Saint George

Saint George of Lydda
Portrait by Hans von Kulmbach (circa 1510).
Martyr
Born Lydda, Syria Palaestina or Cappadocia
Died 23 April 303
Nicomedia, Bithynia, Roman Empire[1][2]
Venerated in
Major shrine
Feast
Attributes Clothed as a crusader in plate armour or mail, often bearing a lance tipped by a cross, riding a white horse, often slaying a dragon. In the Greek East and Latin West he is shown with St George's Cross emblazoned on his armour, or shield or banner.
Patronage Many Patronages of Saint George exist around the world

Saint George (Greek: Γεώργιος, Geṓrgios; Latin: Georgius; d. 23 April 303[4]), was a Roman soldier of Greek origin and a member of the Praetorian Guard for Roman emperor Diocletian, who was sentenced to death for refusing to recant his Christian faith. He became one of the most venerated saints and megalo-martyrs in Christianity, and was especially venerated by the Crusaders.

In hagiography, as one of the Fourteen Holy Helpers and one of the most prominent military saints, he is immortalised in the legend of Saint George and the Dragon. His memorial, Saint George's Day, is traditionally celebrated on 23 April. (See under "Feast days" below for the use of the Julian calendar by the Eastern Orthodox Church.)

England, Georgia and several other nation states, cities, universities, professions and organisations all claim Saint George as their patron.

Legend

St. George slays the dragon. Georgian Fresco

The core of the legend is that George was a Roman officer of Greek descent from Cappadocia or Syria Palaestina who was martyred in one of the pre-Constantinian persecutions. Beyond this, early sources give conflicting information. There are two main versions of the legend, a Greek and a Latin version, which can both be traced to the 5th or 6th century. The saint's veneration dates to the 5th century with some certainty, and possibly still to the 4th. The addition of the dragon legend dates to the 11th century.

The earliest text preserving fragments of George's narrative is in a Greek hagiography identified by Hippolyte Delehaye of the scholarly Bollandists to be a palimpsest of the 5th century.[5] An earlier work by Eusebius, Church history, written in the 4th century, contributed to the legend but did not name George or provide significant detail.[6] The work of the Bollandists Daniel Papebroch, Jean Bolland, and Godfrey Henschen in the 17th century was one of the first pieces of scholarly research to establish the saint's historicity via their publications in Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca.[7] Pope Gelasius I stated that George was among those saints "whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose actions are known only to God."[8] A critical edition of a Syriac Acta of Saint George, accompanied by an annotated English translation, was published by E.W. Brooks (1863–1955) in 1925.

Greek version

The compiler of this Acta Sancti Georgii, according to Hippolyte Delehaye, "confused the martyr with his namesake, the celebrated George of Cappadocia, the Arian intruder into the see of Alexandria and enemy of St. Athanasius".

In the Greek tradition, George was born in to Greek Christian parents, in Cappadocia. His father died for the faith when he was fourteen, and his mother returned with George to her homeland of Syria Palaestina.[9] A few years later, George's mother died. George travels to the capital Nicomedia and joins the Roman army.[10] George is persecuted by one Dadianus. In later versions of the Greek legend, this name is rationalized to Diocletian, and George's martyrdom is placed in the Diocletian persecution of AD 303. The setting in Nicodemia is also secondary, and inconsistent with the earliest cultus of the saint being located in Diospolis.[11]

George was executed by decapitation before Nicomedia's city wall, on 23 April 303. A witness of his suffering convinced Empress Alexandra of Rome to become a Christian as well, so she joined George in martyrdom. His body was returned to Lydda for burial, where Christians soon came to honour him as a martyr.[12][13]

Latin version

Saint George in the Acta Sanctorum, as collected in late 1600s and early 1700s. The Latin title De S Georgio Megalo-Martyre; Lyddae seu Diospoli in Palaestina" translates as "St. George Great-Martyr; [from] Lydda or Diospolis, in Palestine.

The Latin Acta Sancti Georgii (6th century) follows the general course of the Greek legend, but Diocletian here becomes Dacian, Emperor of the Persians. George lives and dies in Melitene in Cappadocia. His martyrdom is greatly extended, to more than twenty separate tortures over the course of seven years. Over the course of his martyrdom, 40,900 pagans are converted to Christianity, including the empress Alexandra. When George finally dies, the wicked Dacian is carried away in a whirlwind of fire. In later Latin versions, the persecutor is the Roman emperor Decius, or a Roman judge named Dacian serving under Diocletian.[14]

Historicity debate

There is little information on the early life of Saint George. Herbert Thurston in The Catholic Encyclopedia states that based upon an ancient cultus, narratives of the early pilgrims, and the early dedications of churches to Saint George, going back to the fourth century, "there seems, therefore, no ground for doubting the historical existence of St. George", although no faith can be placed in either the details of his history or his alleged exploits.[11] According to Donald Attwater, "No historical particulars of his life have survived, ... The widespread veneration for St George as a soldier saint from early times had its centre in Palestine at Diospolis, now Lydda. St George was apparently martyred there, at the end of the third or the beginning of the fourth century; that is all that can be reasonably surmised about him."[15]

Herbert Thurston in the saint's entry in the early 20th century Catholic Encyclopedia takes the position that there are no grounds for doubting the historical existence of Saint George, "but no faith can be placed in the attempts that have been made to fill up any of the details of his history."[16]

It has been established that Saint George the Martyr and the Arian Bishop George of Alexandria were not identical; furthermore that Bishop George was slain by Gentile Greeks for exacting onerous taxes, especially inheritance taxes. And that Saint George in all likelihood was martyred before the year 290.[17] Although the Diocletianic Persecution of 303, associated with military saints because the persecution was aimed at Christians among the professional soldiers of the Roman army, is of undisputed historicity, the identity of Saint George as a historical individual had not been ascertained as of Edmund Spenser's day,[18][19]

Russian icon (mid 14th century), Novgorod.

