Sorbs

Sorbs
Sorbian flag, in Pan-Slavic colors, introduced in 1842
Traditional female costume of Lower Lusatia (Spreewald)
Total population
60,000[1]-80,000[2][3] (est.)
• 45-60,000 Upper Sorbs
• 15-20,000 Lower Sorbs
Regions with significant populations
 Germany 60,000 - 80,000
 Czech Republic 2,000[4]
 Poland fewer than 1,000
Languages
Sorbian (Upper Sorbian, Lower Sorbian), German
Religion
Majority Roman Catholicism, Lutheranism

Sorbs (Upper Sorbian: Serbja, Lower Sorbian: Serby, German: Sorben, Serbo-Croatian: Lužički Srbi (Lusatian Serbs)) known also by their former autonyms Lusatians and Wends, are a West Slavic ethnic group predominantly inhabiting their homeland in Lusatia, a region divided between Germany (the states of Saxony and Brandenburg) and Poland (the provinces of Lower Silesia and Lubusz). According to Constantine VII Porphyrogennetos, Lusatians have the same origin as Serbs from the Balkan Peninsula who inhabited the areas between the rivers Elbe and Saale, on the southern coast of the Baltic sea. Sorbs traditionally speak the Sorbian languages (also known as "Wendish" and "Lusatian"), closely related to the Polish, Kashubian, Czech and Slovak.[5] Sorbian is an officially recognized minority language in Germany. Sorbs are linguistically and genetically closest to the Czechs and Poles. Due to a gradual and increasing assimilation between the 17th and 20th centuries, virtually all Sorbs also spoke German by the late 19th century and much of the recent generations no longer speak the language. The community is divided religiously between Roman Catholicism (the majority) and Lutheranism. The former Prime Minister of Saxony, Stanislaw Tillich, is a Sorb.

Ethnology

The ethnonym "Sorbs" (Serbja, Serby) derives from the medieval ethnic groups called Sorbs (Surbi, Sorabi). The original ethnonym, Srbi, was retained by the Sorbs and Serbs in the Balkans.[6] By the 6th century, Slavs occupied the area west of the Oder formerly inhabited by Germanic peoples.[6] The Sorbs are first mentioned in the 7th century. It's fun fact that the other Slavs call them the ″Lusatian Serbs″, and the Sorbs call the Serbs ″the south Sorbs″.[7]

In the 19th century the autonym of the Slavic population of Lusatia (the Sorbs) was "Lusatians".[8] The name "Lusatia" was originally applied only to Lower Lusatia, which had been inhabited by Slavs known as Luzici, who may be regarded ancestors of the Lower Sorbs, while Upper Lusatia was inhabited by Slavs known as Milceni, the supposed ancestors of Upper Sorbs.[6]

According to a genetic study published in May 2011, Sorbs show the greatest genetic similarity to Poles, followed by Czechs, consistent with their West Slavic language.[9] They show subtle evidence of genetic isolation but less than Sardinians and French Basques.[9]

Population

Estimates of demographic history of the Sorb population since 1450:[3][10][11]

Year 1450 1700 1750 1790 1858 1861 1880 1900 1905 1945
Population 160,000 250,000 200,000 250,000 164,000 165,000 166,000 146,000 157,000 145,700

Sorbs are divided into two ethnographical groups:

The dialects spoken vary in intelligibility in different areas.

Medieval heritage

Early Middle Ages

Map of the Sorbian tribes.
The reconstructed Lusatian gord (fortification) of Raduš (Raddusch), near Vetschau in Lower Lusatia.

Sorbs arrived in the area extending between the Bober, Kwisa, and Oder rivers to the East and the Saale and Elbe rivers to the West during the 6th century. In the north, the area of their settlement reached Berlin. The earliest surviving mention of the tribe was in 631 A.D., when Fredegar's Chronicle described them as Surbi and as under the rule of a Dervan, an ally of Samo. According to some historians, the Sorbian principality was White Serbia and some also think that the migration of Serbs from White Serbia to the Balkans was definitely in this period.[14] The Annales Regni Francorum state that in 806 A.D. Sorbian Duke Miliduch fought against the Franks and was killed. In 840, Sorbian Duke Czimislav was killed. In 932, Henry I conquered Lusatia and Milsko. Gero II, Margrave of the Saxon Ostmark, reconquered Lusatia the following year and, in 939, murdered 30 Sorbian princes during a feast. As a result, there were many Sorbian uprisings against German rule. A reconstructed castle, at Raddusch in Lower Lusatia, is the sole physical remnant from this early period.

