Keres language

Keresan /ˈkɛrɪsən/, also Keres /kəˈriːs/, is a Native American language, spoken by the Keres Pueblo people in New Mexico. Depending on the analysis, Keresan is considered a small language family or a language isolate with several dialects. The varieties of each of the seven Keres pueblos are mutually intelligible with its closest neighbors. There are significant differences between the Western and Eastern groups, which are sometimes counted as separate languages.

"Keresan" redirects here. For the US Navy cargo ship, see USS Keresan (ID-1806).
Keresan
Native toUnited States
RegionNew Mexico
EthnicityKeres
Native speakers
10,670 (2007)[1][2]
Keresan or language isolate
Dialects
  • East Keres
  • West Keres
Language codes
ISO 639-3Either:
kee – Eastern
kjq – Western
Glottologkere1287[3]
Pre-contact distribution of Keresan languages

Family division
  • Eastern Keres: total of 4,580 speakers (1990 census)
    • Cochiti Pueblo Kotyit dialect: 384 speakers (1990 census)
    • San Felipe Pueblo – Santo Domingo Pueblo:
      • Katishtya dialect: 1,560 speakers (1990 census)
      • Kewa dialect: 1,880 speakers (1990 census)
    • Zia Pueblo – Santa Ana Pueblo:
      • Ts'ia dialect: 463 speakers (1990 census)
      • Tamaiya dialect: 229 speakers (1990 census)
  • Western Keres: total of 3,391 speakers (1990 census)

Genetic relationships

Keres is now considered a language isolate. In the past, Edward Sapir grouped it together with a Hokan–Siouan stock. Morris Swadesh suggested a connection with Wichita. Joseph Greenberg grouped Keres with Siouan, Yuchi, Caddoan, and Iroquoian in a superstock called Keresiouan. None of these proposals has been validated by subsequent linguistic research.

Phonology

Keresan has between 42 and 45 consonant sounds, and around 40 vowel sounds, adding up to a total of about 95 phonemes, depending on the analysis and the language variety. Based on the classification in the World Atlas of Language Structures, Keres is a language with a large consonant inventory.

The great number of consonants relates to the three-way distinction between voiceless, aspirated and ejective consonants (e.g. /t tʰ tʼ/), and to the larger than average[4] number of fricatives (i.e. /s sʼ ʂ ʂʼ ʃ ʃʼ h/) and affricates, the latter also showing the three-way distinction found in stops.

The large number of vowels derives from a distinction made between long and short vowels (e.g. /e eː/), as well as from the presence of tones and voicelessness. Thus, a single vowel quality may occur with seven distinct realizations: / é è e̥ éː èː êː ěː /, all of which are used to distinguish words in the language.

Consonants

The chart below contains the consonants of the proto-Keresan (or pre-Keresan) from Miller & Davis (1963) based on a comparison of Acoma, Santa Ana, and Santo Domingo, as well as other features of the dialects compiled from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964), Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987), and The Phonemes of Keresan (1946), and the Grammar of Laguna Keres (2005).[5][6][7][8]

Labial Alveolar Palatal Retroflex Postalveolar Velar Glottal
Plosive voiceless ptckʔ
aspirated pʰtʰcʰkʰ
ejective pʼtʼcʼ kʼ
Fricative voiceless sʂʃ h
ejective sʼʂʼʃʼ
Affricate voiceless ts tʂ tʃ
aspirated tsʰ tʂʰ tʃʰ
ejective tsʼ tʂʼ tʃʼ
Approximant voiced wɽj
glottalized wˀɽˀjˀ
Nasal voiced mnɲ
glottalized mˀnˀɲˀ

Vowels

Keresan vowels have a phonemic distinction in duration: all vowels can be long or short. Additionally, short vowels can also be voiceless. The vowel chart below contains the vowel phonemes and allophones from the information of the Keresan languages combined from The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo (1964),[5] The Phonemes of Keresan (1946),[7] and Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics (1987).[6]

Long Short
Phonemic Phonetic Phonemic Phonetic Voiceless
Close / iː / [ i ] / i / [ i ɪ ] [ ɪ̥ ]
Mid-front / eː / [ eː ] / e / [e ɛ æ ] [ e̥ ]
Mid-central / ɨː / [ əː ɨː ] / ɨ / [ ə ɨ ɤ ] [ ɨ̥ ]
Open / ɑː / [ aː ɑː ] / ɑ / [ a ɑ ] [ ḁ ]
Back-close / oː / [ oː ] / o / [ o ] [ o̥ ]
/ uː / [ uː ] / u / [ u ʊ o ] [ ʊ̥ ]

Notes:

  • Western Keres does not have phonemic /oː/ or /o/, though both vowels may occur phonetically.[8] Eastern Keres words containing /o/ show /au/ in Western Keres.[9] For instance, the first vowel in the word-sentence Sraúkacha - “I see you”:
    • Kotyit Keres: [ ʂóːkʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥ ]
    • Kʼawaika Keres: [ ʂɑ̌ukʰɑ̥tʃʰɑ̥ ] -

Voiceless vowels

All Keresan short vowels may be devoiced in certain positions. The phonemic status of these vowels is controversial.[8] Maring (1967) considers them to be phonemes of Áákʼu Keres, whereas other authors disagree. There are phonetic grounds for vowel devoicing based on the environment they occur, for instance word-finally, but there are also exceptions. Vowels in final position are nearly always voiceless and medial vowels occurring between voiced consonants, after nasals and ejectives are nearly always voiced.[10]

  • Word-final devoicing: [ pɑ̌ːkʊ̥ ] because
  • Word-medial devoicing: [ ʔìpʰi̥ʃɑ́ ] white paint

Tones

Acoma Keres has four lexical tones: high, low, falling and rising.[10] Falling and rising tones only occur in long vowels and voiceless vowels bear no tones:

Tones examples translation
High [tɨ́j] , [áwáʔáwá] here, matrilineal uncle
Low [mùːtètsá] young boy
Rising [pɑ̌ːkʊ̥] because
Falling [ʔêː] , [hêːk'a] and, whole part

Syllable structure

Most Keresan syllables take a CV(V) shape.[8] The maximal syllable structure is CCVVC and the minimal syllable is CV. In native Keresan words, only a glottal stop /ʔ/ ⟨ʼ⟩ can close a syllable, but some loanwords from Spanish have syllables that end in a consonant, mostly a nasal (i.e. /m n/ but words containing these sequences are rare in the language.[11]

Syllable type examples translation
CV [sʼà], [ʔɪ]shv́v I have it, left
CVV [mùː]dedza , a[táù]shi young boy, cooking pot
CCV [ʃkʰí]srátsʼa I'm not fat
CCVV [ʃtùː]sra bluejay
CVC í[miʔ], [kùm]banêeru expression of fear, workmate (Spanish "compañero")

Due to extensive vowel devoicing, several Keresan words may be perceived as ending in consonants or even containing consonant clusters.