Edward Gibbon[20][21] argued that George, or at least the legend from which the above is distilled, is based on George of Cappadocia,[22][11] a notorious Arian bishop who was Athanasius of Alexandria's most bitter rival, and that it was he who in time became Saint George of England. J. B. Bury (16 October 1861 – 1 June 1927), who edited the 1906 edition of The Decline and Fall, wrote "this theory of Gibbon's has nothing to be said for it." He adds that: "the connection of St. George with a dragon-slaying legend does not relegate him to the region of the myth".[16][23]

Saint George and the dragon

Miniature from a 13th-century Passio Sancti Georgii (Verona)

The legend of Saint George and the Dragon is first recorded in the 11th century, in a Georgian source. It reaches Europe in the 12th century. In The Golden Legend, by 13th-century Archbishop of Genoa Jacobus da Varagine, George's death is at the hands of Dacian, and about the year 287.[24]

Saint George Killing the Dragon, 1434/35, by Bernat Martorell

The Golden Legend offered a historicised narration of George's encounter with a dragon. This account was very influential, and it remains the most familiar version in English owing to William Caxton's 15th-century translation.[25]

In the medieval romances, the lance with which Saint George slew the dragon was called Ascalon after the Levantine city of Ashkelon, today in Israel. The name Ascalon was used by Winston Churchill for his personal aircraft during World War II, according to records at Bletchley Park. In Sweden, the princess rescued by Saint George is held to represent the kingdom of Sweden, while the dragon represents an invading army. Several sculptures of Saint George battling the dragon can be found in Stockholm, the earliest inside Storkyrkan ("The Great Church") in the Old Town. Iconography of the horseman with spear overcoming evil was widespread throughout the Christian period.[26]

Muslim legends

George (Arabic: جرجس‎, Jiriyas or Girgus) is included in some Muslim texts as a prophetic figure. The Islamic sources state that he lived among a group of believers who were in direct contact with last apostles of Jesus. He is described as a rich merchant who opposed erection of Apollo's statue by Mosul's king Dadan. After confronting the king, George was tortured many times to no effect, was imprisoned and was aided by the angels. Eventually, he exposed that the idols were possessed by Satan, but was martyred when the city was destroyed by God in a rain of fire.[27]

Muslim scholars had tried to find a historical connection of the saint due to his popularity.[28] According to Muslim legend, he was martyred under the rule of Diocletian and was killed three times but resurrected every time. The legend is more developed in the Persian version of al-Tabari wherein he resurrects the dead, makes trees sprout and pillars bear flowers. After one of his deaths, the world is covered by darkness and is lifted only when he is resurrected. He is able to convert the queen but she is put to death. He then prays to God to allow him to die which is granted.[29]

Al-Tha`labi states that he was from Palestine and lived in the times of some disciples of Jesus. He was killed many times by the king of Mosul, and resurrected each time. When he tried to starve him, he touched a piece of dry wood brought by a woman and turned it green, with varieties of fruits and vegetables growing from it. After his fourth death, the city was burnt along with him. Ibn al-Athir's account of one of his deaths is parallel to the crucifixion of Jesus, stating, "When he died, God sent stormy winds and thunder and lightning and dark clouds, so that darkness fell between heaven and earth, and people were in great wonderment..." The account adds that the darkness was lifted after his resurrection.[28]

Veneration

History

A titular church built in Lydda during the reign of Constantine the Great (reigned 306–37) was consecrated to "a man of the highest distinction", according to the church history of Eusebius; the name of the titulus "patron" was not disclosed, but later he was asserted to have been George.

The veneration of George spread from Syria Palaestina through Lebanon to the rest of the Byzantine Empire – though the martyr is not mentioned in the Syriac Breviarium[13] – and the region east of the Black Sea. By the 5th century, the veneration of Saint George had reached the Christian Western Roman Empire, as well: in 494, George was canonized as a saint by Pope Gelasius I, among those "whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose acts are known only to [God]."

The martyrdom of Saint George, by Paolo Veronese, 1564

The early cult of the saint was localized in Diospolis (Lydda), in Palestine. The first description of Lydda as a pilgrimage site where George's relics were venerated is De Situ Terrae Sanctae by the archdeacon Theodosius, written between 518 and 530. By the end of the 6th century, the center of his veneration appears to have shifted to Cappadocia. The Life of Saint Theodore of Sykeon, written in the 7th century, mentions the veneration of the relics of the saint in Cappadocia.[30]

By the time of the early Muslim conquests of the mostly Christian and Zoroastrian Middle East, a basilica in Lydda dedicated to Saint George existed.[31] The church was destroyed by Muslims in 1010, but was later rebuilt and dedicated to Saint George by the Crusaders. In 1191 and during the conflict known as the Third Crusade (1189–92), the church was again destroyed by the forces of Saladin, Sultan of the Ayyubid dynasty (reigned 1171–93). A new church was erected in 1872 and is still standing.

