List of Indian massacres

In the history of the European colonization of the Americas, an atrocity termed "Indian massacre" is a specific incident wherein a group of people (military, mob or other) deliberately kill a significant number of relatively defenseless people — usually civilian noncombatants — or to the summary execution of prisoners-of-war. The term may refer to either the killing of people of European descent by Native Americans and First Nations or to the killing of Native American and First Nation peoples by people of European descent and/or the military.

Not to be confused with List of massacres in India.

Indian massacre of 1622, depicted as a woodcut by Matthäus Merian, 1628.

Overview

"Indian massacre" is a phrase whose use and definition has evolved and expanded over time. The phrase was initially used by European colonists to describe attacks by indigenous Americans which resulted in mass colonial casualties. While similar attacks by colonists on Indian villages were called "raids" or "battles", successful Indian attacks on white settlements or military posts were routinely termed "massacres". Knowing very little about the native inhabitants of the American frontier, the colonists were deeply fearful, and often, European Americans who had rarely – or never – seen a Native American read Indian atrocity stories in popular literature and newspapers. Emphasis was placed on the depredations of "murderous savages" in their information about Indians, and as the migrants headed further west, they frequently feared the Indians they would encounter.[1][2]

The phrase eventually became commonly used also to describe mass killings of American Indians. Killings described as "massacres" often had an element of indiscriminate targeting, barbarism, or genocidal intent.[3] According to one historian, "Any discussion of genocide must, of course, eventually consider the so-called Indian Wars", the term commonly used for U.S. Army campaigns to subjugate Indian nations of the American West beginning in the 1860s. In an older historiography, key events in this history were narrated as battles.

Since the late 20th century, it has become more common for scholars to refer to certain of these events as massacres, especially if there were large numbers of women and children as victims. This includes the Colorado territorial militia's slaughter of Cheyenne at Sand Creek (1864), and the US army's slaughter of Shoshone at Bear River (1863), Blackfeet on the Marias River (1870), and Lakota at Wounded Knee (1890). Some scholars have begun referring to these events as "genocidal massacres," defined as the annihilation of a portion of a larger group, sometimes to provide a lesson to the larger group.[4]

It is difficult to determine the total number of people who died as a result of "Indian massacres". In The Wild Frontier: Atrocities during the American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee, lawyer William M. Osborn compiled a list of alleged and actual atrocities in what would eventually become the continental United States, from first contact in 1511 until 1890. His parameters for inclusion included the intentional and indiscriminate murder, torture, or mutilation of civilians, the wounded, and prisoners. His list included 7,193 people who died from atrocities perpetrated by those of European descent, and 9,156 people who died from atrocities perpetrated by Native Americans.[5]

In An American Genocide, The United States and the California Catastrophe, 1846–1873, historian Benjamin Madley recorded the numbers of killings of California Indians between 1846 and 1873. He found evidence that during this period, at least 9,400 to 16,000 California Indians were killed by non-Indians. Most of these killings occurred in what he said were more than 370 massacres (defined by him as the "intentional killing of five or more disarmed combatants or largely unarmed noncombatants, including women, children, and prisoners, whether in the context of a battle or otherwise").[6]

List of massacres
This is a dynamic list and may never be able to satisfy particular standards for completeness. You can help by expanding it with reliably sourced entries.

This is a listing of some of the events reported then or referred to now as "Indian massacre". This list contains only incidents that occurred in Canada or the United States, or territory presently part of the United States.

Pre-Columbian era
YearDateNameCurrent locationDescription Reported native casualties
1325Crow Creek massacreSouth Dakota486 known dead were discovered at an archaeological site near Chamberlain, South Dakota. The victims and perpetrators were both unknown groups of Native Americans. 486[7]

1500–1830
YearDateNameCurrent locationDescription Reported casualtiesClaimants
1518–19?Annihilation of the Otomi of TecoacTecoac, modern day MexicoThe entire Otomi population of Tecaoc was reportedly killed during Hernán Cortés's first expedition into MexicoAll Otomis in Tecoac allegedly [8][9][10][11]
1519Cholula MassacreCholula, modern day MexicoCempoalans reported that fortifications were being constructed around the city and the Tlaxcalans were warning the Spaniards Cortés ordered a pre-emptive strike, urged by the Tlaxcalans, the enemies of the Cholulans. Cortés confronted the city leaders in the main temple alleging that they were planning to attack his men. They admitted that they had been ordered to resist by Moctezuma, but they claimed they had not followed his orders. Regardless, on command, the Spaniards seized and killed many of the local nobles to serve as a lesson.3,000 to over 30,000[12][13]
1520Alvarado MassacreTenochtitlan, modern day MexicoThe Massacre in the Great Temple, also called the Alvarado Massacre, was an event on May 22, 1520, in the Aztec capital Tenochtitlan during the Spanish conquest of Mexico, in which the celebration of the Feast of Toxcatl ended in a massacre of Aztec elites.[14][15]
1521Massacre after the fall of TenochtitlanTenochtitlan, modern day Mexico

After the Fall of Tenochtitlan the remaining Aztec warriors and civilians fled the city as the Spanish allies, primarily the Tlaxcalans, continued to attack even after the surrender, slaughtering thousands of the remaining civilians and looting the city. The Tlaxcalans did not spare women or children: they entered houses, stealing all precious things they found, raping and then killing women, stabbing children. The survivors marched out of the city for the next three days. One source claims 6,000 were massacred in the town of Ixtapalapa alone.