White Serbia and White Croatia

Lusatian tribes are noted in the work of the Bavarian Geographer. The document contains a list of the tribes in Central-Eastern Europe east of the Elbe and north of the Danube to the Volga rivers to the Black and Caspian Sea most of them of Slavic origin.[15][16] Having settled by the Elbe, Spree and Neisse in the 6th century, Sorbian tribes divided into two main groups, which have taken their names from the characteristics of the area where they had settled. Sorbs living on the swampy broads of the Lower Spree have taken their name from the word marsh. The Milceni (ancestors of Upper Sorbs) settled on fertile soil around Upper Spree, the name derives from the word měl’ (loess soil). The two groups were separated from each other by a wide and uninhabited forest range. The rest of the tribes settled themselves between the Elbe and Saale. Among the many Slavic tribes, the Bavarian Geographer also noted a few Lusatian tribes: Glomacze - Dolomici, Milceni, Chutizi and Sitice.

Dervan's principality.

The Israeli Slavic linguist Paul Wexler has argued that the Yiddish language structure provides "compelling evidence of an intimate Jewish contact with the Slavs in the German and Bohemian lands as early as the 9th century," and has theorized that Sorbs may have been contributors to the Ashkenazic Jewish population in Europe from the same period.[17][18]

High and Late Middle Ages

During the reign of Boleslaw I of Poland in 1002-1018, three Polish-German wars were waged which caused Lusatia to come under the domination of new rulers. In 1018, on the strength of peace in Bautzen, Lusatia became a part of Poland; but, it returned to German rule before 1031. However, this German rule is not to be understood in a national sense. At that time, Lusatia was part of Bohemia which itself was part of the Roman-German Empire but was ruled by a powerful indigenous slavic dynasty. There was a dense network of dynastic and diplomatic relations between German and slavic feudal lords, e.g. Wiprecht of Groitzsch (a German) rose to power through close links with the Bohemian king and his marriage into slavic nobility. The slavic-governed Bohemia remained a loyal and politically influential member of the Roman-German Empire but was in a constant power-struggle with neighbouring Poland. From the 11th to the 15th century, agriculture in Lusatia developed and colonization by Frankish, Flemish and Saxon settlers intensified. In 1327 the first prohibitions on using Sorbian before courts and in administrative affairs in the cities of Altenburg, Zwickau and Leipzig appeared. Speaking Sorbian in family and business contexts was, however, not banned, as it did not involve the functioning of the administration. Also the village communities and the village administration usually kept operating in Sorbian.

Modern history

"House of the Sorbs" (Serbski dom) in Bautzen

Early modern period

Between 1376 and 1635 Lusatia was part of the Lands of the Bohemian Crown, under the rule of the Luxembourgs, Habsburgs and other kings. From the beginning of the 16th century the whole Sorbian-inhabited area, with the exception of Lusatia, underwent Germanization. In 1635 Lusatia became a fiefdom of Saxon electors. The Thirty Years' War and the plague of the 17th century caused terrible devastation in Lusatia. This led to further German colonization and Germanization.

In 1667 the Prince of Brandenburg, Frederick Wilhelm, ordered the immediate destruction of all Sorbian printed materials and banned saying masses in this language. At the same time the Evangelical Church supported printing Sorbian religious literature as a means of fighting the Counterreformation. In 1706 the Sorbian Seminary, the main centre for the education of Sorbian Catholic priests, was founded in Prague. Evangelical students of theology formed the Sorbian College of Ministers.

Late modern period

The Congress of Vienna, in 1815, gave part of Upper Lusatia to Saxony, but most of Lusatia to Prussia. More and more bans on the use of Sorbian languages appeared from then until 1835 in Saxony and Prussia; emigration of the Sorbs, mainly to the town of Serbin in Texas and to Australia, increased. In 1848, 5000 Sorbs signed a petition to the Saxon Government, in which they demanded equality for the Sorbian language with the German one in churches, courts, schools and Government departments. From 1871 the whole of Lusatia became a part of united Germany and was divided between two parts; Prussia (Silesia and Brandenburg), and Saxony.