In England, he was mentioned among the martyrs by the 8th-century monk Bede. The Georgslied is an adaptation of his legend in Old High German, composed in the late 9th century. The earliest dedication to the saint in England is a church at Fordington, Dorset that is mentioned in the will of Alfred the Great.[32] Saint George did not rise to the position of "patron saint" of England, however, until the 14th century, and he was still obscured by Edward the Confessor, the traditional patron saint of England, until in 1552 during the reign of Edward VI all saints' banners other than George's were abolished in the English Reformation.[33][34]

The martyrdom of Saint George, by Cornelis Schut, 1634

Belief in an apparition of St. George heartened the Franks at the Battle of Antioch in 1098,[35] which made a similar appearance the following year at Jerusalem. The chivalric military Order of Sant Jordi d'Alfama was established by king Peter the Catholic from the Crown of Aragon in 1201, Republic of Genoa, Kingdom of Hungary (1326), and by Frederick III, Holy Roman Emperor,[36] and in England the 1222 Synod of Oxford declared Saint George's Day a feast day in the kingdom of England. Edward III of England put his Order of the Garter under the banner of St. George, probably in 1348. The chronicler Jean Froissart observed the English invoking Saint George as a battle cry on several occasions during the Hundred Years' War. In his rise as a national saint, George was aided by the very fact that the saint had no legendary connection with England, and no specifically localized shrine, as that of Thomas Becket at Canterbury: "Consequently, numerous shrines were established during the late fifteenth century," Muriel C. McClendon has written,[37] "and his did not become closely identified with a particular occupation or with the cure of a specific malady."

The establishment of George as a popular and protective saint[38] in the West that had captured the medieval imagination was codified by the official elevation of his feast to a festum duplex[39] at a church council in 1416, on the date that had become associated with his martyrdom, 23 April. Wide latitude existed from community to community in celebration of the day across late medieval and early modern England,[40] and no uniform "national" celebration elsewhere, a token of the popular and vernacular nature of George's cultus and its local horizons, supported by a local guild or confraternity under George's protection, or the dedication of a local church. When the English Reformation severely curtailed the saints' days in the calendar, Saint George's Day was among the holidays that continued to be observed.

Veneration in the Levant

George is renowned throughout the Middle East, as both saint and prophet. His veneration by Christians and Muslims lies in his composite personality combining several Biblical, Quranic and other ancient mythical heroes.[41]

Saint George dragged through the streets (detail), by Bernat Martorell, 15th century

William Dalrymple, reviewing the literature in 1999, tells us that J. E. Hanauer in his 1907 book Folklore of the Holy Land: Muslim, Christian and Jewish "mentioned a shrine in the village of Beit Jala, beside Bethlehem, which at the time was frequented by Christians who regarded it as the birthplace of St. George and by some Jews who regarded it as the burial place of the Prophet Elias. According to Hanauer, in his day the monastery was "a sort of madhouse. Deranged persons of all the three faiths are taken thither and chained in the court of the chapel, where they are kept for forty days on bread and water, the Eastern Orthodox priest at the head of the establishment now and then reading the Gospel over them, or administering a whipping as the case demands.'[42] In the 1920s, according to Taufiq Canaan's Mohammedan Saints and Sanctuaries in Palestine, nothing seemed to have changed, and all three communities were still visiting the shrine and praying together."[43]

Dalrymple himself visited the place in 1995. "I asked around in the Christian Quarter in Jerusalem, and discovered that the place was very much alive. With all the greatest shrines in the Christian world to choose from, it seemed that when the local Arab Christians had a problem – an illness, or something more complicated: a husband detained in an Israeli prison camp, for example – they preferred to seek the intercession of Saint George in his grubby little shrine at Beit Jala rather than praying at the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem or the Church of the Nativity in Bethlehem."[43] He asked the priest at the shrine "Do you get many Muslims coming here?" The priest replied, "We get hundreds! Almost as many as the Christian pilgrims. Often, when I come in here, I find Muslims all over the floor, in the aisles, up and down."[43][44]

The Encyclopædia Britannica quotes G.A. Smith in his Historic Geography of the Holy Land p. 164 saying "The Mahommedans who usually identify St. George with the prophet Elijah, at Lydda confound his legend with one about Christ himself. Their name for Antichrist is Dajjal, and they have a tradition that Jesus will slay Antichrist by the gate of Lydda. The notion sprang from an ancient bas-relief of George and the Dragon on the Lydda church. But Dajjal may be derived, by a very common confusion between n and l, from Dagon, whose name two neighbouring villages bear to this day, while one of the gates of Lydda used to be called the Gate of Dagon."[45]

Veneration in the Muslim world

Saint George is described as a prophetic figure in Islamic sources.[27] George is venerated by some Christians and Muslims because of his composite personality combining several Biblical, Quranic and other ancient mythical heroes. In some of he is identified with Elijah or Mar Elis, George or Mar Jirjus and in others as al-Khidr. The last epithet meaning the "green prophet", is common to both Christian and Muslim folk piety. Samuel Curtiss who visited an artificial cave dedicated to him where he is identified with Elijah, reports that childless Muslim women used to visit the shrine to pray for children. Per tradition, he was brought to his place of martyrdom in chains, thus priests of Church of St. George chain the sick especially the mentally ill to a chain for overnight or longer for healing. This is sought after by both Muslims and Christians.[41]