At least 40,000 killed or enslaved, 100,000 to 240,000 killed in the siege overall[16][17][18][19][9]
1539Napituca MassacreFloridaAfter defeating resisting Timucuan warriors, Hernando de Soto had 200 executed, in the first large-scale massacre by Europeans on what later became U.S. soil. 200[20]
1540October 18Mabila MassacreAlabamaThe Choctaw retaliated against Hernando de Soto's expedition,[21] killing 200 soldiers, as well as many of their horses and pigs, for their having burned down Mabila compound and killed c. 2,500 warriors who had hidden in houses of a fake village. 2,500[20][22][23]
1541–42Tiguex MassacresNew MexicoAfter the invading Spaniards seized the houses, food and clothing of the Tiguex and raped their women, the Tiguex resisted. The Spanish attacked them, burning at the stake 50 people who had surrendered. Francisco Vásquez de Coronado's men laid siege to the Moho Pueblo, and after a months-long siege, they killed 200 fleeing warriors. 250[24][25]
1599January 22–24Acoma MassacreNew MexicoJuan de Oñate led a punitive expedition against the natives in a three-day battle at the Acoma Pueblo, killing approximately 500 warriors and 300 civilians. King Philip III later punished Oñate for his excesses. 300[26][27]
1601Sandia MountainsNew MexicoSpanish troops destroyed 3 Indian villages in the Sandia Mountains, New Mexico. According to Spanish sources, 900 Tompiro Indians were killed. 900[28]
1610August 9 Paspahegh MassacreVirginiaLord De la Warr sent 70 men to attack the Paspahegh Indians. They destroyed their main village near Jamestown, killing between 16 and 65 people. The wife and children of the village chief were captured and shortly afterwards put to death . 16–65[29][30]
1622March 22Jamestown MassacreVirginiaPowhatan (Pamunkey) killed 347 English settlers throughout the Virginia colony, almost one-third of the English population of the Jamestown colony, in an effort to push the English out of Virginia. They then destroyed crops and livestock causing 500 more people to die of starvation, reducing the settler population to 180. 847 (English) (500 died from starvation)[31][32]
1623 Wessagusset affairMassachusettsSeveral Massachusett chiefs were lured to Wessagusset under peaceful pretenses and put to death. Other Indians present in the village were also killed. 4 (Native leaders) + unknown number of other Native Americans[33][34]
1623May 12Pamunkey Peace TalksVirginiaThe English poisoned the wine at a "peace conference" with Powhatan leaders, killing about 200; they physically attacked and killed another 50. 250[23]
1626Kalinago Genocide of 1626Bloody Point, Saint Kitts and Nevis2000–4000 Caribs were forced into the area of Bloody Point and Bloody River, where over 2000 were massacred, though 100 settlers were also killed. One Frenchman went mad after being struck by a manchineel-poisoned arrow. The remaining Caribs fled, but by 1640, those not already enslaved, were removed to Dominica.2,000[35][36]
1637April 23Wethersfield AttackConnecticutDuring the Pequot War, Wongunk chief Sequin attacked the Puritan town Wethersfield, Connecticut with Pequot help. Six men and 3 women were killed and 2 girls kidnapped. 9 (settlers)[37][38]
1637May 26Mystic MassacreConnecticutIn response to the Wethersfield attack, English colonists commanded by John Mason, with Mohegan and Narragansett allies, launched a night attack on a large Pequot village on the Mystic River in present-day Connecticut, where they burned the inhabitants in their homes and killed all survivors, for total fatalities of about 600–700. 600–700[39]
1640JulyStaten IslandNew York80 Dutch soldiers under Cornelis van Tienhoven attacked a village of Raritans on Staten Island over stolen pigs. Van Tienhoven intended only to demand payment, but his men wanted to massacre the Indians and he eventually consented. [40]
1643February 25Pavonia MassacreNew YorkIn 1643 the Mohawk attacked a band of Wappinger and Tappan, who fled to New Amsterdam seeking the protection of New Netherland governor, William Kieft. Kieft dispersed them to Pavonia[41] and Corlears Hook. They were later attacked, 129 being killed. This prompted the beginning of Kieft's War, driven by mercenary John Underhill. 129[42][43][44]
1643AugustHutchinson MassacreNew YorkAs part of Kieft's War in New Netherland, near the Split Rock (now northeastern Bronx in New York City), local Lenape (or Siwanoy) killed settler Anne Hutchinson, six of her children, a son-in-law, and as many as seven others (servants). Susanna, one of Hutchinson's daughters, was taken captive and lived with the natives for several years. 15 (settlers)[45]
1644Massapequa MassacreNew YorkJohn Underhill's men killed more than 100 Indians near present-day Massapequa. 100+[46][47]
1644April 18Beginning of Third Anglo-Powhatan WarVirginiaPowhatan (Pamunkey) killed more than 400 English settlers throughout the Virginia colony, about 4 percent of the English population of the Jamestown colony, in a second effort to push the English out of Virginia. 400+ (English)[48]
1644MarchPound Ridge MassacreNew YorkAs part of Kieft's War in New Netherland, at present day Pound Ridge, New York, John Underhill, hired by the Dutch, attacked and burned a sleeping village of Lenape, killing about 500 Indians. 500[23][49]
1655September 11–15Peach Tree WarNew YorkIn retaliation for Director-General of New Netherland Peter Stuyvesant's attacks to their trading partners and allies at New Sweden, united bands of natives attacked Pavonia, Staten Island, Colen Donck and other areas of New Netherland. [50]
1675JulySusquehannock MassacreVirginiaAfter a raid by Doeg Indians on a plantation in Virginia, a party of militiamen crossed the Potomac into Maryland and killed 14 Susquehannocks they found sleeping in their cabins. 14[51]
1675JulySwansea MassacreMassachusettsWampanoag warriors attack the town of Swansea, Massachusetts, killing 7 settlers. This attack marked the beginning of King Philip's War. 7 (settlers)[52]
1675December 19Great Swamp MassacreRhode IslandColonial militia and Indian allies attacked a Narragansett fort near South Kingstown, Rhode Island. At least 40 warriors were killed and 300 to 1,000 women, children and elder men burnt in the village. 300-1,000[53][54]
1676March 26Nine Men's MiseryRhode IslandDuring King Philip's War, warriors subjected nine captive soldiers with ritual torture and death. 9 (settlers)[55][56]
1676MayMassacre at Occoneechee IslandVirginiaNathaniel Bacon turned on his Occaneechi allies and his men destroyed three forts within their village on Occoneechee Island, on the Roanoke River near present-day Clarksville, Virginia. Bacon's troops killed one hundred men as well as many women and children. 100–400[57]
1676May 10Turner Falls MassacreMassachusettsCaptain William Turner and 150 militia volunteers attacked a fishing Indian camp at present-day Turners Falls, Massachusetts. At least 100 women and children were killed in the attack. 100[58]
1676July 2Rhode IslandRhode IslandMilitia volunteers under Major Talcott attacked a band of Narragansetts on Rhode Island, killing 34 men and 92 women and children. 126[59]
1680August 10Pueblo RevoltNew MexicoPueblo warriors killed 380 Spanish settlers, and drove other Spaniards from New Mexico. 380 (Spaniards)[60]
1689August 5Lachine massacreQuebec1,500 Mohawk warriors attacked the small settlement of Lachine, New France and killed more than 90 of the village's 375 French residents, in response to widespread French attacks on Mohawk villages in present-day New York. 90 (French)[61]
1689Zia PuebloNew MexicoGovernor Jironza de Cruzate destroyed the pueblo of Zia, New Mexico. 600 Indians were killed and 70 survivors enslaved. 600[62]
1690February 8Schenectady MassacreNew YorkAs part of the Beaver Wars, French and Algonquins destroyed Schenectady, New York, killing 60 Dutch and English settlers, including ten women and at least twelve children. 60 (Dutch and English)[63]
1692January 24Candlemas MassacreMaineDuring King William's War, 200–300 Abenaki and Canadiens killed 75, took 100 prisoner and burned the encroaching town of York, Maine district of the Province of Massachusetts Bay 75 (non-Indians)[64]
1695June 9La MatanzaSonoraSpanish militia with Seri Indian auxillaries killed 49 O'odham Indians (formerly known in the United States as Pima Indians) at peace conference at the El Tupo Cienega two months after the Tubutama Uprising. The meadow became known as La Matanza - Place of The Slaughter.49[65]
1704Apalachee MassacreSouth CarolinaEnglish colonists and Creek allies under former Carolina Governor James Moore launched a series of brutal attacks on the Apalachee villages of Northern Florida. They killed 1,000 Apalachees and enslaved at least 2000 survivors. 1,000[66]
1704February 29Deerfield MassacreMassachusettsDuring Queen Anne's War, a force composed of Abenaki, Kanienkehaka, Wyandot and Pocumtuck, accompanied by a small contingent of French-Canadian militia and led by Jean-Baptiste Hertel de Rouville, sacked the town of Deerfield, Massachusetts, killing 56 civilians and taking more than 100 as captives. 56 (non-Indians)[67]
1711September 22Massacre at BathNorth CarolinaThe Southern Tuscarora, Pamplico, Cothechneys, Cores, Mattamuskeets and Matchepungoes attacked settlers at several locations in and around the city of Bath, North Carolina. Hundreds of settlers were killed, and many more were driven off. Hundreds (settlers)[68]
1712Massacre at Fort NarhantesNorth CarolinaThe North Carolina militia and their Indian allies attacked the Southern Tuscarora at Fort Narhantes on the banks of the Neuse River. More than 300 Tuscarora were killed, and one hundred were sold into slavery. 300[68]
1712MayFox Indian MassacreMichiganFrench troops with Indian allies killed around 1,000 Fox Indians men, women and children in a five-day massacre near the head of the Detroit River. 1,000[69]
1713March 20–23Fort NeoherokaSouth CarolinaMilitia volunteers and Indian allies under Colonel James Moore attacked Ft. Neoheroka, the main stronghold of the Tuscarora Indians. 200 Tuscaroras were burned to death in the village and 900–1,000 others were subsequently killed or captured. 200–1200[70][71]
1715April 15Pocotaligo MassacreSouth CarolinaYamassee Indians killed 4 British traders and representatives of Carolina at Pocotaligo, near present-day Yemassee, South Carolina. 90 other traders were killed in the following weeks. 94 (traders)[72]
1715AprilMassacre at St Bartholemew's ParishSouth CarolinaAt the onset of the Yamasee War, Yamasee Indians attacked St Bartolehew's Parish in South Carolina, killing over 100 settlers. Subsequent attacks around Charles Town killed many more, and in total, about 7% of the colony's white population perished in the conflict. 100+ (settlers)[73]
1715MaySchenkingh PlantationSouth CarolinaA band of Catawba and Cherokee warriors attacked Benjamin Schenkingh's plantation where about 20 settlers had taken refuge. All were killed. 20 (settlers)[73]
1724August 24Norridgewock MassacreMaineCaptains Jeremiah Moulton and Johnson Harmon led 200 rangers to the Abenaki village of Norridgewock, Maine to kill Father Sebastian Rale and destroy the Indian settlement. The rangers massacred 80 Abenakis including two dozen women and children and 26 warriors. The rangers suffered 3 dead. 80 (26 warriors)[74]
1729November 29Natchez MassacreMississippiNatchez Indians attacked French settlements near present-day Natchez, Mississippi, killing more than 200 French colonists. 200 (French)[75]
1730Massacre of Chawasha villageLouisianaGovernor Perrier ordered 80 black slaves to attack the village of the Chawasha Indians. At least 7 Indians were killed. 7[76]