In 1871 the industrialization of the region and German immigration began; official Germanization intensified. Although the Weimar Republic guaranteed constitutional minority rights, it did not practice them.

The news about Serbs came in the period of the Serbian-Turkish Wars (1876-1878). An unknown Sorbian poet made even song about it, where he says: ″Over the mountains, across the valleys, in the distance, all my thoughts go to you, brothers of my people″. Second song from the same time bears the title ″Hurray to the Slavs!″[19]

Contemporary history

Throughout the Third Reich, Sorbians were described as a German tribe who spoke a Slavic language and their national poet Handrij Zejler was German. Sorbian costume, culture, customs, and the language was said to be no indication of a non-German origin. The Reich declared that there were truly no "Sorbs" or "Lusatians", only Wendish-Speaking Germans. As such, while the Sorbs were largely safe from the Reich's policies of ethnic cleansing, the cultivation of "Wendish" customs and traditions was to be encouraged in a controlled manner and it was expected that the Slavic language would decline due to natural causes. Young Sorbs enlisted in the Wehrmacht and were sent to the front. Entangled lives of the Sorbs during World War II are exemplified by life stories of Mina Witkojc, Měrčin Nowak-Njechorński and Jan Skala.

The first Lusatian cities were captured in April 1945, when the Red Army and the Polish Second Army crossed the river Queis (Kwisa). The defeat of Nazi Germany changed the Sorbs’ situation considerably. The regions in East Germany (the German Democratic Republic) faced heavy industrialisation and a large influx of expelled Germans. The East German authorities tried to counteract this development by creating a broad range of Sorbian institutions. The Sorbs were officially recognized as an ethnic minority, more than 100 Sorbian schools and several academic institutions were founded, the Domowina and its associated societies were re-established and a Sorbian theatre was created. Owing to the suppression of the church and forced collectivization, however, these efforts were severely affected and consequently over time the number of people speaking Sorbian languages decreased by half.

Sorbs caused the communist government of East Germany plenty of trouble, mainly because of the high levels of religious observance and resistance to the nationalisation of agriculture. During the compulsory collectivization campaign, a great many unprecedented incidents were reported. Thus, throughout the Uprising of 1953 in East Germany, violent clashes with the police were reported in Lusatia. An open uprising took place in three upper communes of Błot.

After the reunification of Germany on 3 October 1990, Lusatians made efforts to create an autonomous administrative unit; however, Helmut Kohl’s government did not agree to it. After 1989, the Sorbian movement revived, however, it still encounters many obstacles. Although Germany supports national minorities, Sorbs claim that their aspirations are not sufficiently fulfilled. The desire to unite Lusatia in one of the federal states has not been taken into consideration. Upper Lusatia still belongs to Saxony and Lower Lusatia to Brandenburg. Liquidations of Sorbian schools, even in areas mostly populated by Sorbs, still happen, under the pretext of financial difficulties or demolition of whole villages to create lignite quarries.

Faced with growing threat of cultural extinction, the Domowina issued a memorandum in March 2008[20] and called for "help and protection against the growing threat of their cultural extinction, since an ongoing conflict between the German government, Saxony and Brandenburg about the financial distribution of help blocks the financing of almost all Sorbian institutions". The memorandum also demands a reorganisation of competence by ceding responsibility from the Länder to the federal government and an expanded legal status. The call has been issued to all governments and heads of state of the European Union.[21]

On 28 May 2008, the Sorbian politician Stanislaw Tillich, member of the governing Christian Democrats, was elected as Minister President of the State of Saxony.

Language and culture

Bautzen, German-Sorbian folk theatre

The oldest known relic of Sorbian literature originated in about 1530 – the Bautzen townsmen’s oath. In 1548 Mikołaj Jakubica – Lower Sorbian vicar, from the village called Lubanice, wrote the first unprinted translation of the New Testament into Lower Sorbian.