  • Word-internal cluster: yʼâakạ srûunị ‘stomach’ /jˀɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni/ > [jɑ̂ːkḁʂûːni] ~ [jɑ̂ːkʂûːni]
  • Word-final coda: úwàakạ ‘baby’; /úwɑ̀ːkḁ/ > [úwɑ̀ːkʰḁ] ~ [úwɑ̀ːkʰ]

Phonotactics

The only sequence of consonants (i.e. consonant cluster) that occurs in native Keresan words is a sequence of a fricative /ʃ ʂ/ and a stop or affricate. Clusters are restricted to beginnings of syllables (i.e. the syllable onset). When the alveolo-palatal consonant /ʃ/ occurs as C1, it combines with alveolar and palatal C2, whereas the retroflex alveolar /ʂ/ precedes bilabial and velar C2s, which suggest a complementary distribution. Consonant clusters may occur both word-initially and word-medially.[9]

C1 / C2 Bilabial Alveolar Velar Postalveolar
/ p / / pʰ / / pʼ / / t / / tʰ / / tʼ / / k / / kʰ / / kʼ / / tʃ / / tʃʰ / / tʃʼ /
/ ʃ / /ʃtáʊ̯rákʊ̥/

shdáurákụ

'frog, toad'

 /ʃtʰéràʃtʼíká/

shtérashtʼígá

'cricket'

 /ʃtʼìcɑ̀ːtʰɪ̥ʃɪ̥/

shtʼidyàatịshị

'plot of land'

 /ʃtʃɨ/

shjv

'upward'

 /ʃtʃʰúmúná/

shchúmúmá

'wasp'

 /ʃtʃʼísḁ/

shchʼísạ


'six'

/ ʂ / /ʂpúːná/

srbúuná

'water jug'

 /ʂpʰɑ̀ːtʼi/

srpàat'i

'mockingbird'

 /ʂpʼeruru/

srpʼeruru

'it's full'

 /ʂkɑ́ʂkɑ́ʊ̯kʼa/

srgásrgáukʼa

'quail'

 /ʂkʰɨ́tútsʰɪ̥/

srkv́dútsị

'mound, hill'

 /ʂkʼàpɪ́hɪ́/

srkʼabíhí

'female in-law'

Orthography

Traditional Keresan beliefs postulate that Keres is a sacred language that must exist only in its spoken form.[12] The language's religious connotation and years of persecution of Pueblo religion by European colonizers may also explain why no unified orthographic convention exists for Keresan. However, a practical spelling system has been developed for Laguna (Kʼawaika)[8] and more recently for Acoma (Áakʼu) Keres,[13] both of which are remarkably consistent.

In the Keres spelling system, each symbol represents a single phoneme. The letters ⟨c q z f⟩ and sometimes also ⟨v⟩ are not used. Digraphs represent both palatal consonants (written using a sequence of C and ⟨y⟩), and retroflex consonants, which are represented using a sequence of C and the letter ⟨r⟩. These graphemes used for writing Western Keres are shown between ⟨...⟩ below.

Consonant Symbols
Labial Alveolar Palatal Retroflex Postalveolar Velar Glottal
Plosive voiceless ⟨b⟩⟨d⟩⟨dy⟩⟨g⟩⟨ʼ⟩
aspirated ⟨p⟩⟨t⟩⟨ty⟩⟨k⟩
ejective ⟨pʼ⟩⟨tʼ⟩⟨tyʼ⟩⟨kʼ⟩
Fricative voiceless ⟨s⟩⟨sr⟩⟨sh⟩ ⟨h⟩
ejective ⟨sʼ⟩⟨srʼ⟩⟨shʼ⟩
Affricate voiceless ⟨dz⟩ ⟨dr⟩ ⟨j⟩
aspirated ⟨ts⟩ ⟨tr⟩ ⟨ch⟩
ejective ⟨tsʼ⟩ ⟨trʼ⟩ ⟨chʼ⟩
Approximant voiced ⟨w⟩⟨r⟩⟨y⟩
glottalized ⟨wʼ⟩⟨rʼ⟩⟨yʼ⟩
Nasal voiced ⟨m⟩⟨n⟩⟨ny⟩
glottalized ⟨mʼ⟩⟨nʼ⟩⟨nyʼ⟩

Signage at Acoma Pueblo

Signs at Acoma Pueblo sometimes use special diacritics for ejective consonants that differ from the symbols above, as shown in the table:

Signage at Acoma Pueblo
General ⟨pʼ⟩ ⟨tʼ⟩ ⟨kʼ⟩ ⟨sʼ⟩ ⟨tsʼ⟩ ⟨mʼ⟩ ⟨wʼ⟩ ⟨yʼ⟩ ⟨nʼ shʼ srʼ tyʼ⟩
Acoma signage ⟨ṕ⟩ ⟨t́⟩ ⟨ḱ⟩ ⟨ś⟩ ⟨tś⟩ ⟨ḿ⟩ ⟨ẃ⟩ ⟨ý⟩ ?

Vowel Symbols

Vowel sounds are represented straightforwardly in the existing spellings for Keresan. Each vowel sound is written using a unique letter or digraph (for long vowels and diphthongs). However, there are two competing representations for the vowel /ɨ/. Some versions simply use the IPA ⟨ɨ⟩ whereas others use the letter ⟨v⟩ (the sound /v/ as in veal does not occur in Keresan). Voiceless vowels have also been represented in two ways; either underlined or with a dot below (see table).