1730September 9Massacre at Fox FortQuebecA French army of 1,400 soldiers and their Indian allies massacred about 500 Fox Indians (including 300 women and children) as they tried to flee their besieged camp. 500[77]
1745Massacre at WaldenNew YorkUpon hearing of an impending French and Indian attack upon the Ulster county frontiers, British colonists massacred several peaceful Munsee families near Walden, New York. On March 2, 1756, white vigilantes murdered 9 friendly Munsee Indians at Walden. 9+[78][79]
1747OctoberChama RiverNew MexicoSpanish troops ambushed a group of Utes on the Chama River, killing 111 Indians and taking 206 as captives. 111[80]
1753February 21Attack at MocodomeNova Scotia6 Mi'kmaq were killed6
1755July 8Draper's Meadow massacreVirginia5 settlers killed by Shawnee Indians at Draper's Meadow, Virginia 5 (settlers)[81]
1755October 16Penn's Creek massacrePennsylvaniaLenape Indians attacked a settlement on Penns Creek. It was the first of a series of raids on Pennsylvania settlements by Native American tribes allied with the French in the French and Indian War. 14 killed, 11 captured (German and Swiss settlers)[82]
1755 Oct 31-Nov 2 Great Cove massacre Pennsylvania 100 Lenape and Shawnee Indians, led by the Lenape war captain Shingas the Terrible, attacked a series of settlements in Great Cove and Little Cove and along the Conolloway Creeks near the Maryland border. This was a continuation of the hostilities by Native American tribes allied with the French in the French and Indian War that had begun with the Penn's Creek massacre, above. 47 either killed or captured (Scotch and Irish settlers) in the Great Cove settlement; at least 10 more in Little Cove and the Conolloway Creeks [83]
1755November 24Moravian (New Gnadenhutten, PA) massacrePennsylvaniaLenape Indians (Munsee) attacked a Moravian missionary settlement (including Lenape and Mahican converts) in present day Lehighton, Pennsylvania. It was a continuation of a series of raids on Pennsylvania settlements by Native American tribes allied with the French in the early stages of the French and Indian War. 10 killed, 1 captured and later died (German Moravian missionaries & families)[84]
1757August 9Battle of Fort William HenryNew YorkFollowing the fall of Fort William Henry during the French and Indian War, Indians allied with the French killed between 70 and 180 British and colonial prisoners. 70–180 (British)[85]
1758March 16San Saba Mission MassacreTexasA large party of Comanche, Tonkawa and Hasinai Indians attacked the mission of San Saba, Texas, killing 8 and burning down the mission. 8 (missionaries)[86]
1759October 4St. Francis RaidQuebecDuring the French and Indian War, in retaliation for a rumored murder of a captured Stockbridge man and detention of Captain Quinten Kennedy of the Rogers' Rangers, Major Robert Rogers led a party of approximately 150 English regulars, volunteers and Mahican into the village of Odanak, Quebec. They killed up to 30 Abenaki people, among them women and children, as confirmed via conflicting reports. 30[87]
1763MayCapture of Fort SanduskyOhioDuring Pontiac's War, a group of Wyandots entered the British outpost Fort Sandusky under peaceful pretexts. The Wyandots then seized the fort and killed its 15-member garrison along with several British traders. 15+ (British)[88]
1763June 23Clendenin MassacreWest VirginiaShawnee massacre of Clendenin adult males, captured women and children including John Ewing of Virginia.
1763September 14Devil's Hole MassacreNew YorkDuring the French and Indian War, Seneca allied with the French attacked a British supply train and soldiers just south of Fort Niagara. They killed 21 out of 24 teamsters from the supply train. 21 teamsters + 81 soldiers (British)[89]
1763October 15First Wyoming (Mill Creek) MassacreWilkes-Barre, PennsylvaniaA band of one hundred and thirty-five Native Americans killed about twenty settlers (of an estimated 100) from Connecticut, and burned their houses at Mill Creek. It was likely perpetrated by Captain Bull and his warriors after the report that colonists had murdered on April 16, 1763, his father, Teedyuscung, as well as the fact that the Wyoming lands (purportedly to be reserved for the Native Americans) were being possessed and settled by colonists. 20 colonists from Connecticut[90]
1763DecemberKillings by the Paxton BoysConestoga Town
& Lancaster,
Pennsylvania		In response to Pontiac's Rebellion, frontier Pennsylvania settlers killed 20 peaceful Susquehannock. 20[91][92][93]
1764July 26Enoch Brown school massacreFranklin County
Pennsylvania		Four Lenape Indians killed a schoolmaster, 10 pupils and a pregnant woman. Two pupils were scalped but survived. 12 (non-Indians)[93]
1765May 4Anderson's barn massacreStaunton
Virginia		Five Cherokee, allied with Col. Andrew Lewis (soldier), were treacherously killed by the "Augusta Boys", as a declared emulation of the 1763 Paxton Boys lynch squad.5[94]
1774SeptemberSpanish PeaksNew MexicoSpanish troops surprised a large fortified Comanche village near Spanish Peaks (Raton, New Mexico). They killed nearly 300 Indians (men, women and children) and took 100 captives. 300[95]
1774April 30Yellow Creek MassacreHancock County,
West Virginia		Daniel Greathouse killed members of Chief Logan's family. [96]
1778July 3Battle of WyomingWyoming Valley,
Pennsylvania		During the American Revolutionary War, following a battle with rebel defenders of Forty Fort, Iroquois allies of Loyalist forces hunted and killed those who fled; they were later accused of using ritual torture to kill those soldiers who surrendered. These claims were denied by Iroquois and British leaders at the time. 340 (colonists)[97][98][99]
1778August 31Stockbridge MassacreMassachusettsAn ambush by the British during the American Revolutionary War that left nearly 40 natives dead. 40[100]
1778November 11Cherry Valley MassacreNew YorkBritish and Seneca forces attacked the fort and village at Cherry Valley, New York, killing 16 rebel troops and more than 30 settlers. 46 (settlers)[101]
1780June 27Westervelt MassacreKentuckySeventeen Dutch settlers killed and two taken captive out of a caravan of 41. The settler caravan was traveling between Low Dutch Station, Kentucky and Harrod's Town, Kentucky. The victims were all scalped and sold to the British for a bounty. 41 (Dutch)[102]
1781September 1Dietz MassacreNew YorkDuring the Revolution, Iroquois allied with the British attacked the home of Johannes Dietz, Berne, New York, killing and scalping Dietz, his wife, their daughter-in-law, four children of their son's family, and a servant girl. 8 (Dutch)[103][104]
1781September 1Long Run MassacreJefferson County,
Kentucky		Thirty-two settlers killed by 50 Miami people while trying to move to safety, additionally approximately 15 settlers and 17 soldiers were killed attempting to bury the initial victims. 64 (settlers)[105][106]
1782March 8Gnadenhütten massacreGnadenhutten,
Ohio		During the Revolution, Pennsylvania militiamen massacred nearly 100 non-combatant Christian Lenape, mostly women and children; they killed and scalped all but two young boys. 100[107][108]
1788Kirk Family MassacreTennesseeA party of Indians killed 11 members of the Kirk family (1 woman and 10 children) on Nine Mile Creek 12 miles south of present-day Knoxville. 11 (settlers)[109]
1788Massacre of the Old chiefsTennesseeIn retaliation to the Kirk Massacre, Old Tassel and 4 other chiefs of the Cherokee peace faction were lured into a trap and axed under a flag of truce in Chilhowee. 5[110]
1791January 2Big Bottom massacreOhio14 settlers were killed by an Indian war party in Stockport, Morgan County, Ohio. 14 (settlers)
1791November 4Fort Recovery MassacreOhioAt present day Fort Recovery, Ohio, an army of 1,500 Americans led by Arthur St. Clair, was ambushed by an army of Miami Indians led by chief Little Turtle. 200 to 250 civilians were killed. 200–250 (Americans)[111]
1805JanuaryCanyon del MuertoArizonaSpanish soldiers led by Antonio Narbona massacred 115 Navajo Indians (mostly women, children and old men) in Canyon del Muerto, northeastern Arizona. 115[112]
1812August 15Fort Dearborn Massacre
(Battle of Fort Dearborn)		IllinoisDuring the War of 1812, Indians allied with the British killed American soldiers and settlers evacuating Fort Dearborn (site of present-day Chicago, Illinois). In all, 26 soldiers, two officers, two women and 12 children, and 12 trappers and settlers hired as scouts, were killed. 54 (non-Indians)[113]
1812September 3Pigeon Roost MassacreIndianaDuring the War of 1812, twenty four settlers, including fifteen children, were massacred by a war party of Native Americans (mostly Shawnee, but possibly including some Lenape and Potawatomis) in a surprise attack on a small village located in what is today Scott County, Indiana. 24 (settlers)[114]
1813January 22River Raisin MassacreKentuckyDuring the War of 1812, Indians allied with the British killed between 30 and 60 Kentucky militia after their surrender. 30–60 (Americans)[115]
1813August 30Fort Mims MassacreAlabamaAfter a Creek victory at the Battle of Burnt Corn, a band of Creek Red Sticks attacked Fort Mims, in what today is Alabama, killing 400–500 settlers, slaves, militiamen, and Creek loyalists and taking 250 scalps. This action brought the US into the internal Creek War, at the same time as the War of 1812. 400–500 (settlers)[116]
1813September 1Kimbell-James MassacreMississippiImmediately after departing Fort Mims, Red Sticks warriors led by Josiah Francis (Prophet Francis) attacked the Kimbell and James families seeking refuge near Fort Sinquefield. At least 15 were killed, mostly women and children. 15 (settlers)[117]
1813November 3Battle of TallushatcheeTennessee900 Tennessee troops under General John Coffee, and including Davy Crockett, attacked an unsuspecting Creek town. About 186–200 Creek warriors were killed, and an unknown number of women and children were killed, some burned in their houses. 300[118][119][120]
1813November 18Hillabee MassacreAlabamaTennessee troops under General White launched a dawn attacked on an unsuspecting Creek town (the village leaders were engaged in peace negotiations with General Andrew Jackson). About 65 Creek Indians were shot or bayoneted. 65[121]
1813November 29Autossee Massacre
(Battle of Autossee)		AlabamaGeorgia Militia General Floyd attacked a Creek town on Tallapoosa River, in Macon County, Alabama, killing 200 Indians before setting the village afire. 200 (including warriors)[122]
1817Late SeptemberScott MassacreFloridaA supply boat under the command of Lt. Richard W. Scott was attacked by Seminole Indians on the Apalachicola River. 40–50 people on the boat were killed, including twenty sick soldiers and seven wives of soldiers. One woman was taken prisoner, and six survivors made it to Fort Scott. 40–50 (settlers)[123]
1823FebruarySkull Creek MassacreTexasAfter Coco Indians killed two colonists under unclear circumstances, the colonists got together twenty-five men and found a Karankawa people village on Skull Creek. They killed at least nineteen inhabitants of the village before the rest could flee, then stole their possessions and burned their homes to the ground. 19+[124]
1824March 22Fall Creek MassacreIndianaSix settlers in Madison County, Indiana killed and robbed eight Seneca. One suspect escaped trial and another was a witness at subsequent trial. Of those charged with murder, one man was hanged January 12, 1825, and two were hanged June 2, 1825. The last defendant was pardoned at the last minute. 8[125]
1826Dressing Point MassacreTexasA posse of Anglo-Texan settlers massacred a large community of Karankawa Indians near the mouth of the Colorado River in Matagorda County, Texas. Between 40 and 50 Karankawas were killed. 40–50[126]

