Kingdom of Singapura

Kingdom of Singapura Kerajaan Singapura
1299–1398
Kingdom of Singapore, with ruins of an old wall still visible in 1825 and marked on this map.
Capital	Singapura[1]
Common languages	Old Malay
Religion	Syncretic form of Hinduism, Buddhism
Government	Monarchy
King
• 1299–1347	Sang Nila Utama (Sri Tri Buana)
• 1347–1362	Sri Wikrama Wira
• 1362–1375	Sri Rana Wikrama
• 1375–1389	Sri Maharaja
• 1389–1398	Parameswara (Sri Iskandar Shah)
History
• Founding of Temasek by Sang Nila Utama	1299
• Siege by Siam	c. 1330
• Siege by Majapahit under Hayam Wuruk	1350
• Majapahit Invasion and escape of Parameswara (Sri Iskandar Shah) to the Malay Peninsula	1398
Currency	Native gold and silver coins
Preceded by Succeeded by Srivijaya Melaka Sultanate
Today part of	Singapore

Part of a series on the
History of Singapore
Early history (pre-1819) Srivijaya 650–1377 Temasek c. 14th century Kingdom of Singapura 1299–1398 Malacca Sultanate 1400–1511 Johor Sultanate 1528-1819
British colonial era (1819–1942) Founding 1819–26 Straits Settlements 1826–67 Crown colony 1867–1942
Japanese Occupation (1942–45) Battle of Singapore 1942 Sook Ching 1942
Post-war period (1945–62) First Legislative Council 1948–51 Maria Hertogh riots 1950 Second Legislative Council 1951–55 Anti-National Service Riots 1954
Internal self-government (1955–63) Hock Lee bus riots 1955
Merger with Malaysia (1963–65) Singaporean referendum 1962 Operation Coldstore 1963 Race riots in Singapore 1964 MacDonald House bombing 1965
Republic of Singapore (1965–present) ASEAN Declaration (ASEAN) 1967 1969 race riots of Singapore 1969 Singaporean haze crisis 1972–present Laju incident 1974 Operation Spectrum 1987 East Asian financial crisis 1997 Embassies attack plot 2001 SARS outbreak 2003 Little India riot 2013
By topic Timeline Riots
Singapore portal

Part of a series on the
History of Malaysia
Prehistoric Malaysia Prehistoric Malaysia 100–6th century
Early kingdoms Gangga Negara 2nd–11th century Langkasuka 2nd–14th century Chi Tu 2nd–6th century Pan Pan 3rd–5th century Kedah Tua 5th–9th century Pahang Tua 5th–15th century Melayu 6th century Kota Gelanggi 7th–9th century Srivijaya 650–1377 Majapahit 1293–1500
Rise of Muslim states Kedah Sultanate 1136–present Brunei Sultanate 1368–present Malacca Sultanate 1402–1511 Sulu Sultanate 1450–1899 Pahang Sultanate 1470–1623 Aceh Sultanate 1496–1903 Pattani Sultanate 1516– 1902 Johor Sultanate 1528–present Sarawak Sultanate 1599–1641 Besut Kingdom 1780–1899 Setul Kingdom 1808–1916 Reman Kingdom 1810–1902 Kubang Pasu Kingdom 1839–1864 House of Jamalullail 1843–present
Colonial era Portuguese Malacca 1511–1641 Dutch–Portuguese War 1601–1661 Dutch Malacca 1641–1824 Siamese invasion of Kedah 1821–1826 Anglo-Dutch Treaty 1824 Burney Treaty 1826 Straits Settlements 1826–1946 Kingdom of Sarawak 1841–1946 Crown Colony of Labuan 1848–1946 Klang War 1867–1874 Pangkor Treaty 1874 British Malaya / Borneo 1874–1946 North Borneo 1882–1946 Federated Malay States 1895–1946 Anglo-Siamese Treaty 1909 Unfederated Malay States 1909–1946 Battle of Penang 1914
World War II Japanese occupation of Malaya / of Borneo 1941–1945 Malayan Campaign 1941–1942 Battle of Muar 1942 Parit Sulong Massacre 1942 Battle of Singapore 1942 Syburi 1942 Si Rat Malai 1943–1945 Sandakan Death Marches 1942
Formation of Malaysia British Military Administration of Malaya / of Borneo 1945–1946 Crown Colony of N. Borneo 1946–1963 Crown Colony of Sarawak 1946–1963 Malayan Union 1946–1948 Federation of Malaya 1948–1963 Independence of Malaya 1957 Self-government of Singapore 1959 Self-government of North Borneo 1963 Self-government of Sarawak 1963 Formation of Malaysia 1963 Singapore in Malaysia 1963–1965 Federal Territory of KL 1974 Federal Territory of Labuan 1984 Federal Territory of Putrajaya 2001
Incidents Anti-cession movement 1946–1963 Malayan Emergency 1948–1960 Batang Kali massacre 1948 Bukit Kepong incident 1950 Baling Talks 1956 Brunei revolt 1962–1966 Sarawak Communist Insurgency 1962–1990 North Borneo dispute (Philippine militant attacks) 1962–present Confrontation with Indonesia 1963–1966 Singapore race riots 1964 ASEAN Declaration (ASEAN) 1967 Brunei's claim over Limbang 1967–2009 Second communist insurgency 1968–1989 13 May Incident 1969 Ligitan and Sipadan dispute 1969–2002 New Economic Policy 1971–1990 Malaysian haze crisis 1972–2016 Pedra Branca dispute 1979–present South China Sea islands dispute (Spratly Islands) 1980–present 1985 Lahad Datu ambush 1985 Memali Incident 1985 Operation Lalang 1987 Constitutional crisis 1987–1988 1993 amendments to the Constitution of Malaysia 1993 Financial crisis 1997–1998 Al-Ma'unah Incident 2000 Murder of Altantuyaa 2006 Bersih rally 2007–2016 HINDRAF rally 2007 Anti ISA rally 2009 Lahad Datu standoff 2013 Black-Out rally 2013 MAS MH370 Incident 2014 MAS MH17 Incident 2014 AirasiaQZ8501 Incident 2014 Malay Dignity Rally 2015 Southeast Asian Haze 2015 Movida Bar grenade attack 2016 Assassination of Kim Jong-nam 2017 Darul Quran Ittifaqiyah madrasa fire 2017 2018 General Election - Change of government 2018
By topic Communications Economic Military
Malaysia portal