Long vowels Short vowels Voiceless vowels
Phoneme Grapheme Phoneme Grapheme Phoneme Grapheme
/ iː / ⟨ii⟩ / i / ⟨i⟩ / ɪ̥ / ⟨i̱⟩ or ⟨ị⟩
/ eː / ⟨ee⟩ / e / ⟨e⟩ / e̥ / ⟨e̱⟩ or ⟨ẹ⟩
/ ɨː / ⟨ɨɨ⟩ or ⟨vv⟩ / ɨ / ⟨ɨ⟩ or ⟨v⟩ / ɨ̥ / ⟨ɨ̱⟩ or ⟨ṿ⟩
/ ɑː / ⟨aa⟩ / ɑ / ⟨a⟩ / ḁ / ⟨a̱⟩ or ⟨ạ⟩
/ oː / ⟨oo⟩ / o / ⟨o⟩ / o̥ / ⟨o̱⟩ or ⟨ọ⟩
/ uː / ⟨uu⟩ / u / ⟨u⟩ / ʊ̥ / ⟨u̱⟩ or ⟨ụ⟩

Diacritics for Tone

Tone may or may not be represented in the orthography of Keresan. When represented, four diacritics may be used above the vowel. Unlike the system used for Navajo, diacritics for tone are not repeated in long vowels.

High tone Low tone Rising tone Falling tone
Long Vowel ⟨áa⟩, ⟨úu⟩ ⟨àa⟩, ⟨ùu⟩ or unmarked ⟨ǎa⟩, ⟨ǔu⟩ or ⟨aá⟩, ⟨uú⟩ ⟨âa⟩, ⟨ûu⟩ or ⟨aà⟩, ⟨uù⟩
Short Vowel ⟨á⟩, ⟨ú⟩ ⟨à⟩, ⟨ù⟩ or unmarked -

Keres Alphabet and Alphabetical order

Although Keresan is not normally written, there exists only one dictionary of the language in which words are listed in any given order. In this dictionary of Western Keres, digraphs count as single letters, although ejective consonants are not listed separately; occurring after their non-ejective counterparts. Both the glottal stop ⟨ʼ⟩ and long vowels (e.g. ⟨aa ee ii⟩ etc.) are not treated as separate letters.

Alphabetical order in the Acoma Keres Audio Dictionary
A B CH CHʼ D DR DY DZ E G H I J K Kʼ M Mʼ N Nʼ NY NYʼ P
Pʼ R Rʼ S Sʼ SH SHʼ SR SRʼ T TR TRʼ TS TSʼ TY TYʼ U W Wʼ Y Yʼ

Sample texts

Orthography marking tone

Woodpecker and Coyote[9]

Ái dítʼîishu srbígà kʼánâaya dyáʼâʼu. Shʼée srbígà ái dyěitsị ái náyáa shdyɨ dyáʼa.

Orthography without tone marking

Boas text [8]

Baanaʼa, egu kauʼseeʼe, atsi sʼaama-ee srayutse.

Morphosyntax

Keresan is a split-ergative language in which verbs denoting states (i.e. stative verbs) behave differently from those indexing actions, especially in terms of the person affixes they take. This system of argument marking is based on a split-intransitive pattern, in which subjects are marked differently if they are perceived as actors than from when they are perceived as undergoers of the action being described.

The morphology of Keresan is mostly prefixing, although suffixes and reduplication also occur.[9] Keresan distinguishes nouns, verbs, numerals and particles as word classes. Nouns in Keresan do not normally distinguish case or number, but they can be inflected for possession, with distinct constructions for alienable and inalienable possession. Other than possession, Keresan nouns show no comprehensive noun classes.

Word order

Keresan is a verb-final language, though word order is rather flexible.[9][8]

Laguna Keres[8]

S O V
John Bill gukacha
J. B. g-Ø-ukacha
John Bill 3s-3s-see
'John saw Bill'

Negation

Negation is doubly marked in Keresan. In addition to the adverb dzaadi, verbs index negation through a suffix (e.g. -u).

  • Gukacha 'S/he saw her/him'
  • Dzaadi gukachau 'S/he didn't see her/him'

Verbal morphology

The verb is a central grammatical category in Keres, conveying the most information about events in communicative acts.[8][9][10] Through its morphemes, Keresan verbs code not only person and number of the initiator of the action (e.g. 'Tammy drinks decaf') as is common in Indo-European languages, but also how the initiator is implicated in the action. For instance, the three verbs that describe Tammy's actions in 'Tammy kicked the ball' vs. 'Tammy jumped' vs. 'Tammy sneezed', where kicking, jumping and sneezing require different levels of effort from Tammy. The person and number of the undergoer of the action is also coded on the verb (e.g. gukacha means 'S/he sees her/him' on its own), as well as how the speaker assesses the action ('I think Tammy arrived from class' vs. 'Tammy arrived from class'). Finally, the internal temporal structure of the action (i.e. aspect, as in 'Tammy was sneezing in class' vs. 'Tammy sneezed in class').

According to Maring (1967), the Keresan verb is organized around the following grammatical categories (pp. 39-40)[10]

  • Subject/Object relations
    • Subject of intransitive verbs: marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3-4 persons in the singular (see below).
    • Subject of transitive verbs: marked by a prefix that distinguishes 3-4 persons in the singular (see below).
    • Object of transitive verbs: marked by a prefix that combines with the subject prefix, or by a suffix
  • Number relations
    • Singular: usually marked by a prefix
    • Dual: can be marked by a prefix, partial reduplication or by suffixes
    • Plural: can be marked by a prefix, partial reduplication, by suffixes or by suppletive stem forms (i.e. singular and plural forms are not related etymologically)
  • Temporal relations
    • Future: is marked on the verb by a series of prefixes that also encode number
  • Modality relations
  • Voice relations
    • Active
    • Passive
    • Reflexive
    • Reciprocal
  • Aspect
    • Imperfective
    • Inceptive
    • Repetitive
    • Continuative
    • Habitual
    • Inchoative
    • Perfective