1830–1911
YearDateNameCurrent locationDescription Reported casualtiesClaimants
1832May 20Indian Creek MassacreIllinoisA party of Potawatomi, with a few Sauk allies, killed fifteen men, women and children and kidnapped two young women, who were later ransomed. 15 (settlers)[127]
1832August 1Battle of Bad AxeWisconsinSoldiers under General Henry Atkinson, armed volunteers and Dakota Sioux killed around 150 Fox and Sauk men, women and children near present-day Victory, Wisconsin. The US suffered 5 dead. 150 (including warriors)[128]
1833Exact date unknownCutthroat Gap MassacreOklahomaThe Osage tribe attacked a Kiowa camp west of the Wichita Mountains in southwest Oklahoma, killing 150 Kiowa Indians. 150[129]
1836May 19Fort Parker MassacreTexasComanche killed seven European Americans in Limestone County, Texas. The five captured included Cynthia Ann Parker. 7 (Europeans)[130]
1837Amador MassacreCaliforniaMexican colonists under Jose Maria Amador captured an entire rancheria of friendly Miwok Indians in Northern California and killed their 200 prisoners in two mass executions. 200[131]
1837April 22Johnson MassacreNew MexicoAt least 20 Apaches were killed near Santa Rita del Cobre, New Mexico while trading with a group of American settlers led by John Johnson. The Anglos blasted the Apaches with a cannon loaded with musket balls, nails and pieces of glass and finished off the wounded. 20[132]
1838October 5Killough MassacreTexasA party of Cherokee massacred eighteen members and relatives of the Killough family in Texas. 18 (settlers)[133]
1838 or 1839Exact date unknownWebster MassacreTexasThe Comanche killed a party of settlers attempting to ford the Bushy Creek near present-day Leander, Texas. All of the Anglo men were killed and Mrs. Webster and her two children were captured. 13 Texans, est. 15+ Comanche [134]
1840March 19Council House MassacreTexasThe 12 leaders of a Comanche delegation were shot in San Antonio, Texas, while trying to escape the local jail. 23 others including 5 women and children were killed in or around the city. 65 Comanche including 35 women and children were present. 7 Texas militia were also killed at the court house mostly from friendly fire. 13 captives were killed in retaliation by the Comanche. 35 (Indians) + 13 (Whites)[135]
1840August 7Indian Key MassacreFloridaDuring the Seminole Wars, Spanish-speaking Indians attacked and destroyed an Indian Key settlement, killing 13 inhabitants, including noted horticulturist Dr. Henry Perrine. 13 (settlers)[136]
1840October 24Red Fork of the Colorado RiverTexasVolunteer Rangers under Colonel Moore massacred 140 Comanches (men, women and children) in their village on the Colorado and captured 35 others (mostly small children). 140[137]
1840Exact date unknownClear Lake MassacreCaliforniaA posse led by Mexican Salvador Vallejo massacred 150 Pomo and Wappo Indians on Clear Lake, California. 150[138]
1846April 6Sacramento River massacreCaliforniaCaptain Frémont's men attacked a band of Indians (probably Wintun) on the Sacramento River in California, killing between 120 and 200 Indians. 120–200[139]
1846May 12Klamath Lake massacreCaliforniaCaptain Frémont's men, led by Kit Carson attacked a village of Klamaths on the banks of Klamath Lake, killing at least 14 Klamath people. 14+[140]
1846JuneSutter Buttes massacreCaliforniaCaptain Frémont's men attacked a rancheria on the banks of the Sacramento River near Sutter Buttes, killing several Patwin people. 14+[140]
1846DecemberPauma massacreCalifornia11 Californios were killed by Indians at Escondido, California, leading to the Temecula massacre. 11 (settlers)[141]
1846DecemberTemecula massacreCalifornia33 to 40 Indians killed in revenge for the Pauma Massacre at Escondido, California. 33–40[141]
1847February 3–4Storming of Pueblo de TaosNew MexicoIn response to a New Mexican-instigated uprising in Taos, American troops attacked the heavily fortified Pueblo of Taos with artillery, killing nearly 150 rebels, some being Indians. Between 25 and 30 prisoners were shot by firing squads. 25–30[142]
1847MarchRancheria Tulea massacreCaliforniaWhite slavers retaliate to a slave escape by massacring five Indians in Rancheria Tulea. 5[140]
1847March 29Kern and Sutter massacresCaliforniaIn response to a plea from White settlers to put an end to raids, U.S. Army Captain Edward Kern and rancher John Sutter led 50 men in attacks on three Indian villages. 20[140]
1847late June/early JulyKonkow Maidu slaver massacreCaliforniaSlavers kill 12–20 Konkow Maidu Indians in the process of capturing 30 members of the tribe for the purpose of forced slavery. 12–20[140]
1847November 29Whitman massacreWashingtonCayuse and Umatilla warriors killed the missionaries Dr. Marcus Whitman, Mrs. Narcissa Whitman and 12 others at Walla Walla, Washington, in retaliation for the belief that Whitmans were responsible for the deaths of 200 natives from measles, triggering the Cayuse War. Subsequently the U.S hanged 5 Cayuse, including the Waiilatpu Leader Tiloukaikt. 14 (missionaries)[143]
1848AprilBrazos RiverTexasA hunting party of 26 friendly Wichita and Caddo Indians was massacred by Texas Rangers under Captain Samuel Highsmithe, in a valley south of Brazos River. 25 men and boys were killed, and only one child managed to escape. 26[144]
1849March 5Battle Creek massacreUtahIn response to some cattle being stolen, Governor Brigham Young sent members of the Mormon militia to "put a final end to their depredations". They were led to a band, where they attacked them, killing the men and taking the women and children as captives.4 (more by some accounts)[145]
1850Feb 8Battle at Fort UtahUtahGovernor Brigham Young issued a partial extermination order of the Timpanogos who lived in Utah Valley. In the north, the Timpanogos were fortified. However, in the south, the Mormon militia told them they were friendly before lining them up to execute them. Dozens of women and children were enslaved and taken to Salt Lake City, Utah, where many died.102 + "many" in captivity [146]
1850May 15Bloody Island MassacreCaliforniaNathaniel Lyon and his U.S. Army detachment of cavalry killed 60–100 Pomo people on Bo-no-po-ti island near Clear Lake, (Lake Co., California); they believed the Pomo had killed two Clear Lake settlers who had been abusing and murdering Pomo people. (The Island Pomo had no connections to the enslaved Pomo). This incident led to a general outbreak of settler attacks against and mass killing of native people all over Northern California. Site is California Registered Historical Landmark #427 60–100[147][148][149]
1851January 11Mariposa WarCaliforniaThe gold rush increased pressure on the Native Americans of California, because miners forced Native Americans off their gold-rich lands. Many were pressed into service in the mines; others had their villages raided by the army and volunteer militia. Some Native American tribes fought back, beginning with the Ahwahneechees and the Chowchilla in the Sierra Nevada and San Joaquin Valley leading a raid on the Fresno River post of James D. Savage, in December 1850. In retaliation Mariposa County Sheriff James Burney led local militia in an indecisive clash with the natives on January 11, 1851 on a mountainside near present-day Oakhurst, California.40+
1851MarchOatman MassacreArizonaRoyce Oatman's emigrant party of 7 was killed by Mohave or Yavapai Indians. The survivors, Olive and Mary Ann Oatman were enslaved. Olive escaped five years later and spoke extensively about the experience.7 (settlers)[150]
1851Old Shasta TownCaliforniaMiners killed 300 Wintu Indians near Old Shasta, California and burned down their tribal council meeting house. 300[151]
1852Hynes Bay MassacreTexasTexas militiamen attacked a village of 50 Karankawas, killing 45 of them. 45[152]
1852April 23Bridge Gulch MassacreCalifornia70 American men led by Trinity County sheriff William H. Dixon killed more than 150 Wintu people in the Hayfork Valley of California, in retaliation for the killing of Col. John Anderson. 150[153]
1852NovemberWright MassacreCaliforniaWhite settlers led by a notorious Indian hunter named Ben Wright massacred 41 Modocs during a "peace parley". 41[154]
1853Howonquet MassacreCaliforniaCalifornian settlers attacked and burned the Tolowa village of Howonquet, massacring 70 people. 70[155]
1853Yontoket MassacreCaliforniaA posse of settlers attacked and burned a Tolowa rancheria at Yontocket, California, killing 450 Tolowa during a prayer ceremony. 450[156][157]
1853Achulet MassacreCaliforniaWhite settlers launched an attack on a Tolowa village near Lake Earl in California, killing between 65 and 150 Indians at dawn. 65–150[158]
1853Before December 31"Ox" incidentCaliforniaU.S. forces attacked and killed an unreported number of Indians in the Four Creeks area (Tulare County, California) in what was referred to by officers as "our little difficulty" and "the chastisement they have received". [159]
1854January 28Nasomah MassacreOregon40 white settlers attacked the sleeping village of the Nasomah Indians at the mouth of the Coquille River in Oregon, killing 15 men and 1 woman. 16[160]
1854February 15Chetco River MassacreOregonNine white settlers attacked a friendly Indian village on the Chetco River in Oregon, massacring 26 men and a few women. Most of the Indians were shot while trying to escape. Two Chetco who tried to resist with bows and arrows were burned alive in their houses. Shortly before the attack, the Chetco had been induced to give away their weapons as "friendly relations were firmly established". 36+[161]
1854May 15Asbill MassacreMissouriSix white settlers from Missouri attacked previously uncontacted Indians in the Round Valley, massacring approximately 40 of them. 40[162]
1854August 20Ward MassacreIdahoShoshone killed 18 of the 20 members of the Alexander Ward party, attacking them on the Oregon Trail in western Idaho. This event led the U.S. eventually to abandon Fort Boise and Fort Hall, in favor of the use of military escorts for emigrant wagon trains. 18 (settlers)[163][164][165]
1854Dec 25Fort Pueblo MassacreColorado16 settlers were killed by Utah & Apache 16 (settlers)
1855January 22Klamath River massacresCaliforniaIn retaliation for the murder of six settlers and the theft of some cattle, whites commenced a "war of extermination against the Indians" in Humboldt County, California. [166]
1855September 2Harney MassacreNebraskaUS troops under Brigadier General William S. Harney killed 86 Sioux, men, women and children at Blue Water Creek, in present-day Nebraska. 27 US soldiers also died in the skirmish. About 70 women and children were taken prisoner. Women and children accounted for about half of the Sioux deaths. 86 (including warriors)[167]
1855October 8Lupton MassacreOregonA group of settlers and miners launched a night attack on an Indian village near Upper Table Rock, Oregon, killing 23 Indians (mostly elderly men, women and children). 23[168]
1855December 23Little Butte CreekOregonOregon volunteers launched a dawn attack on a Tututni and Takelma camp on the Rogue River. Between 19 and 26 Indians were killed. 19–26[169]
1856JuneGrande Ronde River Valley MassacreOregonWashington Territorial Volunteers under Colonel Benjamin Shaw attacked a peaceful Cayuse and Walla Walla Indians on the Grande Ronde River in Oregon. 60 Indians, mostly women, old men and children were killed. 60[170]
1856MarchShingletownCaliforniaIn reprisal for Indian stock theft, white settlers massacred at least 20 Yana men, women and children near Shingletown, California. 20[171]
1856March 26Cascades MassacreOregon/WashingtonYakama, Klickitat and Cascades warriors attacked white soldiers and settlers at the Cascades of the Columbia River for controlling portage of the river and denying them their source of nutrition. Nine Cascades Indians who surrendered without a fight, including Chenoweth, Chief of the Hood River Band, were improperly charged and executed. 17 (settlers) [172]
