Hungarian–Romanian War

Hungary

In 1918 the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy politically collapsed and disintegrated as a result of a defeat in the Italian Front (World War I). On 31 October 1918 the Aster Revolution in Budapest brought Hungarian aristocrat Count Mihály Károlyi, a supporter of the Entente (Allied nations), to power. During the war Károlyi led a small but very active pacifist anti-war maverick fraction in the Hungarian parliament.^[1] He even organized covert contacts with British and French diplomats in Switzerland during the war.^[2] After World War I Károlyi yielded to Woodrow Wilson's (US) demand for pacifism by ordering the disarmament of the Hungarian army. This happened under the direction of Béla Linder, minister of war in the Károlyi government.^[3][4] Due to the full disarmament of its army, Hungary remained without a national defence at a time of particular vulnerability. After this, military and political events accelerated: on 5 November 1918 the Serbian army, with the help of the French army, crossed southern borders; on 8 November the Czechoslovakian army crossed the northern borders and on 2 December the Romanian army crossed the eastern borders of the Kingdom of Hungary.

On 13 November 1918 Károlyi signed an armistice with the Allied nations in Belgrade. It limited the size of the Hungarian army to six infantry and two cavalry divisions.^[5] Demarcation lines defining the territory to remain under Hungarian control were made. The lines would apply until definitive borders could be established. Under the terms of the armistice, Serbian and French troops advanced from the south, taking control of the Banat and Croatia. Czechoslovakia took control of Upper Hungary and Carpathian Ruthenia. Romanian forces were permitted to advance to the Maros (Mureș) River. However, on 14 November 1918 Serbia occupied Pécs.^[6][7]

The Károlyi government failed to manage both domestic and military issues and lost popular support. On 20 March 1919 Béla Kun, who had been imprisoned in the Markó Street prison, was released.^[8] On 21 March 1919 he led a successful communist coup d'état. Károlyi was deposed and arrested.^[9] Kun formed a social democratic, communist coalition government and proclaimed the Hungarian Soviet Republic. Days later the Communists purged the Social Democrats from the government.^[10][11]

The new government promised equality and social justice. It proposed that Hungary be restructured as a federation. The proposal was designed to appeal to both domestic and foreign opinion. Domestic considerations included maintaining the territorial integrity and economic unity of former crown lands, and protecting the nation's borders. The government had popular support and the support of the army. Most of the officers in the Hungarian army came from regions that had been forcibly occupied during World War I. This heightened their patriotic mood.^[12] Hungary as a federation would appeal to President Wilson under his doctrine of self-determination of peoples due to the nation's multi-ethnic composition. In addition, self-governed and self-directed institutions for the non-Magyar peoples of Hungary would lessen the dominance of the Magyar people.^[12]

Romania

In 1916 Romania entered World War I on the side of the Allies. In doing so, Romania's goal was to unite all the territories with a Romanian national majority into one state. In the Treaty of Bucharest (1916), terms for Romania's acquisition of territories within Austria-Hungary were stipulated.

In 1918, after the October Revolution, the Bolsheviks signed a separate peace with the Central Powers in the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk. Romania was alone on the Eastern Front, a situation that far surpassed its military capabilities. Therefore, on 7 May 1918, Romania sued for peace. The prime minister of Romania, Alexandru Marghiloman, signed the Treaty of Bucharest (1918) with the Central Powers. However, this treaty was never signed by King Ferdinand of Romania.

At the end of 1918 Romania's situation was dire. She was suffering from the consequences of punitive war reparations.^[13] Dobruja was under Bulgarian occupation. The German army under the command of Field Marshal August von Mackensen was retreating through Romania. The bulk of the Romanian army was demobilized, leaving only four full-strength divisions. A further eight divisions were left in a reserve status. The four battle-ready divisions were used to keep order and protect Basarabia from possible hostile actions of the Soviet Union.

On 10 November 1918, taking advantage of the Central Powers' precarious situation, Romania re-entered the war on the side of the Allied forces, with similar objectives to those of 1916. King Ferdinand called for the mobilization of the Romanian army and ordered it to attack by crossing the Carpathian Mountains into Transylvania. The end of World War I that soon followed did not bring an end to fighting for the Romanian army. Its action continued into 1918 and 1919 in the Hungarian-Romanian war.