The verbal prefix

In Keres, the verbal prefix carries information from five different grammatical categories: argument role, modality, polarity,[8] person and number. That is, a single Keresan verb prefix codes who initiated the action and how implicated that entity is (the subject/case), whom underwent the effects of the action (the direct object), the speaker's assessment of the action (the modality)[14] and whether it occurred or not (polarity). On the other hand, information about when the action took place (i.e. tense) is expressed elsewhere in a clause, mostly by adverbs.[9]

Number

Keresan verbs distinguish three numbers: singular, dual (two entities) and plural (more than two entities); and four persons: first (the speaker), second (the hearer), third (a known, definite or salient entity being talked about) and fourth (a non-salient, unknown or indefinite entity being talked about, also known as obviative) persons. The plural and dual forms are often marked by reduplication of part of the stem (gukacha ‘s/he saw it’ vs guʼukacha ‘the two of them saw it’).

Argument role

Languages encode two main types of actions: those in which the main participant initiates an action that produces change in an object (e.g. kick a ball, buy a gift, cook a dish, read a book); and those in which the action produces no (perceived) change in the world or that have no object (sneezing, breathing, growing, diving, etc.).[15] Actions that take an object are encoded by transitive verbs, whereas those that take no object are expressed via intransitive verbs.

Intransitive verbs

In Indo-European languages like English, all intransitive verbs behave similarly (‘They sneeze/breathe/dive/think’/etc.). In Keresan, actions that take no object are conceptualized in two distinct ways depending on how the initiator of the action is implicated. More active-like intransitive verbs (e.g. ‘to sneeze’) are coded through one set of morphemes, whereas actions conceptualized as involving the initiator at a lesser degree (e.g. ‘to believe’) are coded using a separate set of prefixes.

Degrees of involvement of the initiator in Keres[8]
Actions Intransitive verb type
More to write (-dyàatra), to steal as a thief (-chʼáwʼa), to have diarrhea (-ushchʼi),

to leave (-mi), to whistle (-srbiitsa), to sweat (-shdyuwàan’i)

 Active
Less to believe (-hima), to be born (-dyá), to sleep (-bái),

to be afraid (-tyishu), to forget (-dyúmidruwi)

 Inactive

Ideas expressed in Indo-European languages with adjectives are most often encoded by verbs in Keresan. That is, in Keresan one express the idea in the sentence ‘He is selfish’ by saying something along the lines of ‘He selfishes’. In such “actions”, the entity that is characterized by them is not implicated in the action directly (i.e. it's beyond their control), and thus belong in the Inactive intransitive category. The different sets of prefixes are shown below:

Intransitive Prefixes by Verb Type
Active intransive Inactive intrasitive
Prefix Example Prefix Example
First s(i)- sudyàatra I write srk- srkuhima I believe
Second sr- srúuchʼáwʼa you steal kɨdr- kɨdrâidyá you were born
Third k- kashdyuwàanʼi s/he sweats dz- dzíibái he is sleeping
Transitive verbs
Transitive verb - Indicative mood (-ukạchạ 'to see')
Direct object
Singular
Subject First ('me’) Second (‘you’) Third (‘her’/‘him’) Fourth
First

(‘I’)

 - srà-ukạchạ sì-ukạchạ -
I see you I see her/him
Second

(‘you’)

 dyù-ukạchạ - srù-ukạchạ
you see me you see her/him
Third

(‘she’/‘he’)

 srgù-ukạchạ kudrù -ukạchạ g-ukạchạ gù-ukạchạ
s/he sees me s/he sees you s/he sees her/him s/he sees something
Fourth

(‘one’)

 - dzì-ukạchạ -
one sees it

Aspect

Aspect in Keresan is signalled by suffixes.

-ajanu 'to rain'
kájáni it rains
káajáni it is raining
kájásɨ it keeps raining
káajatú it rained

Time (tense) adverbials

The category of tense is expressed in Keresan via adverbs that indicate when the action about which one is speaking took place.

Time adverbials in Acoma Keres[10]
Past Future
tsikʼínuma long ago kúsra tonight
háma once, formerly nacháma tomorrow
súwa yesterday naháayashi day after tomorrow

Lexicon

New words are coined through a number of roots that are combined to pre-existing ones. Compounding is a common strategy for word building, although derivation also occurs.

Numerals

The Keresan numeral system is a base 10 system. Numerals 11-19, as well as those between the multiple of tens, are formed by adding the word kʼátsi (/ kʼátsʰɪ / 'ten') followed by the word dzidra (/tsɪtʂa/ 'more'). Numerals 20 and above are formed by adding a multiplicative adverb (-wa or -ya) to the base number and the word kʼátsi.[8]

Western Keres
1 ísrkʼé 11 kʼátsi-írskʼá-dzidra 21 dyúya-kʼátsi-íisrkʼé-dzidra
2 dyúuwʼée 12 kʼátsi-dyú-dzidra 22 dyúya-kʼátsi-dyú-dzidra
3 chameʼée 13 kʼátsi-chami-dzidra 30 chamiya-kʼátsi
4 dyáana 14 kʼátsi-dyáana-dzidra 40 dyáanawa-kʼátsi
5 táam'a 15 kʼátsi-táamʼa-dzidra 50 táamʼawa-kʼátsi
6 shʼísa 16 kʼátsi-shchʼísa-dzidra 60 shchʼísawa-kʼátsi
7 mʼáiʼdyàana 17 kʼátsi-mʼáidyana-dzidra 70 mʼáidyanawa-kʼátsi
8 kukʼúmishu 18 kʼátsi-kukʼúmishu-dzidra 80 kukʼúmishuwa-kʼátsi
9 máyúkʼu 19 kʼátsi-máiyúkʼa-dzidra 90 máiyúkʼuwa-kʼátsi
10 kʼátsi 20 dyúwa-kʼátsi 100 kʼádzawa-kʼátsi

Loanwords from Spanish

European colonizers arriving in the Southwest US brought with them material culture and concepts that were unknown to the peoples living in the area. Words for the new ideas introduced by Spaniards were often borrowed into Keres directly from Early Modern Spanish, and a large number of these persists in Modern Keresan.[11]