The Kingdom of Singapura (Malay: Kerajaan Singapura) was a Malay kingdom thought to exist on the island of Singapore from 1299 until its fall in 1398. Conventional historical view marks circa 1299 as the founding year of the kingdom by Sang Nila Utama (also known as "Sri Tri Buana"), whose father is Sang Sapurba, who according to legend is the common great ancestor of most of the Malay monarchies in the Malay World. The historicity of this kingdom, based on the account given in the Malay Annals, is the subject of academic debates, and many historians consider only its last ruler Parameswara (or Sri Iskandar Shah) a true historical figure.^[2] Archaeological evidence from Fort Canning and the nearby banks of the Singapore River has nevertheless demonstrated the existence of a thriving settlement and a trade port in the 14th century.^[3]

The settlement developed in the 13th or 14th century and rose from a small Srivijayan trading outpost into a centre of international trade with ties to the Yuan Dynasty. It was however claimed by two regional powers at that time, Ayuthaya from the north and Majapahit from the south. As a result, the kingdom's fortified capital was attacked by at least two major foreign invasions before it was finally sacked by the Majapahit in 1398 according to the Malay Annals, or the Siamese according to Portuguese sources.^[4][5][6] The last king, Parameswara or Iskandar Shah, fled to the west coast of the Malay Peninsula to establish the Malacca Sultanate in 1400.

Etymology

The name Singapura is derived from Sanskrit meaning "Lion City".^[7] Singa comes from the Sanskrit word siṃha, which means "lion", and pūra means "city" in Sanskrit.^[8] According to the Malay Annals, Sri Tri Buana and his men were exploring Tanjong Bemban while in Bintan when he spotted an island with white sandy beach from a high point. On learning that the island was called Temasek, they set sail for the island, but encountered a severe storm on the way. After they managed to land safely on the island, they went to hunt for wild animals. He suddenly saw a strange animal with an red body, black head and a white neck breast. It was a fine-looking animal and moved with great speed as it disappeared into the jungle. He asked his chief minister, Demang Lebar Daun, what animal it was, and was told that it probably was a lion. He then decided to stay in Temasek, named the city he founded Singapura or "Lion City".^[9][10]

