Canola oil

Close-up of canola blooms
Canola flower

Canola oil, or canola for short, originally known as low erucic acid rapeseed, is a vegetable oil derived from a variety of rapeseed that is low in erucic acid, as opposed to colza oil. There are both edible and industrial forms produced from the seed of any of several cultivars of the plant family Brassicaceae, namely cultivars of Brassica napus L., Brassica rapa subsp. oleifera, syn. B. campestris L. or Brassica juncea, which are also referred to as "canola". According to the Canola Council of Canada, an industry association, the official definition of canola is "Seeds of the genus Brassica (Brassica napus, Brassica rapa or Brassica juncea) from which the oil shall contain less than 2% erucic acid in its fatty acid profile and the solid component shall contain less than 30 micromoles of any one or any mixture of 3-butenyl glucosinolate, 4-pentenyl glucosinolate, 2-hydroxy-3 butenyl glucosinolate, and 2-hydroxy- 4-pentenyl glucosinolate per gram of air-dry, oil-free solid."[1]

Consumption of the oil has become common in industrialized nations. It is also used as a source of biodiesel.

History

Canola field in New South Wales, Australia

Origin

The name for rapeseed comes from the Latin word rapum meaning turnip. Turnip, rutabaga, cabbage, Brussels sprouts, and mustard are related to rapeseed. rapeseed belongs to the genus Brassica. Brassica oilseed varieties are some of the oldest plants cultivated by humanity, with documentation of its use in India 4,000 years ago, and use in China and Japan 2,000 years ago.[2]:55 Its use in Northern Europe for oil lamps is documented to the 13th century.[2] Its use was limited until the development of steam power, when machinists found rapeseed oil clung to water- and steam-washed metal surfaces better than other lubricants. World War II caused high demand for the oil as a lubricant for the rapidly increasing number of steam engines in naval and merchant ships. When the war blocked European and Asian sources of rapeseed oil, a critical shortage developed, and Canada began to expand its limited rapeseed production. Rapeseed oil extracts were first put on the market in 1956–1957 as food products, but these suffered from several unacceptable characteristics. Rapeseed oil had a distinctive taste and a disagreeable greenish color, due to the presence of chlorophyll. It also contained a high concentration of erucic acid.

Canola was bred from rapeseed cultivars of B. napus and B. rapa at the University of Manitoba, Canada, by Keith Downey and Baldur R. Stefansson in the early 1970s,[3][4] having then a different nutritional profile than present-day oil in addition to much less erucic acid.[5] Canola was originally a trademark name of the Rapeseed Association of Canada, and the name was a condensation of "Can" from Canada and "ola" from other vegetable oils like Mazola,[6][7] but is now a generic term for edible varieties of rapeseed oil in North America and Australia. The change in name serves to distinguish it from natural rapeseed oil, which has much higher erucic acid content.

A genetically engineered rapeseed that is tolerant to herbicide was first introduced to Canada in 1995 (Roundup Ready canola). A genetically modified variety developed in 1998 is considered to be the most disease- and drought-resistant canola variety to date. In 2009, 90% of the Canadian crop was herbicide-tolerant.[8] As of 2005, 87% of the canola grown in the US was genetically modified.[9] A 2010 study conducted in North Dakota found glyphosate- or glufosinate-resistance transgenes in 80% of wild natural rapeseed plants, and a few plants that were resistant to both herbicides. The escape of the genetically modified plants has raised concerns that the build-up of herbicide resistance in feral canola could make it more difficult to manage these plants using herbicides. However one of the researchers agrees that ".. feral populations could have become established after trucks carrying cultivated GM seeds spilled some of their load during transportation." She also notes that the GM canola results they found may have been biased as they only sampled along roadsides.[10] In 2011, out of the 31 million hectares of canola grown worldwide, 8.2 million (26%) were genetically modified.[11]

Production and trade

Rapeseed oil production – 2014
Country (tonnes)
 China
5,702,700
 Germany
3,540,557
 Canada
3,116,100
 India
2,473,000
 France
1,914,600
 Japan
1,073,881
World
25,944,831
Source: FAOSTAT of the United Nations[12]