In 1574 the first Sorbian book was printed: Albin Mollers’ songbook. In 1688 Jurij Hawštyn Swětlik translated the Bible for Catholic Sorbs. From 1706 to 1709 the New Testament was printed in the Upper Sorbian translation was done by Michał Frencel and in Lower Sorbian by Jan Bogumił Fabricius (1681–1741). Jan Bjedrich Fryco (a.k.a. Johann Friedrich Fritze) (1747–1819), translated the Old Testament for the first time into Lower Sorbian, published in 1790.

Other Sorbian Bible translators include Jakub Buk (1825–1895), Michał Hórnik (Michael Hornig) (1833–1894), Jurij Łušćanski (a.k.a. Georg Wuschanski) (1839–1905).

In 1809 for the short period of time, there was the first printed Sorbian newspaper. In 1767 Jurij Mjeń publishes the first secular Sorbian book. Between 1841 and 1843, Jan Arnošt Smoler and Leopold Haupt (a.k.a. J. L. Haupt and J. E. Schmaler) published two-volume collection of Wendish folk-songs in Upper and Lower Lusatia.

From 1842, the first Sorbian publishing companies started to appear: the poet Handrij Zejler set up a weekly magazine, the precursor of today’s Sorbian News. In 1845 in Bautzen the first festival of Sorbian songs took place.

1982 stamps from the East German period

In 1875, Jakub Bart-Ćišinski, the poet and classicist of Upper Sorbian literature, and Karol Arnošt Muka created a movement of young Sorbians influencing Lusatian art, science and literature for the following 50 years.

Similar movement in Lower Lusatia was organized around the most prominent Lower Lusatian poets Mato Kósyk (Mato Kosyk) and Bogumił Šwjela.

In 1904, mainly thanks to the Sorbs’ contribution, the most important Sorbian cultural centre (the Sorbian House) was built in Bautzen. In 1912, the social and cultural organization of Lusatian Sorbs was created, the Domowina Institution - the union of Sorbian organizations. In 1919 it had 180,000 members. In 1920, Jan Skala set up a Sorbian party and in 1925 in Berlin, Skala started Kulturwille- the newspaper for the protection of national minorities in Germany. In 1920, the Sokol Movement was founded (youth movement and gymnastic organization). From 1933 the Nazi party started to repress the Sorbs. At that time the Nazis also dissolved the Sokol Movement and began to combat every sign of Sorbian culture. In 1937, the activities of the Domowina Institution and other organizations were banned as anti-national. Sorbian clergymen and teachers were forcedly deported from Lusatia; Nazi German authorities confiscated the Sorbian House, other buildings and crops.

On May 10, 1945, in Crostwitz, after the Red Army’s invasion, the Domowina Institution renewed its activity. In 1948, the Landtag of Saxony passed an Act guaranteeing protection to Sorbian Lusatians; in 1949, Brandenburg resolved a similar law. In the times of the German Democratic Republic, Sorbian organizations were financially supported by the country, but at the same time the authorities encouraged Germanization of Sorbian youth as a means of incorporating them into the system of "building Socialism". Sorbian language and culture could only be publicly presented as long as they promoted socialist ideology.

For over 1000 years, the Sorbs were able to maintain and even develop their national culture, despite escalating Germanization and Polonization, mainly due to the high level of religious observance, cultivation of their tradition and strong families (Sorbian families still often have five children).

In the middle of the 20th century, the revival of the Central European nations included some Sorbs, who became strong enough to attempt twice to regain their independence. After World War II, the Lusatian National Committee in Prague claimed the right to self-government and separation from Germany and the creation of a Lusatian Free State or attachment to Czechoslovakia. The majority of the Sorbs were organized in the Domowina, though, and did not wish to split from Germany. Claims asserted by the Lusatian National movement were postulates of joining Lusatia to Poland or Czechoslovakia. Between 1945–1947 they postulated about ten petitions[22] to the United Nations, the United States, Soviet Union, the United Kingdom, France, Poland and Czechoslovakia, however, it did not bring any results. On April 30, 1946, the Lusatian National Committee also postulated a petition to the Polish Government, signed by Pawoł Cyž – the minister and an official Sorbian delegate in Poland. There was also a project of proclaiming a Lusatian Free State, whose Prime Minister was supposed to be a Polish archaeologist of Lusatian origin- Wojciech Kóčka. The most radical postulates in this area (" Na swobodu so ńečeka, swobodu so beŕe!")[23] were expressed by the Lusatian youth organization- Narodny Partyzan Łužica.