Some scholars thought that the person Sri Tri Buana and the story of its founding to be fictional, and a number of alternative suggestions for the origin of the name of Singapore have been given. For example, it has been proposed that the name Singapura was adopted by Parameswara as an indication that he was re-establishing in Temasek the lion throne that he had originally set up in Palembang as a challenge to the Javanese Majapahit Empire.^[11] In this version of events, Parameswara had assassinated the local ruler of Temasek and usurped the throne, and changed the name of Temasek to strengthen the legitimacy of his claim over the island.^[7] Others linked the name to the Javanese kingdom Singhasari as well as a Majapahit Buddhist sect whose adherents were referred to as lions. Although it is believed that the name Singapura replaced Temasek some time in the 14th century, the origin of the name cannot be determined with certainty.^[11]

Historiography

There is basically only one record which give some detail on the kingdoms of Singapura - the Malay Annals written during the heyday of Melaka and re-compiled in 1612 by the Johor court. It is the basis for accounts of its founding, the succession of rulers and its decline. As no specific date is given in the Malay Annals, the chronology of the history of the kingdom of Singapura as set out in the Malay Annals was worked out by calculating from the date of death of Parameswara given in the Ming Annals.^[1] While various aspects of the accounts of the Melaka and Johor sultanates given in the Malay Annals are relatively accurate, the same could not be said for the kingdom of Singapura for which there is little corroborating evidence for large part of its accounts. Historians are therefore generally in doubt over the historicity of the kingdom as described in the semi-historical Malay Annals,^[2][12] nevertheless some consider Singapura to be a significant polity that existed between the decline of Srivijaya and the rise of Melaka.^[13][14] Some also argued that the author of the Malay Annals, whose purpose is to legitimise the claim of descent from the Srivijayan ruling house, invented the five kings of Singapura to gloss over an inglorious period of its history.^[11] However, Iskandar Shah/Parameswara, the last ruler of Singapura and founder of the Melaka Sultanate, is a figure that could be considered factual.^[11]

Accounts of Singapura in its final years are also briefly given in Portuguese sources, such as those by Tomé Pires, Brás de Albuquerque (who published letters by his father Afonso de Albuquerque), Godinho de Erédia, and João de Barros.^[15] For example, the Suma Oriental, written shortly after the Portuguese conquest of Melaka, briefly mentions Singapura in relation to the foundation of Melaka. Both Suma Oriental and Malay Annals do contain similar stories about a fleeing Srivijayan prince arrived in Singapura and about the last king of Singapura who fled to the west coast of Malay peninsula to found Melaka. However, both accounts differ markedly as Suma Oriental identified the fleeing prince and the last king of Singapura as the same person known as "Parameswara". In contrast, the more detailed Malay Annals identified the fleeing prince and the last king as completely two different persons separated by five generations. Suma Oriental noted further that the fleeing Srivijayan prince assassinated the local ruler "Temagi" or "Sang Aji" and usurped the throne of Singapura sometimes around the 1390s, and Parameswara then ruled Singapura for five years with the help of the Çelates or Orang Laut.^[16] Portuguese sources also named Iskandar Shah as Parameswara's son, Chinese Ming dynasty sources similar named Iskandar Shah as the second ruler of Melaka. Many modern scholars believe Parameswara to be the same person as Iskandar Shah, and some scholars argued that they were mistaken as two different persons due to a change of name from Parameswara to Iskandar Shah after he had converted to Islam.^[17][18] There are however also different opinions, and many now accept Megat Iskandar Shah as the son of Parameswara.^[19]

The only first-hand account of 14th century Singapore may be the descriptions of a place named Danmaxi, generally considered to be Temasek of pre-colonial Singapore, written by Wang Dayuan in Dao Yi Zhi Lue. It indicates that Temasek was ruled by a local chief during Wang's visit around 1330,^[20] however the word used by Wang indicates that the ruler may not have been independent, rather he was a vassal of another more powerful state.^[21] Wang also mentioned that the Siamese attacked the fortified city of Temasek with around 70 ships a few years before he visited, but Temasek successfully resisted the attack which lasted a month.^[16]