Semantic domain Modern Western Keres Modern Spanish English translation
Household items kamárîita, kuchâaru, kujûuna, méesa, mendâan, kuwêeta camarita, cuchara, colchón, mesa, ventana, cubeta (Mexico) bed, spoon, mattress, table, window (glass), bucket
Social structure gumbanêerụ, rái, murâatụ, merigâanạ, kumanirá, ninêeru compañero, rey, mulato, americano(a), comunidad, dinero workmate, king, black person, white person, community house, money
Food géesu, arûusị, kawé, kurántụ, mantạgîiyụ, mandêegạ queso, arroz, café, cilantro, mantequilla, manteca cheese, rice, coffee, cilantro, butter, lard/butter
Animal husbandry kawâayu, kanêeru, kujíinu, kurá, dûura, wáakạshị caballo, carnero, cochino, corral, toro, vaca horse, sheep, pen/corral, bull, cow
Religious concepts míisa, Háasus Kuríistị, nachạwêena, guréesima misa, Jesús Cristo, Noche Buena, Cuaresma mass, Jesus Christ, Christmas, Lent
Days of the week tamîikụ, rûunishị, mâatịsị, mérikụsị, sruwêewesị, yêenịsị, sâawaru domingo, lunes, martes, miércoles, jueves, viernes, sábado Sunday, Monday, Tuesday, Wednesday, Thursday, Friday, Saturday

Proto-language
Proto-Keresan
Reconstruction ofKeresan languages

Proto-Keresan reconstructions by Miller and Davis (1963):[16]