Hostilities begin

Operations of the Romanian army in April 1919. The demilitarized zone proposed by the Allied council on 28 February 1919 is shown in gray.

When Kun became aware of Romanian preparations for an offensive, he fortified mountain passes in the territory controlled by the Hungarian Army. Then, on the night of 15-16 April, the Hungarians launched a preemptive attack. The Romanian lines held.

On 16 April the Romanian army commenced its offensive. After heavy fighting, the Romanians took the mountain passes. On the front of the 2nd Vânători division a battalion of Hungarian cadets offered strong resistance. However, they were defeated by the 9th Regiment. By 18 April the first elements of the Romanian offensive were completed and the Hungarian front was broken.

On 19 April Romanian forces took Nagykároly (Carei) and on 20 April they took Nagyvárad (Oradea) and Nagyszalonta (Salonta). Rather than following the instructions of the Vix note, the Romanian army pressed on for the Tisza River, an easily defended natural military obstacle.^[19][20]

The Romanian army reaches the Tisza River

The front line between the Hungarian and Romanian armies on 3 May 1919.

On 23 April Debrecen was occupied by Romanian forces.^[21] The Romanian army then began preparations for an assault on Békéscsaba. On 25-26 April, after some heavy fighting, Békéscsaba fell to Romanian forces. The Hungarians retreated to Szolnok (Solnoca) and from there across the Tisza River. They established two concentric defense lines extending from the Tisza River around Szolnok (Solnoca). Between 29 April-1 May the Romanian army broke through these lines. On the evening of 1 May the entire east bank of the Tisza River was under the control of the Romanian army.

On 30 April French Foreign Minister Stéphen Pichon summoned Ion I.C. Brătianu, the Romanian representative to the Paris Peace Conference. Romania was told to cease its advance at the Tisza River and retreat to the first demarcation line imposed by the Allied council. Brătianu promised that Romanian troops would not cross the Tisza River.

On 2 May Hungary sued for peace. Kun's request for peace was delivered by his representative, Lt. Col. Henrik Werth. Kun was prepared to recognize all of Romania's territorial demands; requested the cessation of hostilities; and asked for ongoing control of Hungarian internal affairs.

Romania offered an armistice but this was given only under pressure from the Allied council. Gen. Moşoiu became the governor of the military district between the Romanian border and the Tisza River. Gen. Mihăescu became commander of the north battalion. The 7th Division was moved to the Russian front in Moldavia.

The Hungarian attack on Czechoslovakia

Military operations in the Kingdom of Hungary, May to August 1919.

  Territory occupied by Romania in April 1919

  Territory controlled by the Hungarian Soviet Republic

  Territory recovered by the Hungarian Soviet Republic

  Territory under French and Yugoslav control

  Pre-WW1 borders of Hungary 1918

  Post-World War I borders of Hungary 1920

With cessation of hostilities, Kun worked to improve his battered international position. He argued that the granting of territory where Hungarians were an ethnic majority to Czechoslovakia was unjust. He also sought the support of the Bolshevik Soviet Russians.

Kun ordered the preparation of an offensive against Czechoslovakia, which would increase his domestic support by making good on his promise to restore Hungary's borders. The Hungarian army recruited men between 19-25 years of age. Industrial workers from Budapest volunteered. Many former Austro-Hungarian officers re-enlisted for patriotic reasons. The Hungarian army moved its 1st and 5th artillery divisions (40 battalions) to Upper Hungary (partially modern-day Slovakia). On 20 May 1919 a force under Col. Aurél Stromfeld attacked and routed Czech troops from Miskolc.

The Romanian army attacked the Hungarian flank with troops from the 16th Infantry Division and the 2nd Vânători Division, aiming to maintain contact with the Czech army. Hungarian troops prevailed and the Romanian army retreated to its bridgehead at Tokaj. There, between 25-30 May, Romanian forces were required to defend their position against Hungarian attacks. On 3 June Romania was forced into further retreat but extended its line of defence along the Tisza River and reinforced its position with the 8th Division, which had been moving forward from Bukovina since 22 May.