Bilingual names of streets in Cottbus

Similarly, in Czechoslovakia, where before the Potsdam Conference in Prague, 300,000 people demonstrated for the independence of Lusatia. The endeavours to separate Lusatia from Germany did not succeed because of various individual and geopolitical interests.

The following statistics indicates the progression of cultural change among Sorbs: by the end of the 19th century, about 150,000 people spoke Sorbian languages. By 1920, almost all Sorbs had mastered Sorbian and German to the same degree. Nowadays, the number of people using Sorbian languages has been estimated to be no more than 40,000.

Traditions

Zapust is the most popular tradition of the Sorbs, deeply linked to the working life of the community. Traditionally, festivities would last one week ahead of the spring sowing of the fields and would feature traditional dress, parade and dancing.[24]

Egg decorating (pisanici) is a Slavic Easter tradition maintained by Sorbs since the 17th century.[25]

Regions of Lusatia

There are three main regions of Lusatia that differ in language, religion and customs.

Region of Catholic Lusatia

The Flag of Upper Lusatia

Catholic Lusatia encompasses 85 towns in the districts of Bautzen, Kamenz, and Hoyerswerda, where Upper Sorbian language, customs, and tradition are still thriving. In some of these places (e.g., Radibor or Radwor in Sorbian, Crostwitz or Chrósćicy, and Rosenthal or Róžant), Sorbs constitute the majority of the population, and children grow up speaking Sorbian.

On Sundays, during holidays, and at weddings, people wear regional costumes, rich in decoration and embroidery, encrusted with pearls.

Some of the customs and traditions observed include Bird Wedding (25 January), Easter Cavalcade of Riders, Witch Burning (30 April), Maik, singing on St. Martin's Day (Nicolay), and the celebrations of Saint Barbara’s Day and Saint Nicholas’s Day.

Region of Hoyerswerda (Wojerecy) and Schleife (Slepo)

In the area from Hoyerswerda to Schleife, a dialect of Sorbian which combines characteristic features of both Upper and Lower Sorbian is spoken. The region is predominantly Protestant, highly devastated by the brown coal mining industry, sparsely populated, and to a great extent germanicized. Most speakers of Sorbian are over 60 years old.

The region distinguishes itself through many examples of Slavic wooden architecture monuments including churches and regular houses, a diversity of regional costumes (mainly worn by elderly women) that feature white-knitting with black, cross-like embroidery, and a tradition of playing bagpipes. In several villages, residents uphold traditional festivities such as expelling of winter, Maik, Easter and Great Friday singing, and the celebration of dźěćetko (disguised child or young girl giving Christmas presents).

Region of Lower Lusatia

The Flag of Lower Lusatia

There are 60 towns from the area of Cottbus belonging to this region, where most of the older people over 60 but few young people and children can speak the Lower Sorbian language; the local variant often incorporates many words taken from the German language, and in conversations with the younger generation, German is generally preferred. Some primary schools in the region teach bilingually, and in Cottbus there is an important Gymnasium whose main medium of instruction is Lower Sorbian. The region is predominantly Protestant, again highly devastated by the brown coal mining industry. The biggest tourist attraction of the region and in the whole Lusatia are the marshlands, with many Spreewald/Błóta canals, picturesque broads of the Spree.

Worn mainly by older but on holidays by young women, regional costumes are colourful, including a large headscarf called "lapa", rich in golden embroidering and differing from village to village.

In some villages, following traditions are observed: Shrovetide, Maik, Easter bonfires, Roosters catching/hunting. In Jänschwalde (Sorbian: Janšojcach) so-called Janšojki bog (disguised young girl) gives Christmas presents.