In 2014, world production of rapeseed oil was 26 million tonnes, led by China, Germany, and Canada as leading producers accounting together for 47% of the world total.[12] Canada was the world's largest exporter of rapeseed oil in 2016, exporting 2.9 million tonnes or approximately 94% of its total production.[12]

The benchmark price for worldwide canola trade is the ICE Futures Canada (formerly Winnipeg Commodity Exchange) canola futures contract.[13]

GMO regulation

There are several forms of genetic modification, such as herbicide (glyphosate and glufosinate, for example) tolerance and different qualities in canola oil. Regulation varies from country to country; for example, glyphosate-resistant canola has been approved in Australia, Canada, China, Japan, Korea, Mexico, Philippines, and the US, while Laurical, a product with a different oil composition, has been approved for growing only in Canada and the US.[14]

In 2003, Australia's gene technology regulator approved the release of canola genetically modified to make it resistant to glufosinate ammonium, a herbicide.[15] The introduction of the genetically modified crop to Australia generated considerable controversy.[16] Canola is Australia's third biggest crop, and is used often by wheat farmers as a break crop to improve soil quality. As of 2008, the only genetically modified crops in Australia were canola, cotton, and carnations.[17][18]

GMO litigation

Genetically modified canola has become a point of controversy and contentious legal battles. In one high-profile case (Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser) the Monsanto Company sued Percy Schmeiser for patent infringement after he replanted canola seed he had harvested from his field, which he discovered was contaminated with Monsanto's patented glyphosate-tolerant canola by spraying it with glyphosate, leaving only the resistant plants. The Supreme Court ruled that Percy was in violation of Monsanto's patent because he knowingly replanted the resistant seed that he had harvested and also imposing fees of over $200,000 on Schmeiser, but he was not required to pay Monsanto damages since he did not benefit financially from its presence.[19] On 19 March 2008, Schmeiser and Monsanto Canada Inc. came to an out-of-court settlement whereby Monsanto would pay for the clean-up costs of the contamination, which came to a total of C$660.[20]

Biodiesel

Europe has invested heavily in infrastructure to use canola oil for biodiesel, spurred by EU biodiesel policy initiatives.[21]

Production process

Bottle of canola cooking oil

Canola oil is made at a processing facility by slightly heating and then crushing the seed.[22] Almost all commercial canola oil is then extracted using hexane solvent[23] which is recovered at the end of processing. Finally, the canola oil is refined using water precipitation and organic acid to remove gums and free fatty acids, filtering to remove color, and deodorizing using steam distillation.[22] The average density of canola oil is 0.92 g/ml.[24]

Cold-pressed and expeller-pressed canola oil are also produced on a more limited basis. About 44% of a seed is oil, with the remainder as a canola meal used for animal feed.[22] About 23 kg (51 lb) of canola seed makes 10 L (2.64 US gal) of canola oil. Canola oil is a key ingredient in many foods. Its reputation as a healthy oil has created high demand in markets around the world,[25] and overall it is the third-most widely consumed vegetable oil.[26]

The oil has many non-food uses and, like soybean oil, is often used interchangeably with non-renewable petroleum-based oils in products,[25] including industrial lubricants, biodiesel, candles, lipsticks, and newspaper inks, depending on the price on the spot market.

Canola vegetable oils certified as organic are required to be from non-GMO rapeseed.[27]

Health information

It is considered safe for people to eat,[28][29] and has a relatively low amount of saturated fat, a substantial amount of monounsaturated fat, with roughly a 2:1 mono- to poly-unsaturated fats ratio.[30]

Experiments on animals have pointed to the possibility that erucic acid, consumed in large quantities, may cause heart damage, although Indian researchers have published findings that call into question these conclusions and the implication that the consumption of mustard or rapeseed oil is dangerous.[31][32][33][34][35] Feed meal from the rapeseed plant also was not particularly appealing to livestock, because of high levels of sharp-tasting compounds called glucosinolates.

In 2006, canola oil was given a qualified health claim by the United States Food and Drug Administration for lowering the risk of coronary heart disease, resulting from its significant content of cholesterol-lowering unsaturated fats; the allowed claim for food labels states:[36]

"Limited and not conclusive scientific evidence suggests that eating about 1 ½ tablespoons (19 grams) of canola oil daily may reduce the risk of coronary heart disease due to the unsaturated fat content in canola oil. To achieve this possible benefit, canola oil is to replace a similar amount of saturated fat and not increase the total number of calories you eat in a day. One serving of this product contains [x] grams of canola oil."