1857Mar 8–12Spirit Lake MassacreIowaThirty-five to 40 settlers were killed and 4 taken captive by Santee Sioux in the last Indian attack on settlers in Iowa. 35–40 (settlers) [173]
1856–1859Round Valley Settler MassacresCaliforniaWhite settlers killed over a thousand Yuki Indians in Round Valley over the course of three years in an uncountable number of separate massacres. 1000+[174][175]
1858 Aug 9–17 Fraser Canyon War British Columbia Settlers killed dozens of Nlaka’pamux non-combatants and burned five villages. 36+ [176]
1859–1860Jarboe's WarCaliforniaWhite settlers calling themselves the "Eel River Rangers", led by Walter Jarboe, kill at least 283 Indian men and countless women and children in 23 engagements over the course of six months. They are reimbursed by the U.S. government for their campaign. 283+[174]
1859SeptemberPit RiverCaliforniaWhite settlers massacred 70 Achomawi Indians (10 men and 60 women and children) in their village on Pit River in California. 70 [177]
1859Chico CreekCaliforniaWhite settlers attacked a Maidu camp near Chico Creek in California, killing indiscriminately 40 Indians. 40[178]
1860Exact date unknownMassacre at Bloody RockCaliforniaA group of 65 Yuki Indians were surrounded and massacred by white settlers at Bloody Rock, in Mendocino County, California. 65
1860February 26Indian Island MassacreCaliforniaIn three nearly simultaneous assaults on the Wiyot, at Indian Island, Eureka, Rio Dell, and near Hydesville, California white settlers killed between 80 and 250 Wiyot in Humboldt County, California. Victims were mostly women, children and elders, as reported by Bret Harte at Arcata newspaper. Other villages massacred within two days. The main site is National Register of Historic Places in the United States #66000208. 80–250[179][180][181][182]
1860December 18Battle of Pease RiverTexasTexas Rangers under Captain Sul Ross attacked a Comanche village in Foard County, Texas, killing at least 14 unarmed people. 14[183]
1860September 8Otter MassacreIdahoNear Sinker Creek Idaho, 11 persons of the last wagon train of the year were killed by Indians and several others were subsequently killed. Some that escaped the initial massacre starved to death 11+ (settlers)[184]
1861Horse Canyon MassacreCaliforniaWhite settlers and Indian allies attacked a Wailaki village in Horse Canyon (Round Valley, California), killing up to 240 Wailakis. 240[185]
1861Cookes Canyon MassacresNew MexicoApaches massacred hundreds of Americans and Mexicans in and around Cookes Canyon, New Mexico over the course of several months. Hundreds (Americans and Mexicans)[186]
1861September 21Fort Fauntleroy MassacreNew MexicoSoldiers massacred between 12 and 20 Navajos at Fort Fauntleroy, following a dispute over a horse race. 12–20 [187]
1862Upper Station MassacreCaliforniaCalifornia settlers killed at least 20 Wailakis in Round Valley, California. 20 [188]
1862Big Antelope Creek MassacreCaliforniaCalifornia settlers led by notorious Indian hunter Hi Good launched a dawn attack on a Yana village, massacring about 25 Indians. 25 [189]
1862AugustKowonk MassacreCaliforniaA posse of 25 California settlers killed 45 Konkow Indians on their reservation in Round Valley, California. 45 [190]
1862August–SeptemberDakota War of 1862MinnesotaAs part of the U.S.-Dakota War, the Sioux killed as many as 800 white settlers and soldiers throughout Minnesota. Some 40,000 white settlers fled their homes on the frontier.[191] 450–800 (settlers) [192]
1862OctoberMassacre at Gallinas SpringsNew MexicoSoldiers under Capt. James Graydon's shot an aged Mescalero leader who was approaching with his hand up as a sign of peace. 11 other Mescaleros were also killed, including a woman. 12 [193]
1862October 24Tonkawa MassacreOklahomaDuring the U.S. Civil War, a detachment of irregular Union Indians, mainly Kickapoo, Lenape and Shawnee, accompanied by Caddo allies, attempted to destroy the Tonkawa tribe in Indian Territory. They killed 240 of 390 Tonkawa, leaving only 150 survivors. 240 [194]
1863January 29Bear River MassacreIdahoCol. Patrick Connor led a United States Army regiment killing up to 280 Shoshone men, women and children near Preston, Idaho. 21 US soldiers were also killed in the fight. 246–280 (including warriors) [195][196]
1863April 19Keyesville MassacreCaliforniaAmerican militia and members of the California cavalry, under the command of Captain Moses A. McLaughlin, killed 35 Tübatulabal men in Kern County, California. 35 [197]
1863–1865Mowry massacresArizona16 settlers were killed in a series of Indian raids at Mowry, Arizona Territory 16 (settlers) [198]
1864CottonwoodCalifornia20 Yanas of both sexes were killed by white settlers in the town of Cottonwood, California. 20 [199]
1864Massacre at Bloody TanksArizonaA group of white settlers led by King S. Woolsey killed 19 Apaches at a "peace parley". 19 [200][201]
1864Oak Run MassacreCaliforniaCalifornia settlers massacred 300 Yana Indians who had gathered near the head of Oak Run, California for a spiritual ceremony. 300 [199]
1864Skull Valley MassacreArizonaA group of Yavapai families was lured into a trap and massacred by soldiers under Lt. Monteith in a valley west of Prescott, Arizona (Arizona). The place was named Skull Valley after the heads of the dead Indians left unburied. [202][203]
1864November 29Sand Creek MassacreColoradoMembers of the Colorado Militia attacked a peaceful village of Cheyenne, killing up to 163 men, women and children at Sand Creek in Kiowa County. 70–163 [204][205]
1865March 14Mud Lake MassacreNevadaUS troops under Captain Wells attacked a Paiute camp near Winnemucca Lake, killing 32 Indians. One soldier was slightly wounded during the attack. 32 (including warriors)[206]
1865July 18The Squaw Fight/The Grass Valley MassacreUtahWhile searching for Antonga Black Hawk, the Mormon militia came upon a band of Ute Indians. Thinking they were part of Black Hawk's band, they attacked them. They killed 10 men and took the women and children captive. After the women and children tried to escape, the militia shot them too.10 men + unknown women and children[207]
1865Owens Lake MassacreCaliforniaFollowing the murder of Mrs. McGuire and her son at Haiwai_Meadows, White vigilantes tracked the attackers from the meadows to a Paiute camp on Owens Lake in California. They attacked it killing about 40 men, women and children.40[208]
1865Three Knolls MassacreCaliforniaWhite settlers massacred a Yana community at Three Knolls on the Mill Creek, California. [209][210]
1865SeptemberBloody Point MassacreOregonA wagon train of 65 settlers was massacred by Modoc Indians near Lake Tule in Oregon. One man survived and alerted the Oregon militia who buried the bodies. 65 (settlers) [211]
1866April 21Circleville MassacreUtahMormon militiamen killed 16 Paiute men and women at Circleville, Utah. 6 men were shot, allegedly while trying to escape. The others (3 men and 7 women) had their throats cut. 4 small children were spared. 16 [212]
1867Aquarius MountainsArizonaYavapai County Rangers killed 23 Indians (men, women and children) in the southern Aquarius Mountains, Arizona. 23 [213]
1868Campo SecoCaliforniaA posse of white settlers massacred 33 Yahis in a cave north of Mill Creek, California. 33 [214][215]
1868September 24Massacre at La PazArizonaA group of teamsters attacked a sleeping Yavapai camp in the outskirts of La Paz, Arizona, killing 15 Indians. 15 [216]
1868November 27Washita Massacre
(Battle of Washita River)		OklahomaDuring the American Indian Wars, Lt. Col. G.A.Custer's 7th U.S. Cavalry attacked a village of sleeping Cheyenne led by Black Kettle. Custer reported 103 – later revised to 140 – warriors, "some" women and "few" children killed, and 53 women and children taken hostage. Other casualty estimates by cavalry members, scouts and Indians vary widely, with the number of men killed ranging as low as 11 and the numbers of women and children ranging as high as 75 and as low as 17. Before returning to their base, the cavalry killed several hundred Indian ponies and burned the village. 21 US soldiers were also killed. 17–75 [217][218][219][220][221][222][223][224][225][226][227]
1870January 23Marias MassacreMontanaUS troops killed 173 Piegan, mainly women, children and the elderly after being led to the wrong camp by a soldier who wanted to protect his Indian wife's family. 173–217 [228]
1871Kingsley Cave MassacreCalifornia4 settlers killed 30 Yahi Indians in Tehama County, California about two miles from Wild Horse Corral in the Ishi Wilderness. It is estimated that this massacre left only 15 members of the Yahi tribe alive 30 [229]
1871April 30Camp Grant MassacreArizonaLed by the ex-Mayor of Tucson, William Oury, eight Americans, 48 Mexicans and more than 100 allied Pima attacked Apache men, women and children at Camp Grant, Arizona Territory killing 144, with 1 survivor at scene and 29 children sold to slavery. All but eight of the dead were Apache women or children. 144 [230][231]
1871November 5Wickenburg massacreArizonaIndians attacked an Arizona stagecoach, killing the driver and his five passengers, leaving two wounded survivors. 6 (settlers) [232][233]
1872December 28Skeleton Cave MassacreArizonaU.S. troops and Indian scouts killed 76 Yavapai Indians men, women and children in a remote cave in Arizona's Salt River Canyon. 76 [234]
1873June 1Cypress Hills MassacreSaskatchewanFollowing a dispute over stolen horses, American wolfers killed approximately 20 Nakoda in Saskatchewan. 20 [235]
1875AprilSappa Creek MassacreKansasSoldiers under Lt Austin Henly trapped a group of 27 Cheyenne, (19 men, 8 women and children) on the Sappa Creek, in Kansas and killed them all. 27 [236]
1877August 8Battle of the Big HoleMontanaUS troops under Colonel John Gibbon attacked a Nez Perce village at Big Hole, in Montana Territory. They killed 70 to 90 including 33 warriors before being repulsed by the Indians. 31 US soldiers were killed. 70–90 (33 warriors) [169][237]
1879January 9–21Fort Robinson MassacreNebraskaNorthern Cheyenne under Dull Knife attempted to escape from confinement in Fort Robinson, Nebraska; U.S. Army forces hunted them down, killing between 32 and 77 of them including at least 14 women and children. The remains of those killed were repatriated in 1994. 12 U.S. soldiers were also killed. 32–77 (including warriors) [238][239]
1879September 30Meeker MassacreColoradoIn the beginning of the Ute War, the Ute killed the US Indian Agent Nathan Meeker and 10 others. They also attacked a military unit, killing 13 and wounding 43. 11 [240][241]
1880April 28Alma MassacreNew MexicoThe Apache chief Victorio led warriors in an attack on settlers at Alma, New Mexico. On December 19, 1885, the Apache killed an officer and four enlisted men of the 8th Cavalry Regiment near Alma. 35–41 (settlers) [242]
1890December 10Buffalo Gap MassacreSouth DakotaSeveral wagonloads of Sioux were killed by South Dakota Home Guard militiamen near French Creek, South Dakota, while visiting a white friend in Buffalo Gap. [243]
1890DecemberStrongholdSouth DakotaSouth Dakota Home Guard militiamen ambushed and massacred 75 Sioux at the Stronghold, in the northern portion of Pine Ridge Indian Reservation. 75 [243]
1890December 29Wounded Knee MassacreSouth DakotaMembers of the U.S. 7th Cavalry attacked and killed between 130 and 250 Sioux men, women and children at Wounded Knee, South Dakota. 130–250 [244][245]
1911January 19Last MassacreNevadaA group of Shoshone killed four ranchers in Washoe County, Nevada. On February 26, 1911, an American posse killed eight of the Shoshone suspects and captured four children from the band. 5 (4 ranchers & 1 policeman) + 8 (Indians) [246][247][248]