Hungary then controlled the territory to its old borders; regained control of industrial areas around Miskolc, Salgótarján and Selmecbánya; and gained influence in the government of the Slovak Soviet Republic.

Incursions by Bolshevik Soviet Russia

On 9 April 1918 Bessarabia united with Romania. The unification act that brought these lands within the modern Romanian state was not recognized by Bolshevik Soviet Russia, but it was occupied with fighting the White movement, Poland and Ukraine and resources were not available to challenge Romania. The Bolshevik Soviet Russians might have used Ukrainian paramilitary leader Nikifor Grigoriev to challenge Romania, but circumstances for this plan did not prove favorable.

Prior to communist rule in Hungary, Bolshevik Soviet Russia had engaged Odessa Soviet Republic to invade Romania. Odessa made sporadic attacks across the Dniester River in order to reclaim territory from the Bessarabia Governorate. The Moldavian Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic was also used in this way. Romania successfully repelled these incursions. After the commencement of communist rule in Hungary, Bolshevik Soviet Russia pressured Romania with ultimatums and threats of war. Although a Romanian army division and some other newly formed units were moved from the Hungarian front to Bessarabia, these threats did not deter Romania's actions in Hungary.

On 9 February 1918 the Central Powers and Ukraine signed the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk (Ukraine-Central Powers), which recognised Ukraine as a neutral and independent state. Incursions into Romanian territory ceased.

From January-May 1919 there were some further limited actions by the Bolshevik Soviet Russians against Romania. In late January the Ukrainian army under Bolshevik Soviet Russian command moved towards Zbruch. Ukrainian forces took Khotyn, a largely Ukrainian town that had been occupied by Romania since 10 November 1918. Ukrainian forces held Khotyn for a few days before being routed by the Romanian army.

At the time Bolshevik Soviet Russia was fending off attacks by the Armed Forces of South Russia led by Anton Denikin. Three French and two Greek army divisions under Gen. d'Anselme (France), with support from Polish, Ukrainian and Russian volunteers, attacked Bolshevik Soviet Russia near Odessa. On 21 March 1919, in support of the allied attack, Romanian troops of the 39th Regiment occupied Tiraspol.

In April at Berzov, the Bolshevik Soviet Russian 3rd Army defeated d'Anselme's forces, which retreated towards Odessa. In late April a change in government in France led to withdrawal of the Allied forces from Odessa. The troops left by ship, abandoning some heavy equipment. Some troops, with Ukrainian and Russian volunteers, retreated through southern Bessarabia. At the same time the Romanian army fortified its positions in Bessarabia.

On 1 May Bolshevik Soviet Russian Foreign Minister Georgy Chicherin issued an ultimatum to the Romanian government. Romania was ordered to leave Bessarabia. Under the command of Vladimir Antonov-Ovseyenko, Bolshevik Soviet Russian troops gathered along the Dniester River in preparation for a large attack on Bessarabia on 10 May. Bolshevik Soviet Russian attacks in Bessarabia intensified, peaking on 27-28 May with an action at Tighina. In preparation for this attack, the Bolshevik Soviet Russians threw manifestos from a plane, inviting Allied troops to fraternize with them. Sixty French soldiers crossed the Dniester River to support the Russians. The Bolshevik Soviet Russian forces entered Tighina and held the town for a number of hours.

The Romanian army's 4th and 5th infantry divisions were moved to Bessarabia. In southern Bessarabia a territorial command unit formed by the Romanian army's 15th Infantry Division was established. By the end of June tensions in the area had eased.

Hungarian army July 1919

Kun's political commissars directed the Hungarian army, supported by experienced professional military officers. Commanders of small units were experienced soldiers. The Hungarian army mustered 100 infantry battalions (50,000 men), ten cavalry squadrons (1365 men), 69 artillery batteries of calibers up to 305 mm and nine armored trains. The troops were organized into three groups: north, central and south. The central group was the strongest.

Hungary planned to cross the Tisza River with all three groups. The north group would advance towards Szatmárnémeti (Satu Mare), the central group to Nagyvárad (Oradea) and the south group to Arad. The aim was to ignite a communist uprising in Romania and incite Bolshevik Soviet Russia to attack Bessarabia.