A 2013 review, sponsored by the Canola Council of Canada and the U.S. Canola Association, concluded there was a substantial reduction in total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol, and an increase in tocopherol levels and improved insulin sensitivity, compared with other sources of dietary fat.[30] A 2014 review of health effects from consuming plant oils rich in alpha-linolenic acid, including canola, stated that there was moderate benefit for lower risk of cardiovascular diseases, bone fractures, and type-2 diabetes.[37]

CompoundFamily% of total
Oleic acid
ω-9
61%[38]
Linoleic acid
ω-6
21%[38]
Alpha-linolenic acid
ω-3
11%[38] 9%[39][40]
Saturated fatty acids
7%[38]
Palmitic acid
4%[39]
Stearic acid
2%[39]
Trans fat
0.4%[41]
Erucic acid
0.01%[42] <0.1%[43][44]

Regarding individual components, canola oil is low in saturated fat and contains both omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids in a ratio of 2:1. It is high in monounsaturated fats, which may decrease the risk of heart disease.[45]

Erucic acid

Although wild rapeseed oil contains significant amounts of erucic acid,[46] the cultivars used to produce commercial, food-grade canola oil were bred to contain less than 2% erucic acid,[47] an amount deemed not significant as a health risk. To date, no health effects have been associated with dietary consumption of erucic acid by humans; but tests of erucic acid metabolism in other species imply that higher levels may be detrimental.[48][49]:646–657 Canola oil produced using genetically modified plants has also not been shown to explicitly produce adverse effects.[50]

The erucic acid content in canola oil has been reduced over the years. In western Canada, a reduction occurred from the average content of 0.5% between 1987 and 1996[51] to a current content of 0.01% from 2008 to 2015.[42] Other reports also show a content lower than 0.1% in Australia[43] and Brazil.[44]

Canola oil poses no unusual health risks,[49]:646–657 and its consumption in food-grade forms is generally recognized as safe by the United States Food and Drug Administration.[29][47]

Comparison to other vegetable oils

Vegetable oils[52][53]
TypeProcessing
treatment		Saturated
fatty acids		Monounsaturated fatty acidsPolyunsaturated fatty acidsSmoke point
Total mono[52]Oleic acid
(ω-9)		Total poly[52]linolenic acid
(ω-3)		Linoleic acid
(ω-6)
Avocado[54]11.670.613.5112.5249 °C (480 °F)[55]
Canola[56]7.463.361.828.19.118.6238 °C (460 °F)[57]
Coconut[58]82.56.361.7175 °C (347 °F)[57]
Corn[59]12.927.627.354.7158

232 °C (450 °F)[60]

Cottonseed[61]25.917.81951.9154216 °C (420 °F)[60]
Flaxseed/Linseed[62]9.018.41867.85313

107 °C (225 °F)

Hempseed[63]7.09.09.082.022.054.0

166 °C (330 °F)[64]

Olive[65]13.873.071.310.50.79.8193 °C (380 °F)[57]
Palm[66]49.337.0409.30.29.1235 °C (455 °F)
Peanut[67]20.348.146.531.531.4232 °C (450 °F)[60]
Safflower[68]7.575.275.212.8012.8212 °C (414 °F)[57]
Soybean[69]15.622.822.657.7751238 °C (460 °F)[60]
Sunflower (< 60% linoleic)[70]10.145.445.340.10.239.8

227 °C (440 °F)[60]

Sunflower (> 70% oleic)[71]9.983.782.63.80.23.6

227 °C (440 °F)[60]

Cottonseed[72]Hydrogenated93.61.50.60.3
Palm[73]Hydrogenated88.25.70
Soybean[74]Partially hydrogenated14.943.042.537.62.634.9
Values as percent (%) by weight of total fat.


See also

Blooming canola field in Saskatchewan, Canada.