Although the existence of the kingdom as described in the Malay Annals is debatable, archaeological excavations on Fort Canning and its vicinity along the banks of the Singapore River since 1984 by John Miksic have confirmed the presence of a thriving settlement and a trade port here during the 14th century.^[23] Remnants of a wall of significant size (described by John Crawfurd as around five metres wide and three metres high) and unique to the region were found inland along present day Stamford Road. Excavations also found evidence of structures built on what is now Fort Canning Hill, along with evidence of fruit orchards and terraces. Local lores when the British arrived in the early 1800s associated it with the royalty of ancient Singapura where its last ruler was buried, and the hill was known to them as the forbidden hill (Bukit Larangan), as it was the site of spirits. Items of gold jewelry, including rings, earrings, an arm band and what was likely a head ornament have also been found in 1928 when workers excavated on the hill for a reservoir.^[24] These items may have been the possessions of a royal person who buried them.^[25] Numerous fragments of ceramics, porcelain, and other objects have been found at three different locations around the Singapore River and Fort Canning Hill, with those from Fort Canning Hill of a higher quality than the others, offering further evidence that it was the residence of the elites. The evidence may support the notion that Singapore was a political center in the 1300s.^[3]

History

Artist's impression of the Kingdom of Singapura

The series of raids launched by the Chola Empire in the 11th century had weakened the once great empire of Srivijaya. By the end of the 13th century, the already fragmented Srivijaya caught the attention of the expansionist Javanese King, Kertanegara of Singhasari. In 1275, he decreed the Pamalayu expedition to overrun Sumatra. By 1288, Singhasari naval expeditionary forces successfully sacked Jambi and Palembang and brought Srivijaya to its knees. The complete destruction of Srivijaya caused the diaspora of the Srivijayan princes and nobles. Rebellions against the Javanese rule ensued and attempts were made by the fleeing Malay princes to revive the empire, which left the area of southern Sumatra in chaos and desolation.

In Srivijayan era, Temasek was a small trading outpost and primarily inhabited by Orang lauts. Historically, the Orang Laut were very loyal to the Malay kings. They patrolled the adjacent sea areas, repelling other petty pirates, directing traders to their Malay overlords' ports and maintaining those ports' dominance in the area.^[26]

The history of the rulers of Singapura as set out below has been reconstructed based primarily on the Malay Annals, although corroborating evidence is scarce.

Seri Maharaja

Depiction of Malay warriors of ancient Singapura on a relief in Fort Canning Park, Singapore.

In 1375, Rana Wikrama was succeeded by his son Seri Maharaja. According to Malay Annals, the reign of Seri Maharaja was marked with the event of Todak (garfish) ravaging the coast of Singapura. A young boy, Hang Nadim, thought of an ingenious solution to fend off the todak by planting banana plants along the shoreline. The king was initially grateful, but felt increasingly threatened by the boy's intelligence, and ordered to have the boy executed.

Iskandar Shah

An artist's impression of Parameswara, the last king of Singapura.

In 1387, Paduka Seri Maharaja was succeeded by Iskandar Shah. Based on his peculiar Persian name and title, it is believed that Iskandar Shah was the first king of Singapura to embrace Islam. Portuguese accounts by Pires however suggested that the Iskandar Shah mentioned in his text (and said to be Parameswara's son) only converted when he was 72 as the ruler of Malacca.^[17]

As mentioned in the Malay annals, the story of the fall of Singapura and the flight of its last king begins with Iskandar Shah's accusation of one of his concubines of adultery. As punishment, the king had her stripped naked in public. In revenge, the concubine's father, Sang Rajuna Tapa who was also an official in Iskandar Shah's court, secretly sent a message to the king of Majapahit, pledging his support should the king choose to invade Singapura. In 1398, Majapahit dispatched a fleet of three hundred main warships and hundreds of smaller vessels, carrying no less than 200,000 men. Initially. the Javanese soldiers engaged with the defenders in a battle outside the fortress, before forcing them to retreat behind the walls. The invasion force laid a siege of the city and repeatedly tried to attack the fortress. However the fortress proved to be impregnable.^[4][5][34]

After about a month passed, the food in the fortress began to run low and the defenders were on the verge of starvation. Sang Rajuna Tapa was then asked to distribute whatever grain left to the people from the royal store. Seeing this opportunity for revenge, the minister lied to the King, saying the stores were empty. The grains were not distributed and the people eventually starved. The final assault came when the gates were finally opened under the order of the treacherous minister. The Majapahit soldiers rushed into the fortress and a terrible massacre ensues.^[34] According to the Malay Annals, "blood flowed like a river" and the red stains on the laterite soil of Singapore are said to be blood from that massacre.^[35] Knowing that defeat was imminent, Iskandar Shah and his followers fled the island.

