also designed to enhance the area's community identity, bringing together the best of Bengali culture.[107] Brick Lane is the main destination where curry and Bengali spices are served throughout the day.[108] As of 2009, the Mela was organised by the Tower Hamlets council, attracting 95,000 people,[109] featuring with popular artists such as Momtaz Begum, Nukul Kumar Bishwash, Mumzy Stranger and many others.[110][111]

The Language Movement Day (Shaheed Dibosh), commemorates the martyrdom of the people killed in the demonstrations of 1952 for the Bengali language. In the London borough of Tower Hamlets, the Shaheed Minar was erected in Altab Ali Park in 1999. At the entrance to the park is an arch created by David Peterson, developed as a memorial to Altab Ali and other victims of racist attacks. The arch incorporates a complex Bengali-style pattern, meant to show the merging of different cultures in East London.[112] A similar monument was built in Westwood, in Oldham, through a local council regeneration.[6] This event is taken place at midnight on 20 February, where the Bengali community come together to lay wreaths at the monument.[113] Around 2,500 families, councillors and community members paid their respect at Altab Ali Park, as of February 2009.[114]

The Nowka Bais is a traditional boat racing competition. It was first brought to the United Kingdom in 2007 to commemorate the 1000th birthday of Oxfordshire.[115] It has gained recognition and support from Queen Elizabeth II and others.[116] Since 2015, it has been hosted in Birmingham, where it is the largest cultural event in the West Midlands and the largest boat race in Britain, attracting thousands of people.[117][118]

Same cultural rituals are practised

Bangladeshi weddings are celebrated with a combination of Bengali and Muslim traditions, and play a large part in developing and maintaining social ties. Many marriages are between the British diaspora (Londonis) and the native-born Bangladeshis. Sometimes men will go to Bangladesh to get married, however recently more women are marrying in Bangladesh. Second or third generation Bangladeshis are more likely to get married in the UK within the British culture. However this exposure has created a division between preferences for arranged marriages or for love marriages.[119][120] Tradition holds that the bride's family must buy the bridegroom's family a set of new furniture to be housed in the family home, with all original furniture given away or discarded.[121] The average Bangladeshi outlay for a wedding is £30–60,000 for a single wedding, including decorations, venue, food, clothing and limousines, all areas in which there is competition between families.[98] Forced marriages are rare, however the practice is largely present in Bangladesh; the British High Commission has been involved with many cases concerning on British citizens.[122][123] Another media highlight includes a Bangladeshi-born National Health Service doctor Humayra Abedin. She was deceived by her parents after asking her to arrive at their home in Dhaka,[124][125] a court ordered her parents to hand her over to the British High Commission.[126] The commission has been reported to have handled 56 cases from April 2007 to March 2008.[127]

According to 2017 data by the Forced Marriage Unit (FMU), a joint effort between the Home Office and the Foreign and Commonwealth Office, of the 129 callers related to Bangladesh, 71% were female and 29% were male, 16% were under the age of 15 and another 12% were aged 16–17. The majority of the victims were likely in the 18-21 age group and the proportion of males were higher for Bangladeshis than other groups. Bangladesh had the second highest number of cases after Pakistan.[128]

Meat curry with rice on a traditional Sylheti-style plate

British Bangladeshis consume traditional Bangladeshi food, in particular rice with curry.[129] Many traditional Bengali dishes are served with rice, including chicken, lentil (dahl), and fish.[130] Another popular food is shatkora, which is a citrus and tangy fruit from Sylhet, mainly used for flavourings in curries.[131] Bangladeshi cooking has become popular in Britain because of the number of Bangladeshi-owned restaurants, which has increased significantly. In 1946, there were 20 restaurants, while in 2015 there are 8,200 owned by Bangladeshis, out of a total of 9,500 Indian restaurants in the UK.[51]

There are five Bengali channels available on satellite television in Britain. Four British-owned channels are NTV, ION TV, Channel S,[132] and Bangla TV.[133] Popular national channels, ATN Bangla, and Channel i are also available.[134] Bengali newspapers have been increasing within the community, such include Surma News Group and The East End Life (local newspaper of the borough).[135] The first international film based on a story about British Bangladeshis was Brick Lane (2007), based on the novel by author Monica Ali, her book is about a woman who moves to London from rural Bangladesh, with her husband, wedded in an arranged marriage.[136][137] The film was critically acclaimed and the novel was an award-winning best seller.[138] The film however caused some controversy within the community.[139] Other films created in the community are mainly based on the struggles which British Bangladeshis face such as drugs and presenting a culture clash. These dramas include, Shopner Desh (2006) – a story related to the culture clashes.[140] In 2020, BBC Four released an episode of A Very British History focusing on the history of British Bangladeshis and Bangladeshi emigration to the United Kingdom from the 1960s onwards, hosted by Dr Aminul Hoque.[141]