no.glossProto-Keresan
1closed*-ʔáˑʔᴀ; *c̍ʔáˑʔᴀ
2arrive*-ʔác̍ɪ; *záʔác̍ɪ
3cooking pot*ʔádàus̆ɪ
4tether*ʔáˑdʸáˑnɪ
5there*ʔáisí
6lamp*ʔánáiẓáṅɪ
7chair, pillow*ʔánámát̠ɪ
8tasty*ʔáṅéˑ-za
9knee*ʔás̆ɪ; gáʔás̆ɪ
10wheat*ʔáṣánɪ
11metate*ʔáˑwáˑṅɪ
12he is willing*ʔé-gu
13his name*ʔéˑ-gá
14remember*ʔéʔé-gu
15go (plural)*-ʔégᴜ; *zéʔégᴜ
16sneeze*ʔésu-gᴀ
17centipede*ʔíʔìˑdʸawa
18liver*ʔíʔínâˑni
19cholla cactus*ʔiˑbánɪ
20bark*ʔíˑč̇ánání
21flour*ʔín̍áˑwí
22excrement*ʔiˑsa
23arrow*ʔísdúwa
24one*ʔísgᴀ
25meat*ʔíšâiˑni
26grease, lard*ʔíṣat̍ɪ
27porcupine*ʔiˑṣ̍á
28life*ʔíyâˑní
29hot*ʔɨ́rɨ́ˑ
30give*-ʔíᴜ; *zâuʔᴜ
31dwell*-ʔᴜ; *gâuʔᴜ
32leggings*ʔúˑbᴀsdʸán̍ɪ
33earrings*ʔúkúˑyá-ṁɪ
34warrior society*ʔu̍ˑpɪ
35sun*ʔúṣâˑẓᴀ
36basket*ʔút̍áˑn̍ɪ, *ʔúˑt̍áˑn̍ɪ
37bowl*ʔúwáist̍án̍ɪ
38baby*ʔúwàˑḵa
39match*ʔúˑwísgɨ́zɪ
40grandchild, grandparent*báˑba̍ˑ
41wake up*-bádʸɨ; *ċíˑbádʸɨ
42fire, to build a*-báyᴀ; *súbáyᴀ
43tell*-be; *síube
44eat*-bᴇ; *kúbᴇ, *ku̍ˑbᴇ
45toad*bêˑrak̠ᴀ
46wood, to fetch*-bí; *súbí
47smooth*-bîˑrizᴀ; *ka̍ubîˑrizᴀ
48dark*-bɪs̆ᵻ; *ḱábɪs̆ᵻ
49purple*bís̆ɨ́ˑná
50lopsided*bíyáˑ-za
51west*bɨ́-
52enter*-bᵻ; *gúbᵻ
53put in*-bɨnaiʔɪ; *s̍áubɨnaiʔɪ
54log*bɨ́ẓâˑm̍ɪ
55torso*búmúˑná
56butterfly*búˑr̍àigᴀ
57odor*bùˑṣᴜ-gᴀ
58lightning*búẓuw̍ist̠ɪ
59breathe*cáˑ-gᴀ
60breath*càˑc̠ɪ
61wing*cáˑp̠ɪ
62wall*cèˑc̠ɪ
63turkey*cinᴀ
64fox*cúsk̠ɪ
65fly*c̍âˑp̠ɪ
66angry*-c̍ayawᴀ; *kúc̍ayawᴀ
67broken*c̍áyú̠-zɪ
68chew*-c̍êˑnazᴀ; *káʔáuc̍êˑnazᴀ
69deep*-c̍ɪ; *k̍ác̍ɪ
70need*-c̍íbᵻ; *zíuc̍íbᵻ
71locust*c̍íˑga
72Zia Pueblo*c̍íˑy̍á
73water*c̍ízɪ
74rain*-c̆ᴀ; *kàˑc̆ᴀ
75side*c̆áˑdʸa
76tomorrow*c̆ámá
77three*c̆émɪ
78kiva*c̆ídʸá
79yellow*-c̆in̍ɪ; *k̍uˑc̆in̍ɪ
80burp*-c̆úˑ-gᴀ
81hot*-č̇ᴀ; *gâˑc̐ᴀ
82steal*-c̐áwᴀ; *kúˑc̐áwᴀ
83medicine man*č̇áyâˑni
84hawk*č̇ɨ́ˑríga
85horned toad*dabínᴜsk̠ᴀ
86heel*-dák̍ᴀ; *séˑdák̍ᴀ
87Santa Ana Pueblo*dámáyá
88squash*dâˑni
89moon*dâw̍áˑẓᵻ
90give*-di; *zìudi, *gùˑdi
91corn husk*díˑskámí
92feed*-di̍ˑša (*-dîˑšaʔ); *c̍ídi̍ˑša
93dog*díyᴀ
94cliff*-dúwɪ; *kádúwɪ
95stocking*dúwim̍išɪ
96pet*-dʸáˑ; *k̍ádʸá
97catch*-dʸa; *zídʸa
98bobcat*dʸáˑdʸᴜ
99eagle*dʸáˑmí
100four*dʸâˑna
101deer*dʸán̍é
102fast (abstain from eating)*-dʸašɪ
103early*dʸáwa
104gourd*dʸáˑwí
105piñon pine*dʸèic̠ɪ
106north*dʸídʸᴀ
107above*dʸíní
108elk*dʸɨ́ˑṣᴀ
109two*dʸûˑ-w̍éˑ
110badger*dʸúˑbí
111brother of a man*dʸúmᵻ; *k̍ádʸyúmᵻ
112beans*gánami
113white*gášé
114seed*gáwɪc̠ɪ
115morning*gáˑyu
116and*gu
117bite*-gᴜ; *gàˑgᴜ
118firewood*gùˑc̠ɪ
119bear*gúháyᴀ
120eight*gúk̍úmɪšᵻ
121sell*-gúyᴀ; zígúyᴀ
122east*háˑ-
123land*háʔác̍ɪ
124yucca*háʔásc̐á
125finger-nail*háʔáw̍íˑc̐á-ni
126claw*háʔáw̍íˑc̐ánani
127oak*ha̍ˑbánɪ
128feather*háˑbí
129navel*hádáw̍ini
130coals*hâˑk̍aˑni
131tobacco*hâˑmiˑ
132beard*háˑmúšaˑni
133long ago*hám̍aˑ
134hand*hám̍ᴀsdíʔini
135ice*hâˑm̍éˑ
136naked*hánâˑm,
137pine tree*hâˑniˑ
138people*hánᴜ
139shoe*háˑs̐uwim̍ɪ, *háˑs̐úwím̍ɪ
140pollen*háˑt̍awé
141who*háu
142yawn*háu-gᴀ
143snow*háˑwéˑ
144stalk (of a plant)*háwiẓɨni
145prayer-stick*háẓam̍ɨni
146hair*háˑẓɨ́nɪ
147Jemez Pueblo*héˑmíšíˑ-cɪ, *héˑmíšíˑ-zé
148cloud*hénat̍ɪ
149turtle*héyᴀdʸɪ
150fog*héyàˑšɪ
151I, we*hínᴜ
152knife*hìˑsgai
153arrowhead*hìˑst̍íyaˑni
154you*híṣᴜ
155road*híyâˑni
156seed*híˑẓɨni
157willow*híẓᵻsk̍áwa
158dove*húˑʔùˑga
159saliva*húˑbɨ́nɪ
160wool*hùˑséní
161yucca fruit*hùˑsk̍ani
162sky*húwak̍ᴀ
163eye*húwanáʔani
164milk*húwîˑni
165hear*-káˑ; *k̍ákáˑ
166see*k̠ᴀčᴀ; *gùˑk̠ᴀčᴀ, *gúˑk̠ᴀčᴀ
167summer*káṣâidɪ
168broken*káyú-zɪ
169antelope*kɨ́ˑc̠ɪ
170burn*kɨ́ˑẓᵻ-gᴀ
171situated*-k̠ᴜ; *ga̍ˑk̠ᴜ
172winter*kúˑkᵻ
173thread a needle*-kûˑyau; *zíkûˑyau
174mouth*-k̍ᴀ; *c̍îˑk̍ᴀ, *zîˑk̍ᴀ
175wolf*k̍ákana
176spider*k̍ámᴀsk̠ᵻ
177heat of the sun*k̍ánani
178rainbow*k̍ásdʸâˑc̍ɪ
179moss*k̍áwina
180ten*k̍ázɪ
181friend*-k̍îˑni, *k̍áuk̍îˑni
182clown*k̍ɨṣáirí
183woman*k̍úˑ, *k̍úwí
184wife*-k̍ui; *k̍âuk̍ui
185sister of a man*-k̍ûiẓᴀ; *k̍ák̍ûiẓᴀ
186string (noun)*-k̍úmɪ; *ċíuk̍úmɪ, *kúk̍úmíná
187last night*k̍úṣᴀ
188mountain*k̍úˑtí
189game animal*k̍úyàitɪ
190old woman*k̍úˑyáu-ẓá
191thigh*-maˑ; *kâˑmaˑ
192girl*ma̍ˑgɨ́ˑ-za
193leaf*másâˑni
194boy*mɨ́ˑdéˑ
195kill*-mɨdʸɪzᴀ; *gúmɨdʸɪzᴀ
196black*mɨ̂ˑnagan̍ɪ
197buttocks*-múc̐ᴀ; *gáumūc̐ᴀ
198mountain lion*mûˑk̍aiẓᴀ
199dented*múr̍ᴀ-zɪ
200buffalo*múšêiẓᴀ