According to Elizabeth Anne Finn's Home in the Holy land (1866):[46]

St George killed the dragon in this country; and the place is shown close to Beyroot. Many churches and convents are named after him. The church at Lydda is dedicated to St. George; so is a convent near Bethlehem, and another small one just opposite the Jaffa gate, and others beside. The Arabs believe that St. George can restore mad people to their senses, and to say a person has been sent to St. George's is equivalent to saying he has been sent to a madhouse. It is singular that the Moslem Arabs adopted this veneration for St George, and send their mad people to be cured by him, as well as the Christians, but they commonly call him El Khudder—The Green—according to their favourite manner of using epithets instead of names. Why he should be called green, however, I cannot tell—unless it is from the colour of his horse. Gray horses are called green in Arabic.

The mosque of Nabi Jurjis which was restored by Timur in the 14th century, was located in Mosul and supposedly contained the tomb of George.[47] It was however destroyed in July 2014 by the Islamic State of Iraq and the Levant, who also destroyed the Mosque of the Prophet Sheeth (Seth) and the Mosque of the Prophet Younis (Jonah). The militants claim such mosques have become places for apostasy instead of prayer.[48]

George or Hazrat Jurjays was the patron saint of Mosul. Along with Theodosius, he was revered by both Christian and Muslim communities of Jazira and Anatolia. The wall paintings of Kırk Dam Altı Kilise at Belisırma dedicated to him are dated between 1282-1304. These painting depicts him as a mounted knight appearing between donors including a Georgian lady called Thamar and her husband, the Emir and Consul Basil, while the Seljuk Sultan Mesud II and Byzantine Emperor Androncius II are also named in the inscriptions.[49]

Feast days

The Wedding of St George and Princess Sabra by Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1857).

In the General Roman Calendar, the feast of Saint George is on 23 April. In the Tridentine Calendar of 1568, it was given the rank of "Semidouble". In Pope Pius XII's 1955 calendar this rank was reduced to "Simple", and in Pope John XXIII's 1960 calendar to a "Commemoration". Since Pope Paul VI's 1969 revision, it appears as an optional "Memorial". In some countries, such as England, the rank is higher. In England, it is a Solemnity (Roman Catholic) or Feast (Church of England): if it falls between Palm Sunday and the Second Sunday of Easter inclusive, it is transferred to the Monday after the Second Sunday of Easter.[50]

Saint George is very much honoured by the Eastern Orthodox Church, wherein he is referred to as a "Great Martyr", and in Oriental Orthodoxy overall. His major feast day is on 23 April (Julian calendar 23 April currently corresponds to Gregorian calendar 6 May). If, however, the feast occurs before Easter, it is celebrated on Easter Monday, instead. The Russian Orthodox Church also celebrates two additional feasts in honour of St. George. One is on 3 November, commemorating the consecration of a cathedral dedicated to him in Lydda during the reign Constantine the Great (305–37). When the church was consecrated, the relics of the Saint George were transferred there. The other feast is on 26 November for a church dedicated to him in Kiev, circa 1054.

In Bulgaria, Saint George's day (Bulgarian: Гергьовден) is celebrated on 6 May, when it is customary to slaughter and roast a lamb. Saint George's day is also a public holiday.

In Egypt, the Coptic Orthodox Church of Alexandria refers to Saint George (Coptic: Ⲡⲓⲇⲅⲓⲟⲥ Ⲅⲉⲟⲣⲅⲓⲟⲥ or ⲅⲉⲱⲣⲅⲓⲟⲥ) as the "Prince of Martyrs" and celebrates his martyrdom on the 23rd of Paremhat of the Coptic calendar equivalent to 1 May. The Copts also celebrate the consecration of the first church dedicated to him on seventh of the month of Hatour of the Coptic calendar usually equivalent to 17 November.

In India, the Syro-Malabar Catholic Church, one of the oriental catholic churches (Eastern Catholic Churches) and Malankara orthodox church venerate Saint George. The main pilgrim centers of the saint in India are at Edathua[51] in Alappuzha district and Edappally [52] in Ernakulam district of the southern state of Kerala. The saint is commemorated each year from 27 April to 14 May at Edathua [53] On 27 April after the flag hoisting ceremony by the parish priest, the statue of the saint is taken from one of the altars and placed at the extension of the church to be venerated by the devotees till 14 May. The main feast day is 7 May, when the statue of the saint along with other saints is taken in procession around the church. Intercession to Saint George of Edathua is believed to be efficacious in repelling snakes and in curing mental ailments.The sacred relics of St. George were brought to Antioch from Mardeen in A.D.900 and were taken to Kerala, India from Antioch in 1912 by Mar Dionysius of Vattasseril and kept in the Orthodox seminary at Kundara, Kerala. H.H Mathews II Catholicos had given the relics to St. George churches at Puthupally, Kottayam District and Chandanappally, Pathanamthitta district.

Patronages

A highly celebrated saint in both the Western and Eastern Christian churches, a large number of Patronages of Saint George exist throughout the world.[54]

Saint George is the patron saint of England. His cross forms the national flag of England, and features within the Union Flag of the United Kingdom, and other national flags containing the Union Flag, such as those of Australia and New Zealand. By the 14th century, the saint had been declared both the patron saint and the protector of the royal family.[55]

Saint George's monument in Tbilisi, Georgia.

