Chinese swords and polearms

Qin bronze jians.

The Chinese classify all swords into two types, jian (劍) and dao (刀). Jians are double-edged straight swords while daos are single-edged, and mostly curved from the Song dynasty forward. The jian has been translated at times as a long sword, and the dao a saber or a knife. Bronze jians appeared during the mid-third century BC and switched to wrought iron and steel during the late Warring States period. Other than specialized weapons like the Divided Dao, Chinese swords are usually 70–110 cm in length, although longer swords have been found on occasion.^[1] Outside of China, Chinese swords were also used in Japan from the third to sixth century AD, but were replaced with Korean and native Japanese swords by the middle Heian era.^[2]

The three most common types of Chinese polearms are the ge (戈), qiang (槍), and ji (戟). They are translated into English as dagger-axe, spear, and halberd. Dagger-axes were originally a short slashing weapon with a 0.9 to 1.8 m long shaft, but around the 4th century BC a spearhead was added to the blade, and it became a halberd. The spear is also sometimes called a mao (矛), which is also sometimes used to designate polearms with a wavy snake-like spearhead.^[3] From the Warring States period onward, the length of Chinese polearms varied from around 2.8 m to 5.5 m, however there is no specific designation for a pike in the traditional Chinese lexicon. A very long spear is just called a long spear.^[4]

Shang dynasty (c. 1600 BC–c. 1046 BC)

Evolution of the spear from top to bottom: Shang, Spring & Autumn, Warring States, Han

Evolution of the dagger-axe and halberd from top to bottom: Shang, Spring & Autumn, Warring States, Han

Halberds of different eras from left to right: Three Kingdoms, NS dynasties, Tang, Song, Ming, and Qing.

The long lance was a short blade on a long pole. Also called a sword staff or dagger-spear.

Originally identified as swords, these were actually long lances (pi 鈹) using a cylinder to join the shaft and blade into a single weapon.

Two types of Han jians

Knives were found in Fu Hao's tomb, dated c. 1200 BC.^[5]

Early handheld weapons included the dagger-axe, a bronze blade mounted at right angles to a 0.9 to 1.8 m long shaft, and bronze spears roughly 2.1 m in length.^[6] The dagger-axe was the first Chinese weapon designed to kill other people. Battles were fought in open formation to allow for the swinging of dagger-axes.^[7]

Western Zhou (c. 1046 – 771 BC)

Bronze jians appeared during the Western Zhou. The blades were a mere 28 to 46 cm long. These short stabbing weapons were used as a last defense when all other options had failed.^[8]

Spring and Autumn period (771–476 BC)

By the late Spring and Autumn period, jians lengthened to about 56 cm. At this point at least some soldiers used the jian rather than the dagger-axe due to its greater flexibility and portability.^[8]

China started producing steel in the 6th century BC, but it was not until later on that iron and steel implements were produced in useful amounts.^[9] By around 500 BC however the sword and shield combination began to be regarded as superior to the spear and dagger-axe.^[10]

Warring States period (475–221 BC)

Iron and steel swords of 80 to 100 cm in length appeared during the mid Warring States period in the states of Chu, Han, and Yan. The majority of weapons were still made of bronze but iron and steel weapons were starting to become more common.^[9] By the end of the 3rd century BC, the Chinese had learned how to produce quench-hardened steel swords, and bronze weapons went out of use completely.^[11]

By the end of the 4th century BC, dagger-axes with spearheads began to appear, essentially becoming a halberd. Spears and halberds came in two general sizes. One about 2.8 m long and the other around 5.5m, or what would be considered a pike in western terminology.^[12] According to Wu Qi, tall men were given bows and arrows while short men spears and halberds.^[10]

The Zhan Guo Ce states that the state of Han made the best weapons, capable of cleaving through the strongest armour, shields, leather boots and helmets.^[13]

Qin dynasty (221–206 BC)

Sword dances are mentioned to be a thing shortly after the end of the Qin dynasty.^[14] Swords up to 110 cm in length began to appear.^[15]

• 
  Warring States bronze jians
• 
  Warring States bronze jian
• 
  Chu iron jian
• 
  Qin bronze jians
• 
  Qin jian
• 
  Qin jian

Han dynasty (206 BC–220 AD)

The jian was mentioned as one of the "Five Weapons" during the Han dynasty, the other four being dao, spear, halberd, and staff. Another version of the Five Weapons lists the bow and crossbow as one weapon, the jian and dao as one weapon, in addition to halberd, shield, and armour.^[16]

The jian was a popular weapon during the Han era and there emerged a class of swordsmen who made their living through fencing. Sword fencing was also a popular pastime for aristocrats. A 37 chapter manual known as the Way of the Jian is known to have existed, but is no longer extant. South and central China were said to have produced the best swordsmen.^[17]

There existed a weapon called the "Horse Beheading Jian", so called because it was supposedly able to cut off a horse's head.^[18] However, another source says that it was an execution tool used on special occasions rather than a military weapon.^[19]