Portuguese sources give a significantly different account of the life of last ruler of Singapura. These accounts named the last ruler of Singapure and founder of Malacca as Parameswara, a name also found in Ming annals. It is generally believed that the Iskandar Shah of the Malay Annals is the same person as Parameswara.^[11] However, Portuguese accounts and Ming sources indicate that Iskandar Shah was the son of Parameswara who became the second ruler of Malacca,^[15] and some therefore argued for Megat Iskandar Shah as the son of Parameswara.^[19] According to the Portuguese accounts, Parameswara was a prince from Palembang who attempted to challenge Javanese rule over Palembang sometime after 1360. The Javanese then attacked and drove Parameswara out of Palembang. Parameswara escaped to Singapore, and was welcomed by its ruler of with the title Sang Aji named Sangesinga. Parameswara assassinated the local ruler after 8 days, then ruled Singapura for five years with the help of the Çelates or Orang Laut.^[16] He was however driven out by the Thais, possibly as a punishment for killing the Sang Ali whose wife may have been from the Kingdom of Patani.^[36]

Administration

Malay Annals provides a well-defined hierarchical structure of Singapura, which was later partly adopted by its successor, Melaka. The highest hierarchical position was the Raja (king) as an absolute monarch. Next to the king were Orang Besar Berempat (four senior nobles) headed by a Bendahara (equivalent to a Grand Vizier) as the highest-ranking officer and the advisor to the King. He was then assisted by three other senior nobles based on the order of precedence namely; Perdana Menteri (prime minister), Penghulu Bendahari (chief of treasurer) and Hulubalang Besar (grand commander).

The Perdana Menteri assisted Bendahara in administrating the internal affairs of the kingdom and usually sit opposite to Bendahara in the royal court, while Penghulu Bendahari was responsible to the financial affairs of the kingdom.

The Hulubalang Besar acted as a chief of staff.of the army and commanded several other Hulubalangs (commanders), that in turn leading smaller military units. These four senior nobles were then assisted by other lower ranking officials titled Orang Besar Caterias, Sida Bentaras and Orang Kayas.^[37]

Trade

14th-century gold armlets and rings in East Javanese style, found at Fort Canning Hill, Singapore, displayed in the Singapore History Gallery of the National Museum of Singapore

Singapura's rise as a trade-post was concurrent with the era known as Pax Mongolica or "Mongolian peace", where the Mongol influence over both the overland and maritime silk roads provided a context in which a new global trading system could develop. Previously, shipping occurred on a long-distance routes from the far east to India or even further west to the Arabian peninsula, which was relatively costly, risky and time-consuming. However, the new trading system involved the division of the maritime silk road into three segments: an Indian Ocean sector linking the Gulf of Aden and the Straits of Hormuz-based Arab traders to India, a Bay of Bengal sector linking the Indian ports with the Straits of Malacca and its associated ports including Singapura and the South China Sea sector linking Southeast Asia with Southern China.^[38]

Singapura achieved its significance due to its role as a port. It seems to fit as least in part the definition of a port of trade in which trade is less a function of the economy and more a function of government policy; thus trading would have been highly structured and institutionalized, with government agents playing key roles in port activities. Portuguese traders' account in particular, suggest that Singapura operated in such a manner. Reports from merchants of different countries also indicate that Singapura was a point of exchange, rather than a source for goods. Local products were limited in type and mainly consisted of lakawood, tin, hornbill casques (an ivory-like part of the hornbill bird, which was valued for carved ornaments), some wooden items and cotton. Other commonly traded products included a variety of fabrics (cotton and satins), iron rods, iron pots, and porcelains. Chinese traders also reported that there were agricultural products but very few due to poor soil. Although these goods were also available from other Southeast Asian ports, those from Singapura were unique in terms of their quality. Singapura also acted as a gateway into the regional and international economic system for its immediate region. South Johor and the Riau Archipelago supplied products to Singapore for export elsewhere, while Singapura was the main source of foreign products to the region. Archaeological artefacts such as ceramics and glassware found in the Riau Archipelago evidence this. In addition, cotton was transshipped from Java or India through Singapura.^[39]

The increase in activities by Chinese traders seems especially significant for Singapura and its trade. Report by Wang Dayuan indicates that, by this time, there was a Chinese settlement in Singapore living peaceably with the indigenous population.^[40]