The country of Georgia, where devotions to the saint date back to the fourth century, is not technically named after the saint, but is a well-attested back-formation of the English name. However, a large number of towns and cities around the world are. Saint George is one of the patron Saints of Georgia; the name Georgia (Sakartvelo in Georgian) is an anglicisation of Gurj, ultimately derived from the Persian word gurj/gurjān ("wolf"[56]).[57] Chronicles describing the land as Georgie or Georgia in French and English, date from the early Middle Ages, as written by the travellers John Mandeville and Jacques de Vitry "because of their special reverence for Saint George",[58] but these accounts have been seen as folk etymology and are rejected by the scholarly community.[57] Exactly 365 Orthodox churches in Georgia are named after Saint George according to the number of days in a year. According to legend, Saint George was cut into 365 pieces after he fell in battle and every single piece was spread throughout the entire country.[59][60][61]

Saint George is also one of the patron saints of the Mediterranean islands of Malta and Gozo.[62] In a battle between the Maltese and the Moors, Saint George was alleged to have been seen with Saint Paul and Saint Agata, protecting the Maltese. Saint George is the protector of the island of Gozo and the patron of Gozo's largest city, Victoria. The St. George's Basilica in Victoria is dedicated to him.[63]

English recruitment poster from World War I, featuring Saint George and the Dragon.

Devotions to Saint George in Portugal date back to the 12th century. Nuno Álvares Pereira attributed the victory of the Portuguese in the battle of Aljubarrota in 1385 to Saint George. During the reign of John I of Portugal (1357–1433), Saint George became the patron saint of Portugal and the King ordered that the saint's image on the horse be carried in the Corpus Christi procession. The flag of Saint George (white with red cross) was also carried by the Portuguese troops and hoisted in the fortresses, during the 15th century. "Portugal and Saint George" became the battle cry of the Portuguese troops, being still today the battle cry of the Portuguese Army, with simply "Saint George" being the battle cry of the Portuguese Navy.[64]

In Spain, Saint George is the patron of Aragon and Catalonia. These two autonomous communities were in the past two of the most important territories belonging to the Crown of Aragon. Saint George (Aragonese: San Chorche) is the patron of Aragon, one of the autonomous communities of Spain. This festivity is celebrated on the 23th of April as "The Day of Aragon". Legend says that the Pedro I of Aragon started in 1096 the conquest of Huesca, which was under the rule of the Taifa in Zaragoza, following the desires of his father, Sancho I of Aragon. The fight was hard and difficult, Christian militia trusted totally in God to win the battle. God sent Saint George, who descended from Heaven riding on a horse, carrying with him a maroon cross to the battlefield. After seeing God's signal, militiamen returned to the battle field with more energy than ever. The moors could not believe what was happening, they were defeated, abandoning the battlefield rapidly. After half a year of being trapped, Pedro I finally entered the city. To celebrate this victory, Saint George's cross was used as the insignia of Huesca and Aragon, honouring his name since he was their saviour. Nowadays, this cross is still present on Aragon's shield. The popular story which is told to school children and other places, is that Saint George defeated a dragon, and is celebrated by everybody throughout the community. Saint George (Sant Jordi in Catalan) is also the patron saint of Catalonia. His cross appears in many buildings and local flags, including the one of the Catalan capital, Barcelona. The Catalan tradition usually locates the events of his legend in the town of Montblanc, near Tarragona. The origins of the worship of Saint George go back to the Crown of Aragon, and share the same legend as that of Aragon. By the 15th century Catalan men used to celebrate Saint George's Day by giving roses to women. One of the highest civil distinctions awarded in Catalonia is the Saint George's Cross (Creu de Sant Jordi). The Sant Jordi Awards have been awarded in Barcelona since 1957.

Arms and flag

Saint George's cross

It became fashionable in the 15th century, with the full development of classical heraldry, to provide attributed arms to saints and other historical characters from the pre-heraldic ages. The widespread attribution to Saint George of the red cross on a white field in western art - "Saint George's Cross" probably first arose in Genoa, which had adopted this image for their flag and George as their patron saint in the 12th century. A vexillum beati Georgii is mentioned in the Genovese annals for the year 1198, referring to a red flag with a depiction of Saint George and the dragon. An illumination of this flag is shown in the annals for the year 1227. The Genoese flag with the red cross was used alongside this "George's flag", from at least 1218, and was known as the insignia cruxata comunis Janue ("cross ensign of the commune of Genoa"). The flag showing the saint himself was the city's principal war flag, but the flag showing the plain cross was used alongside it in the 1240s.[65]

In 1348 Edward III of England chose Saint George as the patron saint of his Order of the Garter, and also took to using a red-on-white cross in the hoist of his Royal Standard.

The term "Saint George's cross" was at first associated with any plain Greek cross touching the edges of the field (not necessarily red on white).[66] Thomas Fuller in 1647 spoke of "the plain or St George's cross" as "the mother of all the others" (that is, the other heraldic crosses).[67]

Iconography and models

Byzantine icon of Saint George, Athens, Greece.