Daos with ring pommels also became widespread as a cavalry weapon during the Han era. The dao had the advantage of being single edged, which meant the dull side could be thickened to strengthen the sword, making it less prone to breaking. When paired with a shield, the dao made for a practical replacement for the jian, hence it became the more popular choice as time went on. After the Han, sword dances using the dao rather than the jian are mentioned to have occurred. Archaeological samples range from 86 to 114 cm in length.^[20]

During the Battle of Zhizhi in 36 BC, the Chinese deployed their troops in three sections, with men carrying 'great shields' in front, spearmen behind them, and crossbowmen in the rear.^[21]

An account of Duan Jiong's tactical formation in 167 AD specifies that he arranged "…three ranks of halberds (長鏃 changzu), swordsmen (利刃 liren) and spearmen (長矛 changmao), supported by crossbows (強弩 qiangnu), with light cavalry (輕騎 jingji) on each wing."^[22]

The characters zu and mao both indicate lances or spears, but I suspect the changzu may have had two blades or points. Such weapons, commonly identified as 戟 ji, but also as 鈹 pi and 錟 tan, have been known from early times. Some bronze horsemen found in the tomb at Leitai 雷台 by present-day Wuwei are armed with halberds. An alternative rendering for changzu would be “javelin,” but javelins were not common in ancient China.^[22]

— Rafe de Crespigny

• 
  Han dynasty jians. The longest is 146 cm in length.
• 
  Han jian and scabbard.
• 
  Han dao, jian, and halberd
• 
  Han iron axe-halberd
• 
  Han Great Dao
• 
  A variation of the long lance known as the sha (鎩). The blade is 62 cm long, 5.2 cm wide, and 1.2 cm thick. The hilt is 19 cm long.

Three Kingdoms (184/220–280)

Three Kingdoms dao

Swords of idiosyncratic sizes are mentioned. One individual named Chen An apparently wielded a great sword over two meters in length.^[23]

Sun Quan's wife had over a hundred female attendants armed with daos.^[24]

By the end of the Three Kingdoms the dao had completely overtaken the jian as the primary close combat weapon.^[25] The lighter and less durable double edged jian entered the domain of court dancers, officials, and expert warriors.^[26]

Halberds became less common during the Three Kingdoms period due to its weight in comparison to the spear.^[25]

Spear throwing was uncommon among Chinese troops, but was practiced by tribesmen in northwestern China during the 3rd and 4th centuries.^[27]

Northern and Southern dynasties (420–589)

Sui dynasty swords.

A Tang dao.

In the 6th century, Qimu Huaiwen introduced to Northern Qi the process of 'co-fusion' steelmaking, which used metals of different carbon contents to create steel. Apparently daos made using this method were capable of penetrating 30 armour lamellae. It's not clear if the armour was of iron or leather.

Huaiwen made sabres [dao 刀] of 'overnight iron' [su tie 宿鐵]. His method was to anneal [shao 燒] powdered cast iron [sheng tie jing 生鐵精] with layers of soft [iron] blanks [ding 鋌, presumably thin plates]. After several days the result is steel [gang 剛]. Soft iron was used for the spine of the sabre, He washed it in the urine of the Five Sacrificial Animals and quench-hardened it in the fat of the Five Sacrificial Animals: [Such a sabre] could penetrate thirty armour lamellae [zha 札]. The 'overnight soft blanks' [Su rou ting 宿柔鋌] cast today [in the Sui period?] by the metallurgists of Xiangguo 襄國 represent a vestige of [Qiwu Huaiwen's] technique. The sabres which they make are still extremely sharp, but they cannot penetrate thirty lamellae.^[28]

Tang dynasty (618–907)

The dao was separated into four categories during the Tang dynasty. These were the Ceremonial Dao, Defense Dao, Cross Dao, and Divided Dao. The Ceremonial Dao was a court item usually decorated with gold and silver. It was also known as the "Imperial Sword". The Defense Dao does not have any specifications but its name is self-explanatory. The Cross Dao was a waist weapon worn on the belt, hence its older name, the Belt Dao. It was often carried as a sidearm by crossbowmen.^[29] The Divided Dao, also called a Long Dao (long saber), was a cross between a polearm and a saber. It consisted of a 91 cm blade fixed to a long 120 cm handle ending in an iron butt point, although exceptionally large weapons reaching 3 meters in length and weighing 10.2 kg have been mentioned.^[30] Divided daos were wielded by elite Tang vanguard forces and used to spearhead attacks.^[18]

In one army, there are 12,500 officers and men. Ten thousand men in eight sections bearing Belt Daos; Two thousand five hundred men in two sections with Divided Daos.^[18]

— Taibai Yinjing

According to Tang texts, spearmen were all supposed to carry a bow and crossbowmen to be armed with halberds for self-defense, but it's not clear how well this worked in practice.^[31]

Song dynasty (960–1279)

Ming dao.

Qi Jiguang's 'mandarin duck formation' in standby and combat.