See also

References
  1. Conspiracy Theories in American History: An Encyclopedia; Peter Knight; ABC-CLIO, 2003; Pg. 523
  2. American Holocaust: The Conquest of the New World; David E. Stannard; Oxford University Press, 1993; Pg. 130
  3. Genocide and International Justice; Rebecca Joyce Frey; InfoBase Publishing, 2009; Pgs. 7–12, 31–54
  4. Genocide and American Indian History; Jeffrey Ostler; University of Oregon, 2015
  5. Osborn, William M. (2001). The Wild Frontier: Atrocities During The American-Indian War from Jamestown Colony to Wounded Knee. Garden City, NY: Random House. ISBN 978-0-375-50374-0.
  6. Madley 2016, p.11, p.351
  7. "National Register Information System". National Register of Historic Places. National Park Service. January 23, 2007.
  8. Genocide. RW Press. p. 1963. ISBN 9781909284272.
  9. Singer, Gabrielle (November 30, 2004). A Purple Bull. p. 68. ISBN 9780533148356.
  10. Naimark, Norman M. (2017). Genocide: A World History. p. 41. ISBN 9780199765263.
  11. León Portilla,: Cap. V
  12. Díaz del Castillo, Bernal (1963). Radice, Betty (ed.). The Conquest of New Spain. Translated by Cohen, J.M. London: Penguin Books. pp. 200–201. ISBN 0140441239.
  13. ""Empires Past: Aztecs: Conquest". Library.thinkquest.org. Archived from the original on 2 February 2009". Archived from the original on February 2, 2009.
  14. El Calendario Mexica y la Cronografía. Rafael Tena 2008 INAH-CONACULTA p 48 108
  15. Revista de la Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, UNAM Volume 49, Issues 522–527 p 40
  16. Naimak, Norman M. (2017). Genocide: A World History. pp. 42–43. ISBN 9780199765263.
  17. Paulkovich, Michael (2012). No Meek Messiah (1st ed.). Spillix Publishing. p. 117. ISBN 978-0988216112.
  18. Karin Solveig Björnson, Kurt Jonassohn. Genocide and Gross Human Rights Violations: In Comparative Perspective. p. 202. ISBN 9781412824453.
  19. "Victimario Histórico Militar: Capítulo IX" (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 1, 2018.
  20. Duncan, David Ewing (1997). Hernando de Soto: A Savage Quest in the Americas. University of Oklahoma Press. pp. 286–291, 376–384.
  21. Clayton, Lawrence A., "Hernando de Soto: A Brief" Archived February 10, 2008, at the Wayback Machine.
  22. Wilford, John Noble, "De Soto's Trail: Courage and Cruelty Come Alive", New York Times, May 19, 1987
  23. Steele, Ian Kenneth, Warpaths: Invasions of North America, Oxford University Press, 1994. pp. 15, 47, 116.
  24. Sauer, C., Sixteenth Century North America; the land and the people as seen by the Europeans, University of California Press, 1971, p. 141.
  25. Flint, R., No settlement, no conquest : a history of the Coronado Entrada, University of New Mexico Press, 2008, pp. 144–153.
  26. Brooke, James (February 9, 1998). "Conquistador Statue Stirs Hispanic Pride and Indian Rage". The New York Times.
  27. Weber, David J., The Spanish Frontier in North America, Yale University Press, New Haven, 1992, pp. 85–86.
  28. Riley, Carroll, L., Rio del Norte: People of the Upper Rio Grande from Earliest Times to the Pueblo Revolt, University of Utah Press, 2007, p. 252, ISBN 978-0-87480-496-6
  29. Staff, Times-Dispatch. "Highway marker dedicated for Paspahegh tribe".
  30. Schlotterbeck, J., Daily Life in the Colonial South, Greenwood, 2013, p. 333, ISBN 978-0313340697
  31. Research Jamestown: Legacy of the Massacre of 1622 – Americans at War. www.bookrags.com.
  32. Spencer C. Tucker; James R. Arnold; Roberta Wiener (30 September 2011). 'The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 332. ISBN 978-1-851096-97-8.
  33. Miller, D.W. The Forced Removal of American Indians from the Northeast: A History of Territorial Cessions and Relocations, 1620–1854, McFarland, 2011, p. 14., ISBN 978-0-786464-96-8
  34. Adams, D. Jr., Charles F., Wessagusset and Weymouth, Nabu Press, pp. 24–26, ISBN 978-1-248636-92-3
  35. Jean-Baptiste Du Tertre, Histoire Generale des Antilles..., 2 vols. Paris: Jolly, 1667, I:5–6
  36. Hubbard, Vincent (2002). A History of St. Kitts. Macmillan Caribbean. pp. 17–18. ISBN 9780333747605.
  37. Muehlbauer, Matthew S.; Ulbrich, David J. (2013). Ways of War: American Military History from the Colonial Era to the Twenty-First Century. Routledge. p. 29. ISBN 9781136756047. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
  38. Lucas, Beverly (2008). Wethersfield. Arcadia Publishing. p. 69. ISBN 9780738563459. Retrieved July 9, 2018.
  39. Cave, Alfred A., The Pequot War, University of Massachusetts Press, 1996, pp. 144–154.
  40. Grumet, Robert S. First Manhattans: A History of the Indians of Greater New York, University of Oklahoma Press, 2011, p33-34, ISBN 978-0-806141-63-3
  41. "William Keift". www.njcu.edu.
  42. Winkler, David F. (1998). Revisiting the Attack on Pavonia. New Jersey Historical Society.
  43. Beck, Sanderson (2006). "New Netherland and Stuyvesant 1642–64".
  44. Churchill 1997, p. 198
  45. LaPlante, Eve (2004). American Jezebel, the Uncommon Life of Anne Hutchinson, the Woman who Defied the Puritans. San Francisco: Harper Collins. p. 231. ISBN 0-06-056233-1.
  46. Tucker, S.C. The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History, ABC-Clio, p. 414, ISBN 978-1-851096-97-8
  47. Major, D.C., Major, J.S. A Huguenot on the Hackensack: David Demarest and His Legacy, Fairleigh Dickinson University Press, 2007, p. 55, ISBN 978-1-611473-68-1
  48. Spencer C. Tucker; James R. Arnold; Roberta Wiener (30 September 2011). 'The Encyclopedia of North American Indian Wars, 1607–1890: A Political, Social, and Military History. ABC-CLIO. p. 332. ISBN 978-1-851096-97-8.
  49. Trelease, A., Indian Affairs in Colonial New York; The Seventeenth Century, pp. 79–80.
  50. Karnoutsos, Carmela (2007). "Peach Tree War". Jersey City A to Z. New Jersey City University. Retrieved February 17, 2013.
  51. Murrin, John M., Liberty, Equality, Power: A History of the American People, p85, Wadsworth Publishing Co Inc, 2010, p. 85, ISBN 978-0495904991
  52. "King Philip's War Breaks Out". www.massmoments.org.
  53. Ellis, George W., Morris, John E., King Philip's War, Grafton Historical Series, The Grafton Press, 1906, pp. 152–155
  54. Rajtar, Steve, Indian War Sites: A Guidebook to Battlefields, Monuments, and Memorials, McFarland & Company, Inc., Jefferson, North Carolina, 1999
  55. Nine Men's Misery Marker, Joseph Bucklin Society, accessdate February 17, 2013
  56. Franko, Victor, Nine Men's Misery Part 2 Historical Research, 2003, Joseph Bucklin Society, accessdate February 17, 2013
  57. Demallie, Raymond J. Tutelo and Neighboring Groups. Sturtevant, William C., general editor and Raymond D. Fogelson, volume editor. Handbook of North American Indians: Southeast. Volume 14. Washington DC: Smithsonian Institution, 2004, ISBN 0-16-072300-0
  58. Mandell, Daniel R., King Philip's War: the conflict over New England, Chelsea House Publishers, 2007, p. 100, ISBN 978-0-7910-9346-7
  59. Kiernan 2007, p. 239
  60. Resistance and Accommodation in New Mexico Archived September 7, 2007, at the Wayback Machine
  61. George, Charles; Douglas Roberts (1897). A History of Canada. Boston: The Page Company. pp. 93–94.
  62. Preucel, Robert W., Archaeologies of the Pueblo revolt: identity, meaning, and renewal in the Pueblo world, University of New Mexico Press, 2007, p. 56, ISBN 978-0-8263-2247-0
  63. Konstantin 2002, p. 33
  64. Banks, Charles Edward, History of York, Maine, successively known as Bristol (1632), Agamentious (1641), Gorgeana (1642), and York (1652). With contributions on topography and land titles by Angevine W. Gowen. Sketches by the author. Baltimore, Regional Publishing Company, 1967 reprint of first edition: Charles E. Banks, Boston, 1931 Vol. 1
  65. Spicer, Edward H, Cycles of Conquest: The Impact of Spain, Mexico, and the United States on the Indians of the Southwest, 1533–1960, Univeristy of Arizona Press, 1960, pp. 124-126, open access:https://open.uapress.arizona.edu/read/cycles-of-conquest-the-impact-of-spain-mexico-and-the-united-states-on-the-indians-of-the-southwest-1533-1960/section/90a529f7-759b-410f-8c6b-dc56fbb9e9ca
  66. Gallay 2003, pp. 147–148
  67. Konstantin 2002, p. 48
  68. "The Tuscarora War (1711–1715)".
  69. Ashlee, Laura R. Traveling Through Time: A Guide to Michigan's Historical Markers, University of Michigan Press, 2005, p. 502, ISBN 978-0-47203-066-8
  70. Gallay 2003, p. 284
  71. Read, Milton, The tar heel state: a history of North Carolina, University of South Carolina Press, 2005, pp. 36–37, ISBN 978-1-57003-591-3
  72. Gallay 2003, p. 328
  73. Reynolds, William R. The Cherokee Struggle to Maintain Identity in the 17th and 18th Century, McFarland and Company, Inc, 2015, pp. 34–35, ISBN 9780786473175
  74. Grenier, John The Far Reaches of Empire: War in Nova Scotia, 1710–1760, University of Oklahoma Press, 2008, p. 84, ISBN 978-0-80613-876-3
  75. Barnett, James F., The Natchez Indians: a history to 1735, University Press of Mississippi, 2007, p. 105, ISBN 978-1-57806-988-0
  76. Onofrio, J. Dictionary of Indian Tribes of the Americas, Volume 1, American Indian Publishers, Inc., 1993, p. 250, ISBN 9780937862285
  77. Edmunds, R. Davids and Peyser, Joseph L. The Fox Wars: Mesquakie Challenge to New France, University of Oklahoma Press, 1993, pp. 151–156, ISBN 978-0-80612-551-0
  78. Maxson, Thomas F. Mount Nimham: The Ridge of Patriots, Rangerville Press, 2010, p. 22, ISBN 978-0578025810
  79. Grumet, Robert S. The Munsee Indians: A History, University of Oklahoma Press, 2014, p. 263
  80. Blackhawk, Ned, Violence over the Land: Indians and Empires in the Early American West, Harvard University Press, 2006, p. 50, ISBN 978-0-67402-290-4
  81. "Drapers Meadow: Few traces remain of the site of a bloody 1755 Indian attack". The Roanoke Times. Archived from the original on September 30, 2012. Retrieved November 14, 2007.
  82. Sipe 1929, pp. 204-209
  83. Sipe 1929, pp. 217-229
  84. Sipe 1929, pp. 241-243
  85. Konstantin 2002, p. 224
  86. Hamalainen 2008, pp. 58–59
  87. Bruchac, Marge, Reading Abenaki Traditions and European Records of Rogers' Raid Archived September 13, 2008, at the Wayback Machine, August 2006, pp. 3–4
  88. Nester, "Haughty Conquerors", 86, gives the number of traders killed at Sandusky as 12; Dixon, Never Come to Peace, mentions "three or four", while Dowd, War under Heaven, 125, says that it was "a great many".
  89. Konstantin 2002, p. 260
  90. Sipe 1929, pp. 459-462
  91. Taylor, Alan, American Colonies, New York: Viking Press, 2001
  92. "A Narrative of the Late Massacres..." Archived April 27, 2006, at the Wayback Machine, Benjamin Franklin's account of the massacre and criticism of the Paxton Boys
  93. "A Disquisition Portraying the History Relative to the Enoch Brown Incident" Archived July 16, 2012, at the Wayback Machine, Greencastle Museum
  94. "University of Virginia online exhibit Birth of American Frontier Culture
  95. Hamalainen 2008, p. 78
  96. Konstantin 2002, p. 106
  97. Konstantin 2002, p. 181
  98. "Pennsylvania Historical and Museum Commission – The Battle of Wyoming and Hartley's Expedition".
  99. Wallace, Paul A. W., Indians in Pennsylvania, Pennsylvania Historical & Museum Commission, 2007, 200 pages, pp. 162–164, ISBN 978-0-89271-017-1
  100. Konstantin 2002, p. 246
  101. Konstantin 2002, p. 321
  102. Belcher, Ronald Clay, (2011) Westervelt Massacre in Kentucky in 1780. Blue Grass Roots. Quarterly Journal of the Kentucky Genealogical Society. Frankfurt, Kentucky. Vol. 38, No. 2, pp. 30–37.
  103. Priest, Josiah, Stories of the Revolution with an account of the lost child of the Delaware, 1836, Hoffman and White Albany, New York, accessdate February 17, 2013
  104. "Dietz Massacre". Archived from the original on February 15, 2008.
  105. Wilcox, G.T., An account of the Long Run Massacre and Floyd's Defeat as told by G. T. Wilcox, Squire Boone's Grandson in a letter to Hon. Thos. W. Bullitt. Kentucky Genealogy 28, June 2000, accessdate December 28, 2012.
  106. Akers, Vincent J. History of Painted Stone Station. Archived April 5, 2013, at the Wayback Machine Painted Stone Settlers Organization. 2012, accessdate December 28, 2012.
  107. Asche, J. L. "Tuscarawas County, Ohio". freepages.genealogy.rootsweb.com.
  108. Konstantin 2002, p. 57
  109. Reynolds 2015, p. 357