References

  1. ↑ "WHAT IS CANOLA?". Canola Council of Canada. Canola Council of Canada. Archived from the original on 18 June 2017. Retrieved 18 August 2017.
  2. 1 2 Snowdon R et al. "Oilseed Rape". Chapter 2 in Genome Mapping and Molecular Breeding in Plants: OIlseeds. Ed, Chittaranjan Kole. Springer, 2007
  3. ↑ "Richard Keith Downey: Genetics". science.ca. 2007. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  4. ↑ Storgaard, AK (2008). "Stefansson, Baldur Rosmund". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  5. ↑ Barthet, V. "Canola". The Canadian Encyclopedia. Retrieved 2008-12-29.
  6. ↑ Colin W Wrigley, Harold Corke, Koushik Seetharaman, Jonathan Faubion (17 December 2015). Encyclopedia of Food Grains; page 238. Academic Press. ISBN 1785397621.
  7. ↑ Canola Council of Canada (2016). "What is Canola?". Retrieved 2013-10-16.
  8. ↑ Beckie, Hugh et al (Autumn 2011) GM Canola: The Canadian Experience Farm Policy Journal, Volume 8 Number 8, Autumn Quarter 2011. Retrieved 20 August 2012
  9. ↑ Johnson, Stanley R. et al Quantification of the Impacts on US Agriculture of Biotechnology-Derived Crops Planted in 2006 National Center for Food and Agricultural Policy, Washington DC, February 2008. Retrieved 12 August 2010.
  10. ↑ "GM crop escapes into the American wild". Retrieved 2011-08-24.
  11. ↑ "Biotech Canola – Annual Update 2011" (PDF). International Service for the Acquisition of Agri-Biotech Applications. Archived from the original (PDF) on 30 May 2013. Retrieved 26 May 2013.
  12. 1 2 3 "Rapeseed oil production, 2014; Crops/Regions/World list/Production Quantity; unofficial data (pick lists)". UN Food and Agriculture Organization, Corporate Statistical Database (FAOSTAT). 2017. Retrieved 13 August 2018.
  13. ↑ "ICE Futures: Canola". Intercontinental Exchange, Inc. 2017. Retrieved 4 September 2017.
  14. ↑ eurofins. Last updated 31 January 2014 Genetically Modified Canola
  15. ↑ "GM canola gets the green light". Sydney Morning Herald. 1 April 2003. Retrieved 2007-10-20.
  16. ↑ for example Price, Libby (6 September 2005). "Network of concerned farmers demands tests from Bayer". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. Retrieved 2007-10-10. and "Greenpeace has the last laugh on genetic grains talks". Australian Broadcasting Corporation. 13 March 2003. Retrieved 2007-10-20. also Cauchi, Stephen (25 October 2003). "GM: food for thought". The Age. Retrieved 2007-10-20.
  17. ↑ GM Crops and Stockfeed
  18. ↑ GM Carnations in Australia Archived 8 May 2012 at the Wayback Machine.
  19. ↑ Federal Court of Appeal of Canada. Monsanto Canada Inc. v. Schmeiser (C.A.) [2003] 2 F.C. 165. Retrieved 25 March 2006.
  20. ↑ Hartley, Matt (2008-03-20). "Grain Farmer Claims Moral Victory in Seed Battle Against Monsanto". Globe and Mail. Retrieved 2016-05-14.
  21. ↑ USDA Economic Research Service. Last updated: 10 October 2012 Canola
  22. 1 2 3 "Steps in Oil and Meal Processing". Canola Council of Canada. 2016. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  23. ↑ Crosby, Guy (2017). "Ask the Expert: Concerns about canola oil". The Nutrition Source: Harvard University School of Public Health. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
  24. ↑ "Section 3.1: Leaking Tank Experiments with Orimulsion and Canola Oil" (PDF). NOAA Technical Memorandum NOS OR&R 6. Ocean Service of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration. December 2001.
  25. 1 2 "What is canola oil?". Canola Council of Canada. 2016. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  26. ↑ Ash M (15 March 2016). "Soybeans & Oil Crops". US Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service. Retrieved 30 April 2016.
  27. ↑ "Canola Oil Myths and Truths". Berkeley Wellness, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley. 17 February 2015. Retrieved 23 April 2017.