201soapweed*múšɪ
202house*-m̍ᴀ; *gâˑm̍ᴀ
203clay*m̍íˑc̍ɪ
204seven*m̍àidʸaˑna
205dipper*m̍ák̍ᴀ
206word*m̍áˑní
207palm of the hand*-m̍aˑp̠ᴀ; *gám̍aˑp̠ᴀ
208moth*m̍ídá
209others*m̍ídá
210salt*m̍ína
211ashes*m̍ísc̐ai
212alkali*m̍íst̠ɪ
213hummingbird*m̍îˑzᴀ
214salty*-m̍ᵻ; *zéˑm̍ᵻ
215leave*-m̍ᵻ; *gúmᵻ
216eye*-ná; *k̍âˑná
217new*nàˑceˑ
218food*nác̍í
219stomach*-nac̐ᴀɪ
220head*-násgái; *gánásgái
221uncle, nephew*-náwé; *k̍áˑnáwé
222mother*-nâˑya; *kánâˑya
223know*-ni; *gúni
224rubber*nɨ́ˑʔɨ́ẓᵻ
225prairie dog*nɨ́t̠ɪ
226separate*núwáiná
227survive*n̍ám̍ᴀzᴀ; *kín̍ám̍ᴀzᴀ
228body*n̍í; *sín̍í
229down*n̍ɨ́
230lungs*pánᴀc̠ɪ
231bag*pâˑni
232bedbug*peséc̍uru
233cracked*pét̍ᴀ-gᴀ
234forehead*-pɪ; *k̍ùˑp̠í
235buckskin*pìˑc̠ɪ
236flat*písc̐ᴀ-zɪ
237skin*písc̐ánani
238blow*-pùˑzᴀ; *síupùˑzᴀ
239salamander*p̍águra
240good*ráwáˑ
241rabbit*rèˑdʸᴀ
242fat*rîˑwagan̍ɪ
243small*rɨ́ˑ-
244all*sái
245sun rays*-sbí; *gáisbí
246woodpecker*sbíga
247chicken*sbíˑná
248string (verb)*-sbíẓᴀ; *kúsbíẓᴀ
249jug*sbúˑná
250burst*sc̐ác̍ɪ-gᴀ
251meadowlark*sc̐áˑná
252cut hair*sc̐ánᴀwᴀ; *kúsc̐ánᴀwᴀ
253twilight*sc̐áp̠ᵻˑgᴀ
254grasshopper*sc̐ár̍ɪ
255tender*sc̐áẇᵻ-zɪ
256trousers*-sc̐áẓán̍ɪ; *ẇíˑsc̐áẓán̍ɪ, *áisc̐áẓán̍ɪ
257fast*sc̐áẓɨ́ˑ
258squeal*-sc̐èˑzᴀ; *gúˑsc̐èˑzᴀ
259six*sc̐ísᴀ
260crow*sc̐ɨ́r̍á
261swallow*sc̐úˑ-sᴇ
262wild honey*sc̐úmᵻ
263cough*sc̐úṣᴜ-sᴇ
264mosquito*sc̐úy̍úˑná
265breeze*-sdayᴀ; *zèˑsdayᴀ
266foot*-sdi; *kásdi
267temple*-sduˑ; *sèusduˑ
268suck*-sdʸᴀ; *zíˑsdʸᴀ
269brown*-sdʸɪrɪ; *k̍ùisdʸɪrɪ
270fill*-sé; *c̍íˑsé
271sure*se̍ˑgᴀ
272fur*-séˑn̍é; *kúséˑn̍é
273twisted*sgɨ́ẓᵻ-zɪ
274ant*síˑʔí
275squirrel*síˑdʸᴀ
276flesh*sínani
277eyelash*-síp̠ᴀ; *ciˑsíp̠ᴀ
278bird, sp.*sír̍úˑ
279mouse*síyan̍ᵻ
280wrong doing*sìˑ-zɪ
281middle*sɨ́nᴀ
282bighorn sheep*skàˑsk̠ᴜ
283blue, green*-sk̠ᵻ-, *k̍ùisk̠ᵻ
284giant*skúˑy̍ᴜ
285drink*-sk̍ᴀ; *gísk̍ᴀ
286bullsnake*sk̍áʔáˑdʸᴜ
287fish*sk̍àˑšᵻ
288turn around*-sk̍ɨ́ˑʔᵻẓᴀɪ; *sa̍isk̍ɨ́ˑʔᵻẓᴀɪ
289round*sk̍ɨ́r̍ɪ-zɪ
290spherical*sk̍úrú-zɪ
291peas*sk̍úrúˑná
292plate*spéráˑná, *pérazɪšɪ
293dwarf corn*spíníní
294chicken pox*spúrúˑná
295peck*-sp̍ék̍ᴜzᴀ; *kúsp̍ék̍ᴜzᴀ
296singe hair*-st̍amuc̐ᴀzᴀ; *c̍ást̍amuc̐ᴀzᴀ
297get water*-st̍á; *kúst̍á
298give liquid*-st̍i
299melt*-st̍ɪt̠ᴜ; *c̍íst̍ɪt̠ᴜ
300straight*-st̍ɨ́ˑ-zɪ
301die*-st̍ᴜ; *kùˑst̍ᴜ
302pointed*-st̍úk̍ᴜ-zɪ
303sharp*-st̍úw̍ɪ-zɪ
304yesterday*súwá, *súˑ
305step*-šᴀ; *kášᴀ
306parrot*šâˑwit̠ᴀ
307flea, louse*šínaˑ
308hip*šᵻbᴀ
309goose*šúˑdá
310snake, sp.*šùˑga
311corpse*šûˑmɨˑ
312spit*šúp̠ᵻ-sᴇ
313turquoise*šúwimu
314borrow*-s̐iˑzᴀ; *síus̐iˑzᴀ
315scattered*ṣám̍áˑ
316torn*ṣárɪ-gᴀ
317raw*ṣící
318blue jay*ṣúisɪ
319snake*ṣûˑwiˑ
320crooked*ṣúw̍ɪ-zɪ
321five*tâˑm̍ᴀ
322work*-tâˑn̍iẓᴀ; *kútâˑn̍iẓᴀ
323esteem*ténéˑ-gu
324teeth*-t̠ɪ; *za̍ˑt̠ɪ
325back*t̠ɪdʸᴀ; *k̍át̠ɪdʸᴀ
326full*-t̍á; *gíˑt̍á
327step on*t̍ᴀ; *zîˑt̍ᴀ
328visit*-t̍àˑnᴇ; *gúˑt̍àˑnᴇ
329grind*-t̍ɪwᴀ; *káʔâˑt̍ɪwᴀ
330tongue*wáˑčɨ́n̍ɪ
331dress, shirt*wágɨn̍ɪ
332bird snare*wáˑsɪ
333young of animal*wa̍ˑst̍ɪ
334soft*wáṣ̍ᴀ-zɪ
335medicine*wáˑwá
336root*wáˑwáiẓɨni
337brother of a woman*-waẓᵻ; *k̍áwaẓᵻ
338stir*-wáẓᵻša; *síwáẓᵻša, *síwáẓᵻšayᴀ
339chest*-wic̍ɪ; *gáwic̍ɪ
340neck*-wîˑẓa; *gáwîˑẓa
341face*-wa; *k̍úwa, *k̍úwaw̍ɪ
342abalone shell*w̍a̍ˑbɨ́nɪ
343eagle down*w̍abúˑsc̐ᴀ
344hunt*-w̍àˑnᴇ; *súw̍àˑnᴇ
345sour*-w̍ᴀsdá; *k̍áw̍ᴀsdá
346son-in-law*-w̍a̍ˑti; *k̍áw̍a̍ˑti
347duck*w̍âˑyuṣᴀ
348sweet*-w̍eˑʔᴇ; *kúw̍eˑʔᴇ
349child*-w̍ɪ; *k̍âˑw̍ɪ
350heart*w̍ínᴜsgᴀ
351cigarette*w̍ìˑsp̍ɪ
352born*-yá; *cíyá
353sand*yáʔái
354corn silk*yábášɪ
355corn*yáˑčínɪ
356mesquite*yêˑt̠ᴜ
357worm*yúʔúbɨ́
358intestines*y̍áʔáwâˑni
359staff of office*y̍áˑbí
360look for (singular object)*-y̍áibᴀ; *zíy̍áibᴀ
361find*-y̍âin̍ᴀ; *zíy̍âin̍ᴀ
362brains*y̍àˑsbu̍ˑẓaˑni
363stone*y̍âuni
364stick*y̍áw̍ᴀstí
365crippled*y̍âˑyu
366arm*-y̍ûˑm̍ɪ; *cíy̍ûˑm̍ɪ, *gáy̍ûˑm̍ɪ
367song*y̍ûˑni
368shoulder*y̍úˑsbiˑni
369corn cob*y̍úˑskúm̍á
370sing*-y̍ùˑtᴀ; *súy̍ùˑtᴀ
371no*zá
372say*-za; *k̍áza
373plains*zàˑdʸa
374old*záwini
375language*zêˑni
376lie down*-zi; *káʔáizi
377go (singular)*zùˑ-gᴜ
378pay*-zúwᴀ; *zíˑzúwᴀ
379horn*-ẓᴀ; *záẓᴀ
380awake*-ẓáˑčúwᴀ; *ki̍ˑẓáˑčúwᴀ, *kíˑẓáˑčúwᴀ
381club*ẓàic̠ɪ
382husband*ẓɨ́; *k̍áˑẓɨ́
383house*-ẓᵻ; *káẓᵻ
384smoke (tobacco)*ẓᵻkᴀ; *ka̍ˑẓᵻkᴀ