  110. Reynolds 2015, p. 358
  111. Fairfax Downed, Indian Wars of the U.S. Army 1776–1865 (1963), pp. 54–59
  112. Denetdale, Jennifer Nez, Reclaiming Diné History: The Legacies of Navajo Chief Manuelito and Juanita, University of Arizona Press; 2007, p. 56. ISBN 978-0-81652-660-4.
  113. Konstantin 2002, p. 231
  114. Allison, Harold (©1986, Harold Allison). The Tragic Saga of the Indiana Indians. Turner Publishing Company, Paducah.
  115. Konstantin 2002, p. 20
  116. Konstantin 2002, p. 245
  117. "Fort Sinquefield". Clarke County Historical Museum. Retrieved November 27, 2008.
  118. Borneman, Walter R. (2004). 1812: The War That Forged a Nation. page 149. Harper. ISBN 9780060531126.
  119. Tom Kanon. 2014. Tennesseans at War, 1812–1815: Andrew Jackson, the Creek War, and the Battle of New Orleans. University of Alabama Press p. 75-76
  120. Steve Rajtar. 1999 Indian War Sites: A Guidebook to Battlefields, Monuments, and Memorials, State by State with Canada and Mexico. McFarland.
  121. Heidler D.S., Heidler J.T., Encyclopedia of the War of 1812, Naval Institute Press, 2004, p. 239, ISBN 978-0-87436-968-7
  122. McKenney, T.L., Indian Tribes of America, Applewood Books, 2010, p. 307, ISBN 978-1-4290-2265-1
  123. Missall, John (2004). The Seminole Wars: America's Longest Indian Conflict. Florida: University Press of Florida. pp. 36–37.
  124. Himmel, Kelly F. (1999). The conquest of the Karankawas and the Tonkawas, 1821–1859. College Station: Texas A&M University Press. ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3.CS1 maint: ref=harv (link)
  125. "The Fall Creek Massacre". Conner Prairie. Archived from the original on April 23, 2012. Retrieved April 16, 2012.
  126. Himmel 1999, p. 50
  127. Konstantin 2002, p. 128
  128. Konstantin 2002, p. 213
  129. May, Jon D., "Battle of Cutthroat Gap" Encyclopedia of Oklahoma History and Culture, retrieved May 24, 2012.
  130. Konstantin 2002, p. 127
  131. Madley 2016, p.40
  132. Sweeney, Edwin R. Cochise: Chiricahua Apache Chief, University of Oklahoma Press, 1995, p. 33, ISBN 978-0806126067
  133. Dean, Kenneth Remembering The Killough Massacre, June 21, 2010, East Texas News, Tyler Paper, accessed February 16, 2013.
  134. Abbott, Peyton O., Webster massacre, Texas State Historical Association, Handbook of Texas Online, accessed February 16, 2013.
  135. Anderson 2005, pp. 182–183
  136. Knetsch, Joe., Florida's Seminole Wars 1817–1858, Arcadia Publishing (September 18, 2012), p. 128
  137. Anderson 2005, pp. 190–191
  138. Perez, Vincent, Remembering the Hacienda: History and Memory in the Mexican American Southwest, Texas A&M University Press, 2006, p. 85, ISBN 978-1-58544-511-0
  139. Kiernan 2007, p. 352
  140. Madley, Benjamin An American Genocide: The United States and the California India Catastrophe, 1846–1873, Yale University Press, 2016.
  141. Parker, Horace, The Historic Valley of Temecula. The Temecula Massacre 24 pages, Paisano Press (1971), 286593
  142. Mcwilliams, Carey, North From Mexico: The Spanish-Speaking People of the United States, Praeger, 1990, p. 115, ISBN 978-0275932244
  143. Konstantin 2002, p. 336
  144. Anderson 2005, pp. 226–227
  145. Diary of Oliver B. Huntington, Vol. 2 (BYU Special Collections)
  146. Farmer, Jared (2008). On Zion's Mount: Mormons, Indians, and the American Landscape. Harvard University Press. p. 76. ISBN 9780674027671.
  147. Letter, Brevet Capt. N. Lyon to Major E.R.S. Canby, May 22, 1850
  148. Heizer 1993, pp. 244–246
  149. Key, Karen. Bloody Island (Bo-no-po-ti) The Historical Marker Database. June 18, 2007, accessdate December 26, 2012
  150. The Tucson Citizen, September 26, 1913
  151. Heizer, Robert, Handbook of North American Indians: California, Volume 8, William Sturtevant, General Editor, Smithsonian Institution, 1978, pp. 324–325
  152. Himmel 1999, p. 101
  153. Norton 1979, pp. 51–54
  154. Thrapp, Dan L, Encyclopedia of Frontier Biography, Volume 3: P–Z, University of Nebraska Press, 1991, p. 1276, ISBN 978-0803294202
  155. Collins, James, Understanding Tolowa Histories: Western Hegemonies and Native American Responses, Routledge, 1997, p. 35, ISBN 978-0-41591-2082
  156. Thornton 1990, p. 206
  157. Norton 1979
  158. Norton 1979, pp. 56–57
  159. Heizer 1993, Letter, Bvt. 2nd Lieut. John Nugens to Lieut T. Wright, December 31, 1853, pp. 12–13,.
  160. Schwartz 1997, pp. 61–62
  161. Schwartz 1997, p. 63
  162. Madley, Benjamin California's Yuki Indians: Defining Genocide in Native American History in Western Historical Quarterly 39 (Autumn 2008): 303–332, pp. 303–304
  163. Oregon Trail in Idaho—Ward Massacre Site idahohistory.net
  164. Ward Massacre Archived June 22, 2006, at the Wayback Machine washingtonwars.net
  165. Michno 2003, pp. 28–29
  166. Heizer 1993, Crescent City Herald, quoted in Sacramento newspaper., pp. 35–36
  167. Sprague, Donovin A. Rosebud Sioux (Images of America: South Dakota), Arcadia Publishing, 2005, p. 21. 978-0738534473
  168. Schwartz 1997, pp. 86–88
  169. Madley 2012, p. 121
  170. Massacre on the Grande Ronde River in Oregon, sos.wa.gov
  171. Madley 2012b, pp. 21–22
  172. "Native Americans attack Americans at the Cascades of the Columbia on March 26, 1856. – HistoryLink.org". www.historylink.org.
  173. Gardner-Sharp, Abbie History of the Spirit Lake Massacre and Captivity of Miss Abbie Gardner, Des Moines: Iowa Printing, 1885 (reprinted 1892, 1910), accessdate December 28, 2012
  174. Madley, Benjamin California's Yuki Indians: Defining Genocide in Native American History in Western Historical Quarterly 39 (Autumn 2008): 303–332, pp. 317–318
  175. Lindsay, Brendan C., Murder State: California's Native American Genocide, 1846–1873, University of Nebraska Press, 2012, p.192–193, ISBN 978-0803224803
  176. "Fraser Canyon War | The Canadian Encyclopedia". www.thecanadianencyclopedia.ca. Retrieved June 22, 2020.
  177. Madley 2012, pp. 118–119
  178. Madley 2012, p. 117
  179. Heizer 1993
  180. Rohde, Jerry (February 25, 2010). "Genocide and Extortion: 150 years later, the hidden motive behind the Indian Island Massacre". North Coast Journal. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
  181. "In 1860 six murderers nearly wiped out the Wiyot Indian tribe—in 2004 its members have found ways to heal", SFGate.com
  182. Michno 2003, pp. 72–73
  183. Anderson 2005, pp. 331–332
  184. Owyhee County Cattlemen, pages 172–180
  185. Baumgardner 2006, pp. 204–206
  186. Thrapp, Dan L. (1979). The Conquest of Apacheria. Norman, OK: University of Oklahoma Press. ISBN 0-8061-1286-7.
  187. Sonneborn, L. Chronology of American Indian History, Facts on File, p. 164, ISBN 978-0-816067701
  188. Baumgardner 2006, p. 243
  189. Madley 2012b, p. 34
  190. Heizer, Robert, Handbook of North American Indians: California, Volume 8, William Sturtevant, General Editor, Smithsonian Institution, 1978, p. 111
  191. Kunnen-Jones, Marianne (August 21, 2002). "Anniversary Volume Gives New Voice To Pioneer Accounts of Sioux Uprising". University of Cincinnati. Archived from the original on June 19, 2008. Retrieved June 6, 2007.
  192. University of Cincinnati News: Tolzmann Edits Pioneer Accounts of Sioux Archived June 19, 2008, at the Wayback Machine
  193. Sonnichsen, C. L. The Mescalero Apaches (The Civilization of the American Indian Series), University of Oklahoma Press, 1979, pp. 111–112, ISBN 978-0806116150
  194. Michno 2003, pp. 105–106
  195. Kiernan 2007, p. 356
  196. Hart, Newell, The Bear River Massacre. Cache Valley Newsletter Publishing Company, Preston, Idaho. 1982. ISBN 0-941462-01-3
  197. Vredenburgh, Larry. "Keyesville Indian Massacre of April 19, 1863". vredenburgh.org.
  198. Browne, R. John, Adventures in the Apache County: a tour through Arizona and Sonora with notes on the silver regions of Nevada. 1869. New York: Harpers & Brothers Publishers.
  199. Madley 2012b, p. 40
  200. McGinnis, Ralph and Smith, Calvin, Abraham Lincoln and the western territories, Rowman and Littlefield Publishers, 1994, p. 90, ISBN 978-0-8304-1247-1
  201. Thrapp 1975, pp. 29–31
  202. Braatz 2003, pp. 89–90, p. 105
  203. Newton C.H., The reasons why place names in Arizona are so named, Tecolote Press, 1978, p. 40, ISBN 978-0-915030-25-5
  204. Michno 2003, pp. 157–159
  205. Smiley, Brenda "Sand Creek Massacre", Archeology magazine. Archaeological Institute of America, accessdate December 26, 2012.
  206. Egan, Ferol Sand in a whirlwind, 30th Anniversary Edition: The Paiute Indian War of 1860, University of Nevada Press, 1985, p. 226. ISBN 978-0-87417-097-9
  207. Peter Gottfredson (2002). History of Indian depredations in Utah. Fenestra Books. ISBN 978-1587361272.
  208. Fradkin, Philip L., The seven states of California: a natural and human history, University of California Press, 1997, p. 31, ISBN 978-0-520-20942-8
  209. Thornton 1990, p. 110
  210. Scheper-Hughes 2003, p. 55
  211. Modoc NF History, 1945 – Chapter I, General Description United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
  212. Knack, Martha, Boundaries Between: The Southern Paiutes, 1775–1995, University of Nebraska Press, 2004, p. 85, ISBN 0-8032-7818-7
  213. Thrapp 1975, pp. 37–38
  214. Thornton 1990, p. 111
  215. ScheperHughe 2003, p. 56
  216. Braatz 2003, p. 105
  217. "Headlines: Error Page". www.historyandtheheadlines.abc-clio.com.
  218. Andrist, Ralph K., The Long Death: The Last Days of the Plains Indians, University of Oklahoma Press, 2001, 371 pages, pp 157–162, ISBN 978-0-8061-3308-9
  219. Brown, Dee, Bury My Heart at Wounded Knee, Henry Holt and Co., 2007, 487 pages, pp 167–169, ISBN 978-0-8050-8684-3
  220. Churchill 1997, p. 236
  221. "Colorado Humanities – Sand Creek Memorial and Washita Sites". Archived from the original on February 27, 2012.
  222. "Washita Battlefield, Oklahoma", ExploreSouthernHistory.com
  223. Giago, Tim, "Honoring Those Who Died at Washita"
  224. "The 140th Anniversary of the Washita Massacre of Nov. 27, 1868 – Native American Netroots". www.nativeamericannetroots.net.
  225. "Washita", The West, PBS
  226. "Cherry Creek Massacre recognized in magazine", The Saint Francis Herald (St. Francis, KS), November 17, 2005
  227. Zeman, Scott C., Chronology of the American West from 23,000 B.C.E. through the Twentieth Century, ABC-CLIO, 2002, 381 pages, p. 155, ISBN 978-1-57607-207-3
  228. Michno 2003, p. 241
  229. Ishi in Two Worlds California State Parks Video Transcript
  230. Terrell, J., Land Grab, pp. 4–10.
  231. Colwell-Chanthaphonh, Chip, Western Apache Oral Histories and Traditions of the Camp Grant Massacre. The American Indian Quarterly – Volume 27, Number 3&4, Summer/Fall 2003, pp. 639–666., accessdate December 26, 2012
  232. "The Indian Attack Upon an Arizona Stage The Driver and Five Passengers Killed". The New York Times. November 20, 1871.
  233. "The Late Frederick W. Loring" (PDF). The New York Times. November 24, 1871. Retrieved December 26, 2012.
  234. Braatz 2003, pp. 2–3; p. 138
  235. Hildebrandt, Walter. "Cypress Hills Massacre". The Encyclopedia of Saskatchewan. University of Regina. Archived from the original on March 17, 2008. Retrieved March 28, 2008.
  236. Churchill 1997, p. 237
  237. Greene, Jerome A. (2000). "6". Nez Perce Summer 1877: The U.S. Army and the Nee-Me-Poo Crisis. Helena, MT: Montana Historical Society Press. ISBN 0-917298-68-3.
  238. Michno 2003, pp. 322–323
  239. Boye, Alan, Holding Stone Hands: On the Trail of the Cheyenne Exodus, University of Nebraska Press, 2001, pp. 66–67, ISBN 978-0-8032-1294-7
  240. "Milk Creek battlefield". National Park Service, US Department of the Interior. Retrieved March 17, 2008.
  241. "Milk Creek battle (or Meeker Massacre)". Meeker Colorado Chamber of Commerce. Archived from the original on November 17, 2007. Retrieved March 16, 2008.
  242. "Alma Massacre, Pioneer Story, New Mexico". October 7, 2008. Archived from the original on October 7, 2008.
  243. Gonzalez 1998, p. 294
  244. Michno 2003, p. 351
  245. Jensen, Richard, Paul, Eli and Hanson, James, Eyewitness at Wounded Knee, University of Nebraska Press, 1991, p. 20, ISBN 978-0-8032-1409-5
  246. Early Native Americans nevada-history.org
  247. "Book Review, The Last Massacre". The New York Times. January 17, 1988.
  248. "Policeman Edward Hogle, Nevada State Police" The Officer Down Memorial Page