Genetics

According to a 2015 study, the most common Y-DNA haplogroup among the Sorbs in Lusatia (n=123) is R1a, which is carried by 65% of the Sorb males. It is followed in frequency by I1 (9.8%), R1b (9.8%), E1b1b (4.9%), I2 (4.1%), J (3.3%) and G (2.4%). Other haplogroups are less than 1%.[26] A study from 2003, reported a similar frequency of 63.4% of haplogroup R1a among Sorbian males (n=112).[27] Other studies that covered aspects of Sorbian Y-DNA include Rodig et al. 2007,[28] Immel et al. 2006[29] and Krawczak et al. 2008.[30] A 2011 paper on the Sorbs' autosomal DNA reported that the Sorbs showed greatest autosomal genetic similarity to Poles and Czechs, consistent with the linguistic proximity of Sorbian to other West Slavic languages.[31] In Harvard's Human Origins dataset, Sorbs cluster autosomally with Poles.[32]

Lusatian anthem

in Lower Sorbian

New Lower Sorbian - Brandenburg Flag
Rědna Łužyca
Rědna Łužyca,
spšawna, pśijazna,
mojich serbskich woścow kraj,
mojich glucnych myslow raj,
swěte su mě twoje strony.
Cas ty pśichodny,
zakwiś radostny!
Och, gab muže stanuli,
za swoj narod źěłali,
godne nimjer wobspomnjeśa!

in Upper Sorbian

New Upper Sorbian - Saxon Flag since 2006
Rjana Łužica
Rjana Łužica,
sprawna přećelna,
mojich serbskich wótcow kraj,
mojich zbóžnych sonow raj,
swjate su mi twoje hona!
Časo přichodny,
zakćěj radostny!
Ow, zo bychu z twojeho
klina wušli mužojo,
hódni wěčnoh wopomnjeća!

The Sorbs and Poland

Lusatia was part of the Polish state between 1002 and 1031 under the rule of Bolesław I.

Bolesław I had taken control of the marches of Lusatia (Łużyce), Sorbian Meissen (Miśnia), and the cities of Budziszyn (Bautzen) and Meissen in 1002, and refused to pay the tribute to the Empire from the conquered territories. Bolesław, after the Polish-German War (1002–1018), signed the Peace of Bautzen on 30 January 1018, which made Bolesław I a clear winner. The Polish ruler was able to keep the contested marches of Lusatia and Sorbian Meissennot as fiefs, but as part of Polish territory.[33][34] The Polish prince Mieszko destroyed a 100 Sorbian villages in 1030 and expelled them from urban areas, exception made of fisherman and carpenters, who were allowed to live in the outskirts.[35]

One of the pioneers of the cooperation between the two nations was Polish historian Wilhelm Bogusławski, who lived in the 19th century and wrote the first book on Polish-Sorbian history Rys dziejów serbołużyckich (Polish title), it was published in Saint Petersburg in 1861. The book was expanded and published again in cooperation with Michał Hórnik in 1884 in Bautzen, under a new title Historije serbskeho naroda. Alfons Parczewski was another friend of Sorbs, who from 1875 was involved in Sorbs' rights protection, participating in Sorbian meetings in Bautzen. It was thanks to him, among others, that Józef Ignacy Kraszewski founded a scholarship for Sorbian students. An association of friends of Sorbian Nation was established at the University of Warsaw in 1936 (Polish full name: Towarzystwo Przyjaciół Narodu Serbo-Łużyckiego). It gathered people not only from the university. Its president was Professor Stanisław Słoński, and the deputy president was Julia Wieleżyńska. The association was a legal entity. There were three individual organizations devoted to Sorbian matters. Prołuż founded in Krotoszyn, expanded to all Poland (3000 members). It was the biggest non-communist organization that dealt with foreign affairs. This youth organization was created during the Soviet occupation and its motto was "Polish guard over Lusatia" (pl. Nad Łużycami polska straż). Its highest activity was in Greater Poland (Polish: Wielkopolska, a district of western Poland). After the creation of East Germany, Prołuż was dissolved, and its president historian from Poznań Alojzy Stanisław Matyniak was arrested.[36]

Diaspora

During the 1840s, many Sorbian émigrés travelled to Australia, along with many ethnic Germans. The first was Jan Rychtar, a Wendish Moravian Brethren missionary who settled in Sydney during 1844.[37] There were two major migrations of Upper Sorbs and Lower Sorbs to Australia, in 1848 and 1850 respectively. The diaspora settled mainly in South Australia – especially the Barossa Valley – as well as Victoria and New South Wales.