Religious Muslim festivals are celebrated by the community each year including Eid al-Adha and Eid ul-Fitr. Muslims dress for the occasion in traditionally Bangladeshi style clothing.[142] Children are given money by elders, and Eid prayers are attended by men and women in the morning in large numbers. Typically relatives are visited later in the day. Traditional food will be cooked for relatives, such as samosa or sandesh. The celebration of Eid reunites relatives and improves relations.[143] In the evening, young people will often spend the remaining time socialising with friends. Some, however, will go "cruising" – travelling across cities in expensive hired cars, playing loud music and sometimes waving the Bangladesh flag. Sociologists suggest these British Bangladeshi boys and girls have reinterpreted the older, more traditional practice of their faith and culture.[144] The Eid al-Adha is celebrated after Hajj, to commemorate the prophet Ibrahim's compliance to sacrifice his son Isma'il.[145][146] An animal has to be sacrificed, and then distributed between families and neighbours as zakat, however sometimes in the UK this is not practised and the meat is purchased, therefore there is much difficulty for expatriates to celebrate the event. Some instead of distributing meat, pay zakat to mosques or others however remit money to families in Bangladesh, for the purchase of cows.[147]

Rushanara Ali, the first British Bangladeshi MP

Baroness Pola Uddin, the first Asian and Muslim life peer

Rushanara Ali is the first person of Bangladeshi origin to have been elected as a member of parliament during the 2010 general election for the Labour Party from the constituency of Bethnal Green and Bow, winning by a large majority of more than 10,000.[148] Tulip Siddiq became a member of parliament in the 2015 elections, getting elected from Camden Town. Tulip is the niece of the sitting Prime Minister of Bangladesh Sheikh Hasina and granddaughter of Bangabandhu Sheikh Mujibur Rahman the founder father of Bangladesh. Baroness Uddin was the first Bangladeshi and Muslim woman to enter the House of Lords; she swore the oath of office in her own faith.[26][149] Anwar Choudhury became the British High Commissioner for Bangladesh in 2004, the first non-white British person to be appointed in a senior diplomatic post.[150] Lutfur Rahman is the first directly elected mayor of Tower Hamlets, who was later removed from office for breaching electoral rules.[151] Enam Ali became the first Muslim and the first representative of the British curry industry to be granted Freedom of the City of London in recognition of his contribution to the Indian hospitality industry. Dr. Muhammad Abdul Bari is the chairman of the Muslim Council of Britain – the largest Muslim organisation in Britain.[152] Murad Qureshi, a Labour politician, is a member of the Greater London Assembly.[153]

Others have contributed in the British media and business worlds. Konnie Huq is the longest-serving female presenter in Blue Peter, a BBC television programme for children. Other notable national TV presenters have included Lisa Aziz of Sky News, Nina Hossain (ITV and BBC London), Tasmin Lucia Khan (BBC News) and Shawkat Hashmi is Community Editor at BBC Sheffield, (BBC News). In drama, Shefali Chowdhury[149] and Afshan Azad both starred in the Harry Potter movies as Parvati and Padma Patil.[154] Mumzy is an R&B and hip-hop music artist, the first Bangladeshi to release a music single.[155] Syed Ahmed is a businessman and also a television star, well known for being a candidate on The Apprentice.[149][156] There are many other entrepreneurs, including the late Abdul Latif, known for his dish "Curry Hell"; Iqbal Ahmed, placed at number 511 on the Sunday Times Rich List 2006, and celebrity chef Tommy Miah.[149][157][158] Rizwan Hussain is also very well known for presenting Islamic and charity shows on Channel S and Islam Channel, mainly known within the community.[159]

Artists include dancer and choreographer Akram Khan,[160] pianist Zoe Rahman, vocalist Suzana Ansar and Sohini Alam (born 1978),[161] and the visual artist on film and photography Runa Islam.[149][162] In Sport, the only Bangladeshi professional footballer in England is Anwar Uddin.[157][163]

Notable authors who have received praise for their books include Zia Haider Rahman whose debut novel In the Light of What We Know was published in 2014.,[164] Ed Husain, who wrote the book The Islamist on account of his experience for five years with the Hizb ut-Tahrir,[165][166] Monica Ali for her book Brick Lane a story based on a Bangladeshi woman,[167] and Kia Abdullah for her book, Life, Love and Assimilation.

In 2012, British kickboxing champion Ruqsana Begum was among the nine people of Bangladeshi descent who carried the Olympic torch along with some 8,000 Britons across the UK. Architectural and graphic designer Saiman Miah was the designer for the two commemorative £5 coins released by British Royal Mint to mark the 2012 London Olympic Games. Akram Khan was a choreographer of the Olympic opening ceremony. Khan was in direction when 12,000 dance artistes performed in the Olympic opening ceremony. Enam Ali's Le Raj restaurant was selected as one of the official food suppliers of the London Olympics. The restaurant also prepared and provided Iftar to the Muslim guests at the Olympics.[168]

Large numbers of people from the Bangladeshi community have also been involved with local government, increasingly in the London boroughs of Tower Hamlets and Camden. The majority of the councillors in Tower Hamlets are of Bangladeshi descent and part of the Labour Party. As of 2009, 32 of the total 51 councillors were Bangladeshi (63%), 18 were White (35%) and 1 Somali (2%).[169] The first Bangladeshi mayor in the country was Ghulam Murtuza in Tower Hamlets. Camden has appointed many Bangladeshis as mayors since the first, Nasim Ali. The London Borough of Islington followed suit in the year 2012; appointing councillor Jilani Chowdhury as their mayor.