Keres was one of the seven languages used in the Coca-Cola commercial called "It's Beautiful" broadcast during the 2014 Super Bowl.[17]

See also

References
  1. "Keres, Western". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
  2. "Keres, Eastern". Ethnologue. Retrieved 2018-05-04.
  3. Hammarström, Harald; Forkel, Robert; Haspelmath, Martin, eds. (2017). "Keresan". Glottolog 3.0. Jena, Germany: Max Planck Institute for the Science of Human History.
  4. Ian., Maddieson (1984). Patterns of sounds. Cambridge [Cambridgeshire]: Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521113267. OCLC 10724704.
  5. Davis, Irvine (1964). The Language of Santa Ana Pueblo, Smithsonian Bulletin 191, Anthropological Papers, No. 69.
  6. A Comparative Sketch of Pueblo Languages: Phonology. Kansas Working Papers in Linguistics. 1987.
  7. Spencer, Robert F. (1946). The Phonemes of Keresan.
  8. Lachler, Jordan (2005). Grammar of Laguna Keres. Albuquerque: University of New Mexico Dissertation.
  9. Valiquette, Hilaire (1990). A study for a lexicon of Laguna Keresan.
  10. Maring, Joel M. (1967). Grammar of Acoma Keresan. Indiana University Dissertation.
  11. Spencer, Robert (1947). "Spanish Loanwords in Keresan". Southwestern Journal of Anthropology. 3 (2): 130–146. doi:10.1086/soutjanth.3.2.3628729.
  12. Brandt, Elizabeth (1981). "Native American Attitudes toward Literacy and Recording in the Southwest". Journal of the Linguistic Association of the Southwest. 4 (2): 185–195.
  13. "The Keres Language Project". The Keres Language Project. Retrieved 2018-03-18.
  14. L., Bybee, Joan (1994). The evolution of grammar : tense, aspect, and modality in the languages of the world. Perkins, Revere D. (Revere Dale), Pagliuca, William. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. ISBN 0226086631. OCLC 29387125.
  15. 1936-, Givón, Talmy (2001). Syntax : an introduction. Volume 1 (Rev. ed.). Amsterdam: J. Benjamins. ISBN 1588110656. OCLC 70727915.CS1 maint: numeric names: authors list (link)
  16. Miller, Wick R. and Davis, Irvine. 1963. Proto-Keresan phonology. International Journal of American Linguistics 29: 310-330.
  17. "Native Language Spotlighted During Coca-Cola Super Bowl Ad". Indian Country Today Media Network. 2014-02-03. Retrieved 2014-02-26.

Bibliography
  • Boas, Franz (1923). "A Keresan text". International Journal of American Linguistics. 2 (3–4): 171–180. doi:10.1086/463743.
  • Campbell, Lyle (1997). American Indian Languages: The Historical Linguistics of Native America. Oxford Studies in Anthropological Linguistics. 4. New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN 978-0-19-509427-5.
  • Davis, Irvine (1963). "Bibliography of Keresan linguistic sources". International Journal of American Linguistics. 29 (3): 289–293. doi:10.1086/464745.
  • Davis, Irvine (1964). "The language of Santa Ana Pueblo". Anthropological Papers. Bulletin (Smithsonian Institution, Bureau of American Ethnology). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. 191 (69): 53–190. ISSN 0082-8882 – via U.S. Government Printing Office.
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