  28. ↑ Dupont, J; White, PJ; Johnston, HA; McDonald, BE; Grundy, SM; Bonanome, A (October 1989). "Food safety and health effects of canola oil". Journal of the American College of Nutrition. 8 (5): 360–375. doi:10.1080/07315724.1989.10720311. PMID 2691543.
  29. 1 2 Zeratsky, Katherine (2009). "Canola Oil: Does it Contain Toxins?". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 10 August 2011.
  30. 1 2 Lin L, Allemekinders H, Dansby A, Campbell L, Durance-Tod S, Berger A, Jones PJ (2013). "Evidence of health benefits of canola oil". Nutr. Rev. 71 (6): 370–85. doi:10.1111/nure.12033. PMC 3746113. PMID 23731447.
  31. ↑ Ghafoorunissa (1996). "Fats in Indian Diets and Their Nutritional and health Implications". Lipids. 31 (1): S287–S291. doi:10.1007/BF02637093. PMID 8729136.
  32. ↑ Shenolikar, I (1980). "Fatty Acid Profile of Myocardial Lipid in Populations Consuming Different Dietary Fats". Lipids. 15 (11): 980–982. doi:10.1007/BF02534427.
  33. ↑ Bellenand, JF; Baloutch, G; Ong, N; Lecerf, J (1980). "Effects of Coconut Oil on Heart Lipids and on Fatty Acid Utilization in Rapeseed Oil". Lipids. 15 (11): 938–943. doi:10.1007/BF02534418.
  34. ↑ Achaya, KT (1987). "Fat Status of Indians – A Review". Journal of Scientific & Industrial Research. 46 (3): 112–126.
  35. ↑ Indu, M; Ghafoorunissa (1992). "n-3 Fatty Acids in Indian Diets – Comparison of the Effects of Precursor (Alpha-Linolenic Acid) vs Product (Long chain n-3 Poly Unsaturated Fatty Acids)". Nutrition Research. 12 (4–5): 569–582. doi:10.1016/S0271-5317(05)80027-2.
  36. ↑ Schneeman BO (6 October 2006). "Qualified Health Claims, Letter of Enforcement Discretion U.S. Food and Drug Administration: Unsaturated Fatty Acids from Canola Oil and Reduced Risk of Coronary Heart Disease". US Food and Drug Administration. Retrieved 2008-09-03.
  37. ↑ Rajaram, S (2014). "Health benefits of plant-derived α-linolenic acid". The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition. 100 Suppl 1: 443S–8S. doi:10.3945/ajcn.113.071514. PMID 24898228.
  38. 1 2 3 4 "Comparison of Dietary Fats Chart" (PDF). Canola Council of Canada. Archived from the original (PDF) on 23 September 2006. Retrieved 3 September 2008.
  39. 1 2 3 USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 21 (2008)
  40. ↑ DeFilippis, Andrew P.; Laurence S. Sperling. "Understanding omega-3's" (PDF). Archived from the original (PDF) on 22 October 2007.
  41. ↑ USDA National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release 22 (2009)
  42. 1 2 J. Barthet, Véronique J. (2015). "Quality of western Canadian Canola 2015" (PDF) (Press release). Canadian Grain Research Laboratory: Canadian Grain Commission. ISSN 1700-2222. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
  43. 1 2 D.E., Seberry; D.W., McCaffery; T.M., Kingham (2016). "Quality of Australian canola 2015–16" (PDF) (Press release). Australia: NSW Department of Primary Industries - Australian Oilseeds Federation. ISSN 1322-9397. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
  44. 1 2 Heidy Aguilera Fuentes, Paula; Jose Ogliaria, Paulo; Carlos Deschamps, Francisco; Barrera Arellano, Daniel; Mara Block, Jane (2011). "Centro de Ciências Agrárias" [Agricultural Science Center]. Avaliação da Qualidade de Óleos de Soja, Canola, Milho e Girassol Durante o Armazenamento (PDF) (Thesis) (in Portuguese). Florianópolis, Brazil: Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina. OCLC 817268651. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
  45. ↑ "Protect Your Heart: Choose Fats Wisely" (PDF). American Diabetes Association. 2004. Archived from the original (PDF) on 12 September 2008. Retrieved 3 September 2008.
  46. ↑ Sahasrabudhe, M. R. (1977). "Crismer values and erucic acid contents of rapeseed oils". Journal of the American Oil Chemists' Society. 54 (8): 323. doi:10.1007/BF02672436.
  47. 1 2 U.S. Dept. of Health and Human Services, CFR - Code of Federal Regulations Title 21 1 April 2010.
  48. ↑ Food Standards Australia New Zealand (June 2003) Erucic acid in food: A Toxicological Review and Risk Assessment Technical report series No. 21; Page 4 paragraph 1; ISBN 0-642-34526-0, ISSN 1448-3017