Legacy

According to the Malay Annals, after they had sacked Singapura, the Majapahit army abandoned the city and returned to Java. The city would have been ruined and greatly depopulated. The rivalry between the courts of Javanese and Malay in the region nevertheless was renewed few years later when the last king Iskandar Shah, founded his new stronghold on the mouth of Bertam river in the west coast of Malay peninsula. Within decades, the new city grew rapidly to become the capital of Melaka Sultanate and emerged as the primary base in continuing the historic struggles of Singapura and Srivijaya, against their Java-based nemeses. By the mid 15th century, Majapahit found itself unable to control the rising power of Melaka that began to gain effective control of Melaka straits and expands its influence to Sumatra. Singapura was also absorbed into its realm and once served as the fiefdom of Melakan Laksamana (or admiral).^[41]

Most Portuguese accounts indicate an attack by the Siamese on Singapura to drive out Parameswara. The account by João de Barros suggests that Singapura did not end suddenly after the attack by the Siamese, rather Singapore declined gradually when Parameswara's son Iskandar Shah pushed for trade to move to Melaka instead of Singapura.^[42]

As a major entrepot, Melaka attracted Muslim traders from various part of the world and became a centre of Islam, dissemanting the religion throughout the Maritime Southeast Asia. The expansion of Islam into the interiors of Java in 15th century led to the gradual decline of Hindu-Majapahit before it finally succumbed to the emerging local Muslim forces in the early 16th century. The period spanning from Melakan era right until the age of effective European colonisation, saw the domination of Malay-Muslim sultanates in trade and politics that eventually contributed to the Malayisation of the region.

References

Bibliography

• A. Samad, Ahmad (1979), Sulalatus Salatin (Sejarah Melayu), Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka, ISBN 983-62-5601-6, archived from the original on 2013-10-12
• Abdul Rahman, Haji Ismail; Abdullah Zakaria, Ghazali; Zulkanain, Abdul Rahman (2011), A New Date on the Establishment of Melaka Malay Sultanate Discovered (PDF), Institut Kajian Sejarah dan Patriotisme ( Institute of Historical Research and Patriotism ), retrieved 2012-11-04
• Abshire, Jean E. (2011), The History of Singapore, Greenwood, ISBN 978-0-313-37742-6
• Aljunied, Syed Muhd Khairudin; Heng, Derek (2009), Reframing Singapore: Memory - Identity - Trans-Regionalism, Amsterdam University Press, ISBN 978-90-8964-094-9
• Buyers, Christopher, The Ruling House of Malacca – Johor, retrieved 2012-10-04
• Commonwealth Secretariat (2004), Commonwealth Yearbook 2006, Commonwealth Secretariat, ISBN 978-0-9549629-4-4
• Dewan Bahasa dan Pustaka (2010), Search: Singa, retrieved 2010-12-06
• Heng, Derek (2005), "Continuities and Changes : Singapore as a Port-City over 700 Years", Biblioasia, National Library Board, 1, ISSN 0219-8126
• Heidhues, Mary Somers (2001), Southeast Asia: A Concise History, Hudson and Thames, ISBN 978-0-500-28303-5
• Leyden, John (1821), Malay Annals (translated from the Malay language), Longman, Hurst, Rees, Orme and Brown
• Miksic, John N. (15 November 2013), Singapore and the Silk Road of the Sea, 1300–1800, NUS Press, ISBN 978-9971695743
• Liow, Joseph Chinyong (2004), The Politics of Indonesia-Malaysia Relations: One Kin, Two Nations, Routledge, ISBN 978-0-415-34132-5
• O'Mara, Michael (1999), Facts About the World's Nation, H. W. Wilson, ISBN 978-0-8242-0955-1
• Ooi, Keat Gin (2004), Southeast Asia: a historical encyclopedia, from Angkor Wat to East Timor, ABC-CLIO, ISBN 1-57607-770-5
• Ooi, Keat Gin (2009), Historical Dictionary of Malaysia, Scarecrow Press, ISBN 978-0-8108-5955-5
• Sabrizain, Palembang Prince or Singapore Renegade?, retrieved 2012-10-04
• Sinha, Prakash Chandra (2006), Encyclopedia of South East and East Asia, Anmol Publications Pvt Ltd, ISBN 978-81-261-2646-0
• Taylor, Nora A. (2000), Studies on Southeast Asia (Studies on Southeast Asian Art: Essays in Honor of Stanley J. O'Connor), 29, Southeast Asia Program Publications, ISBN 978-0-87727-728-6
• Tsang, Susan; Perera, Audrey (2011), Singapore at Random, Didier Millet, ISBN 978-981-4260-37-4
• Windstedt, Richard Olaf (1938), "The Malay Annals or Sejarah Melayu", Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic Society, The Branch, XVI