Many Wends also migrated from Lusatia to the United States, especially Texas.[38]

See also

References

  1. ↑ Catherine Hickley. Germany's Sorb Minority Fights to Save Villages From Vattenfall. Bloomberg. December 18, 2007.
  2. ↑ "Sorbs of East Germany". faqs.org. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  3. 1 2 3 4 Gebel, K. (2002). Language and ethnic national identity in Europe: the importance of Gaelic and Sorbian to the maintenance of associated cultures and ethno cultural identities (PDF). London: Middlesex University.
  4. ↑ "Společnost přátel Lužice". luzice.cz. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  5. ↑ Helmut Faska. About Sorbian Language. Archived October 6, 2014, at the Wayback Machine.
  6. 1 2 3 Stone 2015, p. 9.
  7. ↑ Deutsche Welle. "Lužički Srbi - njemački Slaveni protestantske vjere" (in Croatian). Retrieved 6 December 2014.
  8. ↑ Smedley, Edward (1845). Encyclopædia metropolitana; or, Universal dictionary of knowledge, ed. by E. Smedley, Hugh J. Rose and Henry J. Rose. [With] Plates. p. 777.
  9. 1 2 Veeramah 2011.
  10. ↑ Víšek, Zdeněk. "Lužičtí Srbové a česko-lužickosrbské vztahy". Listy (in Czech). Retrieved 29 September 2014.
  11. ↑ Henning Hahn, Hans; Kunze, Peter (1999). Nationale Minderheiten und staatliche Minderheitenpolitik in Deutschland im 19. Jahrhundert. Berlin: Akademie Verlag GmbH. ISBN 3-05-003343-6.
  12. ↑ Jana Šołćina, Edward Wornar: Obersorbisch im Selbststudium, Hornjoserbšćina za samostudij. Bautzen: Domowina-Verlag, 2000. Page 10.
  13. ↑ "Sorben". sachsen.de. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  14. ↑ Živković, Tibor (2002). Јужни Словени под византијском влашћу (600-1025). Belgrade: Serbian Academy of Sciences and Arts. p. 198.
  15. ↑ V. von Keltsch, Der bairische Geograph, Alpreussische Monatsschr., 23 (1886),
  16. ↑ Gerhard Billig, Zur Rekonstruktion der ältesten slawischen Burgbezirke im obersächsisch-meißnischen Raum auf der Grundlage des Bayerischen Geographen, Neues Archiv für sächsische Geschichte 66 (1995), s. 27-67
  17. ↑ Paul Wexler, The Ashkenazic Jews, Slavica Publishers, 1993
  18. ↑ Paul Wexler (1992), "From Serb Lands to Sorb Lands," in The Balkan Substratum of Yiddish: A Reassessment of the Unique Romance and Greek Components, Harrassowitz Verlag, 1992, p. 111
  19. ↑ Đorđević, Nada (2003). Лужички Срби, њихова историја и култура. Niš.
  20. ↑ "DOMOWINA - Medijowe wozjewjenje - Pressemitteilung- Press release". sorben.com. Archived from the original on 2016-03-03. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  21. ↑ "Kulturhoheit: Sorben bitten Europa um Hilfe - International - Politik - Tagesspiegel". tagesspiegel.de. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  22. ↑ Administrator. "Działalność Wojciecha (Wojcecha) Kócki w serbołużyckim ruchu narodowym w latach 1945 - 1950". prolusatia.pl. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  23. ↑ Administrator. "Akcja "Narodny Partyzan Łužica" (1946 - 1947) i jej reperkusje w serbołużyckim ruchu narodowym". prolusatia.pl. Retrieved 18 March 2015.
  24. ↑ Germany's Sorbs celebrate Zapust festival. The local Germany's News in English. March 12, 2010.
  25. ↑ German Slavic minority cultivates a colorful Easter tradition Archived 2011-10-01 at the Wayback Machine.. Ethiopian Review. March 31, 2010.
  26. ↑ Kushniarevich, Utevska et al. (2015). "Genetic Heritage of the Balto-Slavic Speaking Populations: A Synthesis of Autosomal, Mitochondrial and Y-Chromosomal Data". PLOS ONE. 10: Table K in S1 File. Frequencies of the NRY haplogroups in Balto-Slavic populations. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0135820. PMC 4558026. PMID 26332464.
  27. ↑ Behar DM, Thomas MG, Skorecki K, et al. (October 2003). "Multiple origins of Ashkenazi Levites: Y chromosome evidence for both Near Eastern and European ancestries". American Journal of Human Genetics. 73 (4): 768–779. doi:10.1086/378506. PMC 1180600. PMID 13680527.
  28. ↑ Rodig, Heike; et al. (January 2007). "Population study and evaluation of 20 Y-chromosome STR loci in Germans". Int J Legal Med. (2007) 121: 24. https://doi.org/10.1007/s00414-005-0075-5 – via Springer Link.
  29. ↑ Immel, UD; et al. (January 2006). "Y-chromosomal STR haplotype analysis reveals surname-associated strata in the East-German population". European Journal of Human Genetics. 14, pages 577–582 (2006) – via Nature.
  30. ↑ Krawczak, M.; et al. (April 2008). "Genetic Diversity in the German Population". eLS – via Wiley Online Library.
  31. ↑ Veeramah, Krishna R. (May 2011). "Genetic variation in the Sorbs of eastern Germany in the context of broader European genetic diversity". European Journal of Human Genetics. v.19(9): 935–1018 2011 Sep: 995–1001. PMC 3179365.
  32. ↑ "Poles in the new Human Origins dataset". Polishgenes Blog. June 2016. Retrieved 7 February 2018.
  33. ↑ Jasienica, Pawel (2007) (in Polish). Polska Piastow. Proszynski Media. ISBN 978-83-7648-284-2
  34. ↑ Bernhardt, John W (1993). Itinerant Kingship and Royal Monasteries in Early Medieval Germany, c. 936–1075. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0-521-52183-1
  35. ↑ "Лужички Срби, њихова историја и култура". // rastko.rs. Retrieved 2016-10-24.
  36. ↑ "Prołuż Akademicki Związek Przyjaciół Łużyc" Jakub Brodacki. Polska Grupa Marketingowa 2006 ISBN 83-60151-00-8
  37. ↑ Nielsen. Georg, R. In Search of a Home,(1977); Birmingham Slavonic Monographs. ISBN 0 70440236 X.
  38. ↑ "Texas Wendish Heritage". Texas Wendish Heritage. Archived from the original on 23 February 2015. Retrieved 18 March 2015.