Romanian army July 1919

The Romanian army was composed of 92 battalions (48,000 men), 58 cavalry squadrons (12,000 men), 80 artillery batteries of calibers up to 155 mm, two armored trains and some support units. They were positioned along three lines. The first line was manned by the 16th Division in the north and the 18th Division in the south. More powerful units manned the second line: the 2nd Vânători Division in the north, concentrated in and around Nyíregyháza (Mestecănești), and the 1st Vânători Division in the south, concentrated in and around Békéscsaba (Bichișciaba). The third line was manned by Romania's strongest units: the 1st and 6th infantry divisions, the 1st and 2nd cavalry divisions and support units. The third line lay on the railway from Nagykároly (Carei), through Nagyvárad (Oradea) and north of Arad. The 20th and 21st infantry divisions were tasked with maintaining public order behind the third line.

The first line was thin, as it was supposed to fight delaying actions until the true intentions of the attacking Hungarian army were revealed. After that, together with troops in the second line, the first line was to be held until troops in the third line could mount a counterattack. The Romanian command planned to use the railways under its control to move troops. The Romanian soldier was usually a World War I veteran.

Hungarian offensive

Operations of the Hungarian and Romanian armies during the battle of the Tisza River in July 1919.

Northern arena

From 17-20 July the Hungarian army bombarded the Romanian positions and conducted reconnaissance operations. On 20 July at about 3:00 am, after a fierce bombardment, Hungarian infantry including all three groups crossed the Tisza River and attacked Romanian positions.

On 20 July, in the northern arena, the Hungarians army Rakamaz and some nearby villages. Troops of the Romanian 16th and 2nd Vânători divisions took back the villages shortly and regained Rakamaz the next day. The Hungarians renewed their efforts and, supported by artillery fire, retook Rakamaz and two nearby villages but could not break out of the Rakamaz bridgehead. Hungarian forces attempted to outflank the Romanian positions by crossing the Tisza River at Tiszafüred (Orveni) with troops of the 80th International Brigade. There they were halted by troops of the Romanian 16th Division.

On 24 July the Romanian 20th Infantry Division, brought in as reinforcements, cleared the bridgehead at Tiszafüred. Not being able to break out of Rakamaz, Hungarian forces fortified their positions and redeployed some troops. There was a lull in fighting in the north, as the Romanian troops did the same.

On 26 July the Romanians attacked, and by 10:00 pm had cleared the Rakamaz bridgehead. This left the Romanian army in control of the northern part of the Tisza's eastern bank.

Southern arena

In the southern area, during a two-day battle, the Hungarian 2nd Division took Szentes from the 89th and 90th regiments of the Romanian 18th Division. On 21-22 July Hódmezővásárhely changed hands several times between Hungarian and Romanian troops of the 90th Infantry Regiment supported by the 1st Vânători Brigade. On 23 July Romanian forces reoccupied Hódmezővásárhely, Szentes (Sântamăria) and Mindszent. The Romanians controlled the eastern bank of the Tisza River in this sector, which allowed the 1st Vânători Brigade to move to the center.

On 20 July Hungarian forces established a solid bridgehead on the east bank of the Tisza at Szolnok (Solnoca), opposed by the Romanian 91st Regiment of the 18th Infantry Division. The Hungarian army moved the 6th and 7th divisions across the Tisza River, formed up within the bridgehead, then attacked the Romanians in the first line of defense. The Hungarian 6th Infantry Division took Törökszentmiklós (Sânmiclăuș Turcesc); the 7th Division advanced towards Mezőtúr and the 5th Division advanced towards Túrkeve (Turchevia).

On 22 July Hungarian forces crossed the Tisza River at a point 20 kilometres (12 mi) north of Szolnok (Solnoca) and took Kunhegyes from the Romanian 18th Vânători Regiment. The Romanian 18th Division was reinforced with units from the second line, including some troops from the 1st Cavalry Division and the entire 2nd Vânători Brigade. On 23 July Hungarian forces took Túrkeve (Turchevia) and Mezőtúr. The Hungarian army controlled an area 80 kilometres (50 mi) in length along the bank of the Tisza River and 60 kilometres (37 mi) in depth to the east of the Tisza River at Szolnok (Solnoca).