Saint George is most commonly depicted in early icons, mosaics, and frescos wearing armour contemporary with the depiction, executed in gilding and silver colour, intended to identify him as a Roman soldier. Particularly after the Fall of Constantinople and Saint George's association with the crusades, he is often portrayed mounted upon a white horse. Thus, a 2003 Vatican stamp (issued on the anniversary of the Saint's death) depicts an armoured Saint George atop a white horse, killing the dragon.[68] Eastern Orthodox iconography also permits Saint George to ride a black horse, as in a Russian icon in the British museum collection. In the south Lebanese village of Mieh Mieh, the Saint George Church for Melkite Catholics commissioned for its 75th jubilee in 2012 (under the guidance of Mgr Sassine Gregoire), the only icons in the world portraying the whole life of Saint George, as well as the scenes of his torture and martyrdom (drawn in eastern iconographic style).

Saint George may also be portrayed with Saint Demetrius, another early soldier saint. When the two saintly warriors are together and mounted upon horses, they may resemble earthly manifestations of the archangels Michael and Gabriel. Eastern traditions distinguish the two as Saint George rides a white horse and St. Demetrius a red horse (the red pigment may appear black if it has bitumenized). Saint George can also be identified by his spearing a dragon, whereas Saint Demetrius may be spearing a human figure, representing Maximian.

During the early second millennium, Saint George became a model of chivalry in works of literature, including medieval romances. In the 13th century, Jacobus de Voragine, Archbishop of Genoa, compiled the Legenda Sanctorum, (Readings of the Saints) also known as Legenda Aurea (the Golden Legend). Its 177 chapters (182 in some editions) include the story of Saint George, among many others. After the invention of the printing press, the book became a bestseller, second only to the Bible among books published by early English printer William Caxton (circa 1415-1492).

For equestrian depictions, see Saint George and the Dragon#Iconography.
For a structured gallery, see: Saint George gallery.
Eastern
Western