Sources

  • Stone, Gerald (2015). The Smallest Slavonic Nation: The Sorbs of Lusatia. Bloomsbury Publishing. ISBN 978-1-4742-4154-0.
  • Veeramah et al. (2011). "Genetic variation in the Sorbs of eastern Germany in the context of broader European genetic diversity". European Journal of Human Genetics. 19: 995–1001. doi:10.1038/ejhg.2011.65. PMC 3179365. PMID 21559053.
  • Žura, Slavica Vrkić (2011). "Lužički Srbi – Najmanji slavenski narod". Ethnologica Dalmatica. 18 (1): 93–130. (in Croatian)

Bibliography

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  • Die Sorben in Deutschland, pod red. M.Schiemann, Stiftung für das sorbische Volk, Görlitz 1997.
  • Mały informator o Serbołużyczanach w Niemczech, pod red. J.Pětrowej, Załožba za serbski lud, 1997.
  • Dolnoserbske nałogi/Obyczaje Dolnych Łużyc, pod red. M.Stock, Załožba za serbski lud, 1997.
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  • "Sorbs," David Zersen, in Germans and the Americas: Culture, Politics and History, 3 vols., edited by Thomas Adam. ABC-CLIO, 2005.

Media related to Sorbs at Wikimedia Commons

  • Wikisource "Sorbs". Encyclopædia Britannica. 25 (11th ed.). 1911.
  • The Domowina Institution
  • SERBSKE NOWINY - Sorbian Newspaper
  • SERBSKI INSTITUT - Sorbian history and culture
  • - independent Sorbian internet magazine
  • Wikipedia in Upper Sorbian (hsb)
  • Sorbian emigration into Australia
  • Project Rastko - Lusatia, Electronic Library of Sorbian-Serbian Ties
  • Texas Wendish Heritage Society
  • Wendish Heritage Society of Australia
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