The Romanian army undertook manoeuvres to the north of this Hungarian territory. Gen. Davidoglu, commanding the 2nd Cavalry Division, formed closest to the river. Gen. Obogeanu, commanding the 1st Infantry Division, formed in the center and Gen. Olteanu, commanding the 6th Infantry Division, formed furthest to the east.

Romanian counterattack

On 24 July the Romanian army's northern maneuver group attacked. Elements of the 2nd Cavalry Division, supported by troops of the 18th Infantry Division, took Kunhegyes. The Romanian 1st Infantry Division attacked the Hungarian 6th Infantry Division and took Fegyvernek. The Romanian 6th Ddivision was less successful, being counterattacked on the left flank by the Hungarian reserve formations. Altogether, the attack pushed back the Hungarian army 20 kilometres (12 mi). Romanian forces were supported by the 2nd Vânători Division and some cavalry units when they became available.

On 25 July fighting continued. Hungarian forces counterattacked at Fegyvernek, engaging the Romanian 1st Infantry Division. With their lines breaking, Hungarian troops began a retreat towards the Tisza River bridge at Szolnok. On 26 July Hungarian forces destroyed the bridge. By the end of that day the east bank of the Tisza River was once again under Romanian control.

Romanian forces cross the Tisza River

Troops from the 2nd Vânători Division crossing the Tisza River in the presence of King Ferdinand and Queen Marie.

Romanian troops entering Budapest.

After repelling the Hungarian attack, the Romanian army prepared to cross the Tisza River. The 7th Infantry Division returned from Bessarabia. The 2nd Infantry Division and some smaller infantry and artillery units also returned. The Romanian army massed 119 battalions (84,000 men), 99 artillery batteries with 392 guns and 60 cavalry squadrons (12,000 men). Hungarian forces continued an artillery bombardment. From 27-29 July the Romanian army tested the strength of the Hungarian defense with small attacks. A plan was made to cross the Tisza River near Fegyvernek, where it makes a turn.

At the night of 29-30 July the Romanian army crossed the Tisza River. Decoy operations were mounted at other points along the river, bringing intense artillery duels. Romanian forces held the element of surprise. On 31 July the Hungarian army retreated towards Budapest.

Romanian forces occupy Budapest

Romanian army in front of the Hungarian Parliament, Budapest, 1919.

Romanian troops in Budapest, 1919.

Romanian forces continued their advance towards Budapest. On 3 August, under the command of Gen. Rusescu, three squadrons of the 6th Cavalry Regiment of the 4th Brigade entered Budapest. Until midday on 4 August 400 Romanian soldiers with two artillery guns held Budapest. Then the bulk of the Romanian troops arrived in the city and a parade was held through the city center in front of the commander, Gen. Moşoiu. Romanian forces continued their advance into Hungary and stopped at Győr.

The incursion of Romania into Hungary caused the heaviest fighting of the war. The Romanian army casualties were 123 officers and 6,434 soldiers--39 officers and 1,730 soldiers killed, 81 officers and 3,125 soldiers wounded, and three officers and 1,579 soldiers missing in action.

As of 8 August the Romanians had captured 1,235 Hungarian officers and 40,000 soldiers, seized 350 guns--including two with a caliber of 305 mm--332 machine guns, 52,000 rifles and 87 airplanes.

Romanian occupation of Hungary

Romania occupied all of Hungary with the exception of an area around Lake Balaton. There, Adm. Miklós Horthy formed a militia with arms from Romania.^{[17]:p. 612} Horthy was preparing to be Hungary's new leader at the end of the Romanian occupation. His supporters included some far-right nationalists.^[23] Horthy's supporters also included members of the White Guards, who had persecuted Bolsheviks and Hungarian Jews, whom they perceived as a communist group given their disproportionate participation in Kun's government.^{[17]:p. 616[24]:p. 80–86 and 120.} Horthy's nationalists and Romanian troops took steps to protect Hungary's Jewish people. The Romanian occupying force also took punitive actions against any revolutionary elements in areas under its control.^[25]

Initially, Romanian troops provided policing and administrative services in occupied Hungary. Later, under pressure from the Allied council, these roles were returned to the Hungarians.^{[24]:p. 52}However, in Budapest, only 600 carbines were provided to arm 3,700 policemen.