Bibliography
  • Anderson, Gary C., The Conquest of Texas: Ethnic cleansing in the Promised Land, 1820–1875, University of Oklahoma Press, 2005, 544 pages, ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3
  • Baumgardner, Frank, Killing for Land in Early California – Indian Blood at Round Valley, Algora Publishing, 2006, 312 pages, ISBN 978-0-87586-364-1
  • Braatz, Timothy, Surviving conquest: a history of the Yavapai peoples, University of Nebraska Press, 2003, 336 pages, ISBN 978-0-8032-2242-7
  • Churchill, Ward, A Little Matter of Genocide: Holocaust and Denial in the Americas, 1492 to the Present, City Lights, 1997, 381 pages, ISBN 978-0-87286-323-1
  • Heizer, Robert F., The Destruction of California Indians, University of Nebraska Press, Lincoln and London, 1993, 321 pages, ISBN 978-0-8032-7262-0
  • Gallay, Alan, The Indian Slave Trade: The rise of the English Empire in the American South, Yale University Press, 2003, 464 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-10193-5
  • Gonzalez, Mario and Cook-Lynn, Elizabeth, The Politics of Hallowed Ground: Wounded Knee and the Struggle for Indian Sovereignty, University of Illinois Press, 1998, 448 pages, ISBN 978-0-25206-669-6
  • Hamalainen, Pekka, The Comanche Empire, Yale University Press, 2008, 512 pages, ISBN 978-0-30012-654-9
  • Himmel, Kelly F., The Conquest of the Karankawas and the Tonkawas, 1821–1859, TAMU Press, 1999, 216 pages, ISBN 978-0-89096-867-3
  • Kiernan, Ben, "Blood and Soil: a World History of Genocide and Massacre from Sparta to Darfur", Yale University Press, 2007, 768 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-10098-3
  • Konstantin, Phil, This Day in North American Indian History: Events in the History of North America's Native Peoples, Da Capo Press, 2002, 480 pages, ISBN 978-0-306-81170-8
  • Madley, Benjamin, Tactics of Nineteenth Century Colonial Massacre: Tasmania, California and Beyond in Philips G. Dwyer and Lyndall Ryan, eds., Theatres of Violence: Massacres, Mass Killing and Atrocity Throughout History, Berghan Books, 2012, 350 pages, ISBN 978-0-85745-299-3
  • Madley, Benjamin, The Genocide of California's Yana Indians in Samuel Totten and Williams S. Parsons, eds., Centuries of Genocide: Essays and Eyewitness Accounts, Routledge, 2012, pp. 16–53, 611 pages, ISBN 978-0-415871-921
  • Madley, Benjamin, An American Genocide, The United States and the California Catastrophe, 1846–1873, Yale University Press, 2016, 692 pages, ISBN 978-0-300-18136-4
  • Michno, Gregory F., Encyclopedia of Indian Wars: Western Battles and Skirmishes 1850–1890, Mountain Press Publishing Co., 2003, 448 pages, ISBN 978-0-87842-468-9
  • Norton, Jack, "Genocide in Northwestern California : when our worlds cried", Indian Historian Press, San Francisco, 1979, ISBN 0-913436-26-2
  • Reynolds, W.R., The Cherokee Struggle to Maintain Identity in the 17th and 18th Centuries, McFarland, 2015, 436 pages, ISBN 978-0-78647-317-5
  • Scheper-Hughes, Nancy, Violence in War and Peace: An Anthology, Wiley-Blackwell, 2003, 512 pages, ISBN 978-0-631-22349-8
  • Schwartz, E. A, The Rogue River Indian War and its aftermath, 1850–1980, University of Oklahoma Press, 1997, ISBN 978-0-8061-2906-8
  • Sipe, C. Hale, The Indian wars of Pennsylvania: An account of the Indian events, in Pennsylvania, of the French and Indian War, Pontiac's War, Lord Dunmore's War, the Revolutionary War and the Indian Uprising from 1789 to 1795. Tragedies of the Pennsylvania frontier, Telegraph Press, 1929. 793 pages. ISBN 978-5871748480
  • Thornton, Russell, "American Indian Holocaust and Survival: a Population History since 1492", University of Oklahoma Press, 1990, 312 pages, ISBN 978-0-8061-2220-5
  • Thrapp, Dan, "The Conquest of Apacheria", University of Oklahoma Press, 1975, 422 pages, ISBN 978-0-8061-1286-2
This article is issued from Wikipedia. The text is licensed under Creative Commons - Attribution - Sharealike. Additional terms may apply for the media files.