See also

Statue of Saint George, Prague Castle

References

  1. ↑ Foakes-Jackson, FJ (2005), A History of the Christian Church, Cosimo Press, p. 461, ISBN 1-59605-452-2 .
  2. ↑ Ball, Ann (2003), Encyclopedia of Catholic Devotions and Practices, p. 568, ISBN 0-87973-910-X .
  3. ↑ Otto Friedrich August Meinardus, Two Thousand Years of Coptic Christianity (1999), p. 315.
  4. ↑ Acta Sanctorum Aprilis t. III (vol. 12), 101–165; Martyrology of Usuard (9th century).
  5. ↑ Acta Sanctorum, Volume 12, as republished in 1866
  6. ↑ Church History (Eusebius), book 8, chapter 5; Greek text here, and English text here. Eusebius's full text as follows:
    Immediately on the publication of the decree against the churches in Nicomedia, a certain man, not obscure but very highly honored with distinguished temporal dignities, moved with zeal toward God, and incited with ardent faith, seized the edict as it was posted openly and publicly, and tore it to pieces as a profane and impious thing; and this was done while two of the sovereigns were in the same city,—the oldest of all, and the one who held the fourth place in the government after him. But this man, first in that place, after distinguishing himself in such a manner suffered those things which were likely to follow such daring, and kept his spirit cheerful and undisturbed till death.
  7. ↑ Walter, Christopher (2003), The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition, Ashgate Publishing, p. 110, ISBN 1-84014-694-X . Bibliotheca Hagiographica Graeca 271, 272.
  8. ↑ public domain Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "George, Saint". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 737. In the canon of Pope Gelasius (494) George is mentioned in a list of those 'whose names are justly reverenced among men, but whose acts are known only to God'
  9. ↑ Guiley, Rosemary (2001). The Encyclopedia of Saints. p. 129. ISBN 9781438130262. George was an historical figure. According to an account by Metaphrastes, he was born in Cappadocia (in modern Turkey) to a noble Christian family; his mother was Palestinian.
  10. ↑ Heylin, A (1862), The Journal of Sacred Literature and Biblical Record, 1, p. 244 . Darch, John H (2006), Saints on Earth, Church House Press, p. 56, ISBN 978-0-7151-4036-9 . Walter, Christopher (2003), The Warrior Saints in Byzantine Art and Tradition, Ashgate Publishing, p. 112, ISBN 1-84014-694-X .
  11. 1 2 3 "Saint George", Catholic Encyclopedia, it is not improbable that the apocryphal Acts have borrowed some incidents from the story of the Arian bishop .
  12. ↑ Hackwood, Fred (2003), Christ Lore the Legends, Traditions, Myths, Kessinger Publishing, p. 255, ISBN 0-7661-3656-6 .
  13. 1 2 Butler, Alban (2008), Lives of the Saints, ISBN 1-4375-1281-X .:166
  14. ↑ Michael Collins, St George and the Dragons: The Making of English Identity (2018), p. 129.
  15. ↑ Attwater, Donald (1995) [1965]. Dictionary of Saints (Third ed.). London: Penguin Reference. p. 152. His best-known story, popularized in the later middle ages by the Golden Legend, tells that he was a knight from Cappadocia, who rescued a maiden princess from a dragon at Silene in Libya, leading to the Christianity of much of the kingdom.
  16. 1 2  Thurston, Herbert (1913). "St. George". In Herbermann, Charles. Catholic Encyclopedia. New York: Robert Appleton Company. "There seems, therefore, no ground for doubting the historical existence of St. George, even though he is not commemorated in the Syrian, or in the primitive Hieronymian Martyrologium, but no faith can be placed in the attempts that have been made to fill up any of the details of his history. For example, it is now generally admitted that St. George cannot safely be identified by the nameless martyr spoken of by Eusebius (Church History VIII.5), who tore down Diocletian's edict of persecution at Nicomedia. The version of the legend in which Diocletian appears as persecutor is not primitive. Diocletian is only a rationalized form of the name Dadianus. Moreover, the connection of the saint's name with Nicomedia is inconsistent with the early cultus at Diospolis. Still less is St. George to be considered, as suggested by Gibbon, Vetter, and others, a legendary double of the disreputable bishop, George of Cappadocia, the Arian opponent of St. Athanasius."
  17. ↑ Hogg, John (1863), "Supplemental Notes on St George the Martyr, and on George the Arian Bishop", Transactions of the Royal Society of Literature of the United Kingdom, Royal Society of Literature: 106–136
  18. ↑ Spenser, Edmund (1998), Fierce Wars and Faithful Loves, Cannon Press, p. 196, ISBN 978-1-885767-39-4 .
  19. ↑ Mills, Charles (2012), The History of Chivalry, Longman, Rees, p. 9 .
  20. ↑ Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 2:23:5
  21. ↑ Richardson, Robert D; Moser, Barry, eds. (1996), Emerson, p. 520, George of Cappadocia... [held] the contract to supply the army with bacon... embraced Arianism... [and was] promoted... to the episcopal throne of Alexandria... When Julian came, George was dragged to prison, the prison was burst open by a mob, and George was lynched... [he] became in good time Saint George of England .
  22. ↑ Edward Gibbon, The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 2:23:5
  23. ↑ Gibbon, Edward (1906). Bury, John Bagnell, ed. The History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire. New York, NY: Fred de Fau and Co. Retrieved 30 December 2016.
  24. ↑ William Caxton's Golden Legend (1483), modernised translation by Frederick Startridge Ellis (1900); catholicsaints.info.
  25. ↑ De Voragine, Jacobus (1995), The Golden Legend, Princeton University Press, p. 238, ISBN 978-0-691-00153-1 .
  26. ↑ Charles Clermont-Ganneau, "Horus et Saint Georges, d'après un bas-relief inédit du Louvre". Revue archéologique, 1876
  27. 1 2 Scott B. Noegel, Brannon M. Wheeler. The A to Z of Prophets in Islam and Judaism. Rowman & Littlefield. p. 313.
  28. 1 2 H. S. Haddad (1968). ""Georgic" Cults and Saints of the Levant". Numen. Brill: 37.
  29. ↑ Bernard Carra de Vaux. P. Bearman; Th. Bianquis; C.E. Bosworth; E. van Donzel; W. P. Heinrichs, eds. Encyclopaedia of Islam. I, Part 2 (Second ed.). Brill. p. 1047.
  30. ↑ Christopher Walter, "The Origins of the Cult of Saint George", Revue des études byzantines 53 (1995), 295–326 (p. 296) (persee.fr)
  31. ↑ Pringle, Denys (1998), The Churches of the Crusader Kingdom of Jerusalem, Cambridge University Press, p. 25, ISBN 0-521-39037-0 .
  32. ↑ Samantha Riches, St. George: Hero, Martyr and Myth (Sutton, 2000), ISBN 0750924527, p. 19.
  33. ↑ McClendon 1999:p.6
  34. ↑ Perrin, British Flags, 1922, p. 38.
  35. ↑ Runciman, Steven (1951–52). A History of the Crusades I: The First Crusade. Penguin Classics. pp. 204–205. ISBN 978-0-141-98550-3.
  36. ↑ Catholic Encyclopedia 1913, s.v. "Orders of St. George" omits Genoa and Hungary: see David Scott Fox, Saint George: The Saint with Three Faces (1983:59–63, 98–123), noted by McClellan 999:6 note 13. Additional Orders of St. George were founded in the eighteenth century (Catholic Encyclopedia).
  37. ↑ McClendon 1999:10.
  38. ↑ Desiderius Erasmus, in The Praise of Folly (1509, printed 1511) remarked "The Christians have now their gigantic St. George, as well as the pagans had their Hercules."
  39. ↑ Only the most essential work might be done on a festum duplex
  40. ↑ Muriel C. McClendon, "A Moveable Feast: Saint George's Day Celebrations and Religious Change in Early Modern England" The Journal of British Studies 38.1 (January 1999:1–27).
  41. 1 2 Religion and Culture in Medieval Islam by Richard G. Hovannisian, Georges Sabagh 2000 ISBN 0-521-62350-2, Cambridge University Press pages 109-110
  42. ↑ Hanauer, JE (1907). "Folk-lore of the Holy Land, Moslem, Christian and Jewish". Retrieved January 18, 2007.
  43. 1 2 3 William Dalrymple (March 15, 1999). From the Holy Mountain: a journey among the Christians of the Middle East. Owl Books.
  44. ↑ H. S. Haddad. ""Georgic" Cults and Saints of the Levant". JSTOR 3269569.
  45. ↑ public domain Chisholm, Hugh, ed. (1911). "George, Saint". Encyclopædia Britannica. 11 (11th ed.). Cambridge University Press. p. 737.
  46. ↑ Elizabeth Anne Finn (1866). Home in the Holyland. London: James Nisbet and Co. pp. 46–7. p. 46.
  47. ↑ Middle East and Africa: International Dictionary of Historic Places. I.B. Tauris. p. 525.
  48. ↑ "Islamic militants destroy historic 14th century mosque in Mosul". The Telegraph.
  49. ↑ Teresa Fitzherbert. "Religious Diversity Under Ilkhanid Rule". In Linda Komaroff. Beyond the Legacy of Genghis Khan. Brill. p. 402.
  50. ↑ The Divine Office: Table of Liturgical Days, Section I (RC) and Calendar, Lectionary and Collects (Church House Publishing 1997) p12 (C of E)
  51. ↑ B, Sathish (20 March 2008). "St.George forane church Edathua-689573". Edathuapalli. Sathish B. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
  52. ↑ St:George Church (22 April 2014). "St.George forane church Edappally". Edappally. St: George Church. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
  53. ↑ "Arrangements for Edathua church fete". The Hindu. ALAPPUZHA. 3 April 2016. Retrieved 5 February 2017.
  54. ↑ Seal, Graham (2001), Encyclopedia of folk heroes, p. 85, ISBN 1-57607-216-9 .
  55. ↑ Hinds, Kathryn (2001), Medieval England, Marshall Cavendish, p. 44, ISBN 0-7614-0308-6 .
  56. ↑ Hock, Hans Henrich; Zgusta, Ladislav (1997). Historical, Indo-European, and Lexicographical Studies. Walter de Gruyter. p. 211. ISBN 978-3110128840.
  57. 1 2 Mikaberidze, Alexander (2015). Historical Dictionary of Georgia (2 ed.). Rowman & Littlefield. p. 3. ISBN 978-1442241466.
  58. ↑ David Marshall Lang, The Georgians, (New York: Frederick A Praeger, 1966), 17–18. The terms Georgia and Georgians appeared in Western Europe in numerous early medieval annals. The French chronicler Jacques de Vitry and the English traveller John Mandeville wrote that Georgians are called 'Georgian' because they especially revere Saint George.
  59. ↑ Gabidzashvili, Enriko (1991), Saint George: In Ancient Georgian Literature, Tbilisi, Georgia: Armazi – 89 .
  60. ↑ Foakes-Jackson, FJ (2005), A History of the Christian Church, Cosimo, p. 556, ISBN 1-59605-452-2 .
  61. ↑ Eastmond, Antony (1998), Royal Imagery in Medieval Georgia, Penn State Press, p. 119, ISBN 0-271-01628-0 .
  62. ↑ Vella, George Francis. "St George, the patron saint of Gozo". Times of Malta. Times of Malta. Retrieved 26 January 2017. "The patron saint and protector of Gozo". Times of Malta. Times of Malta. Retrieved 26 January 2017.
  63. ↑ de Bles, Arthur (2004), How to Distinguish the Saints in Art, p. 86, ISBN 1-4179-0870-X .
  64. ↑ de Oliveira Marques, AH; André, Vítor; Wyatt, SS (1971), Daily Life in Portugal in the Late Middle Ages, University of Wisconsin Press, p. 216, ISBN 0-299-05584-1 .
  65. ↑ Aldo Ziggioto, "Genova", in Vexilla Italica 1, XX (1993); Aldo Ziggioto, "Le Bandiere degli Stati Italiani", in Armi Antiche 1994, cited after Pier Paolo Lugli, 18 July 2000 on Flags of the World.
  66. ↑ William Woo Seymour, The Cross in Tradition, History and Art, 1898, p. 363
  67. ↑ Fuller, A Supplement tu the Historie of the Holy Warre (Book V), 1647, chapter 4.
  68. ↑ "Vatican stamps". Vaticanstate.va. Archived from the original on 2011-10-01. Retrieved 2011-04-23.