The Shaheed Minar replica in Altab Ali Park, London

In Bangladeshi politics there are two groups, favouring different principles, one Islamic and the other secular. Between these groups, there has always been rivalry; however, the Islamic faction is steadily growing. This division between religious and secular was an issue during the Bangladesh Liberation War; the political history of Bangladesh is now is being re-interpreted again, in the UK. The secular group show nationalism through monuments, or through the introduction of Bengali culture, and the Islamic group mainly through dawah.[6][170]

One symbol of Bengali nationalism is the Shaheed Minar, which commemorates the Bengali Language Movement, present in Altab Ali Park – the park is also the main venue for rallies and demonstrations, and also in Westwood, Oldham.[6] The monuments are a smaller replica of the one in Dhaka, Bangladesh, and symbolises a mother and the martyred sons.[171] Nationalism is mainly witnessed during celebrations of the mela, when groups such as the Swadhinata Trust try to promote Bengali history and heritage amongst young people, in schools, youth clubs and community centres.[170]

According to a 2013 survey by the Center on Dynamics of Ethnicity (CoDE) at the University of Manchester, ethnic minorities in the country were more likely to describe themselves as exclusively "British" than their white British counterparts. 72% of Bangladeshis reported an exclusive "British" identity, in contrast 72% of white Britons preferred to call themselves "English" rather than the more expansive "British" designation. A 2009 study by the University of Surrey suggested that some Bangladeshis in Britain, particularly the youth, embrace their "Britishness" while feeling alienated from "Englishness". The underlying assumption was that "Englishness" was associated with "whiteness" whereas "Britishness" denoted a more universal kind of identity that encompasses various cultural and racial backgrounds.[37]

As a response to conditions faced by their first generation elders during the 1970s (see history), younger Bangladeshis started to form gangs, developing a sense of dominating their territory. One consequence of this was that Bangladeshi gangs began fighting each other. Bangladeshi teenagers involved with gangs show their allegiance to this kind of lifestyle in various ways: heavily styled hair, expensive mobile phones and fashionable labels and brands.[21] Teenage street gangs have been responsible for sometimes lethal violence; it is estimated that in Tower Hamlets alone there are 2,500 Bengali youths affiliated to one of the many local gangs,[172] and that 26 out of the 27 gangs in the area are Bangladeshi.[173] The notorious gangs have been given names that end with massive or posse, such as the Brick Lane Massive and Brady Street Massive.[174] Other smaller groups include the Shadwell Crew, Cannon Street Posse, Bengal Tigers and Bethnal Green Boys.[175][176]

In the past, Bangladeshi gangs have fostered criminal elements, including low level drug use and credit card fraud. However, for many the focus has changed to fighting over their territories. They use a variety of weapons, such as samurai swords, machetes, kitchen knives and meat cleavers, although guns are rarely used. When members reach their twenties they usually grow out of gang membership, but some move on to more serious criminal activity. Increasing numbers of Bangladeshi youths are taking hard drugs, in particular heroin.[177] Islamic fundamentalism has also played a part in the youth culture, illustrated by the efforts of one Brick Lane gang to oust prostitutes from the area. As to dietary customs, youths generally avoid eating pork, and some from drinking alcohol; however many take part in recreational drug use,[178] in particular heroin.[179]

The UK is the second biggest foreign investor in Bangladesh and one of the largest development partners of Bangladesh. Over 240 UK companies are operating in different sectors including retail, banking, energy, infrastructure, consultancy and education with leading centres of operation in Dhaka, Chittagong and Sylhet.[38]

Many British Bangladeshis send money to Bangladesh to build houses. In villages in Sylhet, there are houses built suburbs or communities through financial support mainly received from the UK, fuelling a building boom.[200][201][202] Businesses have also been established by the British expatriates in the city of Sylhet, such as hotels, restaurants, often themed on those found in London, have also been established to cater to the visiting Sylheti expatriate population and the growing Sylheti middle classes (i.e. London Fried Chicken or Tessco).[203] The financial relationship between British Bengalis and relatives in Bangladesh has changed, only 20% of Bangladeshi families in east London were sending money to Bangladesh as of 1995, this figure was approximately 85% during 1960–1970s. For a large number of families in Britain the cost of living, housing, or education for the children severely constrains any regular financial commitment towards Bangladesh. Moreover, the family reunion process has resulted in the social and economic reproduction of the household in Britain; conflicts over land or money can arise involving the mutual or reciprocal relationship between members of a joint household divided by migration. This, in turn, can reduce even more the level of investment in Sylhet. The emergence of a second and a third generation of British Bangladeshis is another factor explaining the declining proportion of people's income being sent as remittances to Bangladesh.[6] About 7% of all remittance sent to Bangladesh are from Britain as of 2019. As of January 2020, $1175m is sent from UK to Bangladesh per year.[204]