Romanian reparations

The Allied council was discontented with Romania's conduct during much of the Hungarian-Romanian war. Romania did not follow the Allied council's instructions, for example, by moving west of the Tisza River and by demanding large reparations.^{[26][27][24]:p. xxii and xxviii}

The Allied council decided that Hungary should pay war reparations in common with the Central Powers. The council pressured Romania to accept the supervision of an Inter-Allied Military Mission to oversee the disarmament of the Hungarian army and to see the Romanian troops withdraw.^{[24]:p. xxviii[17]:p. 614}

The Inter-Allied Military Mission committee included Gen. Harry Hill Bandholtz (US), who wrote a detailed diary of the events^[24] Reginald Gorton (Great Britain), Jean César Graziani (France) and Ernesto Mombelli (Italy).^{[24]:p. 32} Lt. Col. Guido Romanelli (Italy), Mombelli's secretary and former military representative of the Supreme Council in Budapest, was accused of being biased against Romania and was replaced.^{[17]:p. 616}

The relationship between the Inter-Allied Military Mission and Romania was one of discord.^{[24]:p. 45[28]}

The Allied council requested Romania not make its own requisition for reparations and to return any captured military assets.^{[17]:p. 615} The Inter-Allied Military Mission requested Romania return to Hungary the largely Hungarian-populated territory between the Tisza River and the first line of demarcation.

Romania, under the leadership of Prime Minister Ion Brătianu, did not comply with the requests of the Inter-Allied Military Mission. On 15 November the Allied council denied Romania reparations from Germany.^{[17]:p. 635}

The outcome of the negotiations was that Bratianu resigned his prime ministership; Romania received 1% of the total reparations from Germany and limited amounts from Bulgaria and Turkey; Romania signed a peace treaty with Austria; Romania kept reparations from Hungary; and Romania's border with Hungary was determined.^{[17]:p. 646}

Hungary saw the Romanian conditions of armistice as harsh. It saw the requisitioning of quotas of goods as looting.^{[17]:p. 614} She was also required to pay the expenses of the occupying troops.

Romania sought to prevent Hungary from re-arming and retribution for the plunder of her land by the Central Powers during World War I.^[13][29] Romania, having been denied by the Allied council, also sought compensation for its entire war effort.

Under the terms of the Treaty of Saint-Germain-en-Laye (1919) concerning Austria and the Treaty of Trianon concerning Hungary, Romania had to pay a "liberation fee" of 230 million gold francs to each. Romania also had to assume a share of the public debt of Austria-Hungary corresponding to the size of the former Austria-Hungary territories it now held.^{[17]:p. 646}

In early 1920 Romanian troops departed Hungary. They took with them resources including foodstuffs, mineral ores and transportation and factory equipment^[30] and also discovered historic bells of Romanian churches in Budapest taken by the Hungarians from Austro-Hungarian Army, which had not been melted then.^{[31][32][33][34]}

Hungary ceded all war materials, except for the weapons necessary to arm the troops under Horthy's command. It handed to Romania her entire armament industry as well as 50% of the railway rolling stock (800 locomotives and 19,000 cars), 30% of all livestock, 30% of all agricultural tools and 35,000 wagons of cereals and fodder.

The Allied council confiscated any goods taken by Romania after the Treaty of Bucharest (1918).^[35]

Controversy exists as to whether Romania's actions amounted to looting in terms of the volume and indiscriminate nature of goods removed from Hungary. Even private motor vehicles could be requisitioned.^{[24]:p. 131[29][36][35][37]}

Although public entities in occupied Hungary bore the brunt of the Romanian-imposed reparation quotas, where these were not enough the Romanian occupation authorities requisitioned quotes from private entities, including cattle, horses and grain from farms.^{[24]:p. 128[17]:p. 612, and 615–616}