  49. 1 2 Luger CL et al. Food Safety and Foodborne Toxicants. Chapter 14 in Hayes' Principles and Methods of Toxicology, Sixth Edition. Eds A. Wallace Hayes, Claire L. Kruger. CRC Press, 2014 ISBN 9781842145371. Quote: "In humans. however. although the long-term use of Lorenzo's oil (oleic acid and erucic acid) in the treatment of adrenoleukodystrophy or adrenomyeloneuropathy leads to thrombocytopenia and lymphopenia (Unkrig et al. 1994), adverse effects from dietary consumption of erucic acid have not been reported."
  50. ↑ Reddy, Chada S.; Hayes, A. Wallace (2007). "Foodborne Toxicants". In Hayes, A. Wallace. Principles and methods of toxicology (5th ed.). London, UK: Informa Healthcare. p. 640. ISBN 0-8493-3778-X.
  51. ↑ D.R., DeClercq; J.K., Daun; K.H., Tipples (1997). "Quality of Western Canadian Canola 1997" (PDF) (Press release). Canadian Grain Research Laboratory: Canadian Grain Commission. ISSN 0836-1657. Retrieved 2016-12-21.
  52. 1 2 3 "US National Nutrient Database, Release 28". United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. All values in this column are from the USDA Nutrient database unless otherwise cited.
  53. ↑ "Fats and fatty acids contents per 100 g (click for "more details") example: avocado oil; user can search for other oils". Nutritiondata.com, Conde Nast for the USDA National Nutrient Database, Standard Release 21. 2014. Retrieved 7 September 2017. Values from Nutritiondata.com (SR 21) may need to be reconciled with most recent release from the USDA SR 28 as of Sept 2017.
  54. ↑ "Avocado oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  55. ↑ What is unrefined, extra virgin cold-pressed avocado oil?, The American Oil Chemists’ Society
  56. ↑ "Canola oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  57. 1 2 3 4 Katragadda, H. R.; Fullana, A. S.; Sidhu, S.; Carbonell-Barrachina, Á. A. (2010). "Emissions of volatile aldehydes from heated cooking oils". Food Chemistry. 120: 59. doi:10.1016/j.foodchem.2009.09.070.
  58. ↑ "Coconut oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  59. ↑ "Corn oil, industrial and retail, all purpose salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  60. 1 2 3 4 5 6 Wolke, Robert L. (May 16, 2007). "Where There's Smoke, There's a Fryer". The Washington Post. Retrieved March 5, 2011.
  61. ↑ "Cottonseed oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  62. ↑ "Linseed/Flaxseed oil, cold pressed, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  63. ↑ "Efficacy of dietary hempseed oil in patients with atopic dermatitis". Journal of Dermatological Treatment. 2005. Retrieved 25 October 2017.
  64. ↑ https://www.veghealth.com/nutrition-tables/Smoke-Points-of-Oils-table.pdf
  65. ↑ "Olive oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  66. ↑ "Palm oil, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  67. ↑ Vegetable Oils in Food Technology (2011), p. 61.
  68. ↑ "Safflower oil, salad or cooking, high oleic, primary commerce, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  69. ↑ "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  70. ↑ "Sunflower oil, less than 60% of total fats as linoleic acid, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  71. ↑ "Sunflower oil, high oleic - 70% or more as oleic acid, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  72. ↑ "Cottonseed oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  73. ↑ "Palm oil, industrial, fully hydrogenated, filling fat, fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  74. ↑ "Soybean oil, salad or cooking, (partially hydrogenated), fat composition, 100 g". US National Nutrient Database, Release 28, United States Department of Agriculture. May 2016. Retrieved 6 September 2017.
  • USDA-ERS Topic - Canola Summary of canola production, trade, and consumption as well as links to relevant USDA reports.
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