Further reading

  • Brook, E.W., 1925. Acts of Saint George in series Analecta Gorgiana 8 (Gorgias Press).
  • Burgoyne, Michael H. 1976. A Chronological Index to the Muslim Monuments of Jerusalem. In The Architecture of Islamic Jerusalem. Jerusalem: The British School of Archaeology in Jerusalem.
  • Gabidzashvili, Enriko. 1991. Saint George: In Ancient Georgian Literature. Armazi – 89: Tbilisi, Georgia.
  • Good, Jonathan, 2009. The Cult of Saint George in Medieval England (Woodbridge, Suffolk: The Boydell Press).
  • Loomis, C. Grant, 1948. White Magic, An Introduction to the Folklore of Christian Legend (Cambridge: Medieval Society of America)
  • Natsheh, Yusuf. 2000. "Architectural survey", in Ottoman Jerusalem: The Living City 1517–1917. Edited by Sylvia Auld and Robert Hillenbrand (London: Altajir World of Islam Trust) pp 893–899.
  • Whatley, E. Gordon, editor, with Anne B. Thompson and Robert K. Upchurch, 2004. St. George and the Dragon in the South English Legendary (East Midland Revision, c. 1400) Originally published in Saints' Lives in Middle English Collections (Kalamazoo, Michigan: Medieval Institute Publications) (on-line introduction)
  • George Menachery, Saint Thomas Christian Encyclopaedia of India. Vol.II Trichur – 73.

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