Some warriors and bandits duel wielded daos to break deadlocks in confined terrain during the late late Song dynasty.^[32]

According to the Xu Zizhi Tongjian Changbian, written in 1183, the "Horse Beheading Dao" (zhanmadao) was a two handed saber with a 93.6 cm blade, 31.2 cm hilt, and ring pommel.^[33]

Song texts recommend using both mixed and non-mixed units. The practice of deploying crossbowmen in combination with shields and spears was common, but the Wujing Zongyao recommends that crossbowmen make up their own units and defeat enemies through firepower alone.^[34] Spears were also combined with gunpowder tubes to create the fire lance.^[35]

• 
  Song soldiers carrying daos
• 
  Song dao
• 
  Song jian
• 
  Song axeman
• 
  Song axeman
• 
  Song lancers

Yuan dynasty (1279–1368)

Under the Yuan dynasty, the jian experienced a resurgence and was used more often.^[36]

Ming dynasty (1368–1644)

Ming soldiers carrying a dao and jian.

Ming era jian

The dao continued to fill the role of the basic close combat weapon.^[37] The jian fell out of favor again in the Ming era but saw limited use by a small number of arms specialists. It was otherwise known for its qualities as a marker of scholarly refinement.^[36]

The "Horse Beheading Dao" was described in Ming sources as a 96 cm blade attached to a 128 cm shaft, essentially a glaive weapon. It's speculated that the Swede Frederick Coyett was talking about this weapon when he described Zheng Chenggong's troops wielding "with both hands a formidable battle-sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man".^[38]

Some were armed with bows and arrows hanging down their backs ; others had nothing save a shield on the left arm and a good sword in the right hand ; while many wielded with both hands a formidable battle-sword fixed to a stick half the length of a man. Everyone was protected over the upper part of the body with a coat of iron scales, fitting below one another like the slates of a roof; the arms and legs being left bare. This afforded complete protection from rifle bullets (mistranslation-should read "small arms") and yet left ample freedom to move, as those coats only reached down to the knees and were very flexible at all the joints. The archers formed Koxinga's best troops, and much depended on them, for even at a distance they contrived to handle their weapons with so great skill that they very nearly eclipsed the riflemen. The shield bearers were used instead of cavalry. Every tenth man of them is a leader, who takes charge of, and presses his men on, to force themselves into the ranks of the enemy. With bent heads and their bodies hidden behind the shields, they try to break through the opposing ranks with such fury and dauntless courage as if each one had still a spare body left at home. They continually press onwards, notwithstanding many are shot down ; not stopping to consider, but ever rushing forward like mad dogs, not even looking round to see whether they are followed by their comrades or not. Those with the sword-sticks—called soapknives by the Hollanders—render the same service as our lancers in preventing all breaking through of the enemy, and in this way establishing perfect order in the ranks ; but when the enemy has been thrown into disorder, the Sword-bearers follow this up with fearful massacre amongst the fugitives.^[39]

— Frederick Coyett

Qi Jiguang deployed his soldiers in a 12-man 'mandarin duck' formation, which consisted of four pikemen, two men carrying daos with a great and small shield, two 'wolf brush' wielders, a rearguard officer, and a porter.^[40]

Ming-Qing sword types

Image	Name	Era	Description
	Butterfly sword		(蝴蝶双刀; 蝴蝶雙刀; húdié shuāng dāo; "Butterfly Pair (or) Double Sword") are sometimes called butterfly knives in English. It was originally from southern China, though it has seen use in the north. It is usually wielded in pairs, and has short dāo (single-edged blade), with a length is approximately that of the forearm. This allows for easy concealment within the sleeves or inside boots, and for greater manoeuvrability to spin and rotate in close-quarters fighting.
	Changdao	Ming dynasty	(长刀; 長刀; "long knife") was a type of anti-cavalry sword used in China during the Ming dynasty. Sometimes called miao dao (a similar but more recent weapon), the blade greatly resembles a Japanese ōdachi in form.
	Dao		(刀; dāo; tao1; "knife") is a category of single-edge Chinese swords primarily used for slashing and chopping (sabres), often called a broadsword in English translation because some varieties have wide blades. In China, the dao is known as one of the four major weapons, along with the gun (staff), qiang (spear), and the jian (sword), and referred to as the "General of All Weapons". "Dao" denotes any member of a family of single-edged, broad-bladed cutting or slicing tools, but in common, everyday usage means knife. The weapon, also known as dan dao 單刀 (single knife) when just one is used, is thereby thought to be an adaptation of the kitchen knives common to Chinese cuisine. Dao also appears in the names of such polearms as the pudao and guan dao, indicating the knifelike nature of their blades.
	Dadao		The dadao (大刀) (lit. Big Knife), one of the varieties of dao or Chinese saber, is also known as the Chinese great sword. Based on agricultural knives, dadao have broad blades generally between two and three feet long, long hilts meant for "hand and a half" or two-handed use, and generally a weight-forward balance.
	Hook sword		The hook sword is an exotic Chinese weapon traditionally associated with Northern styles of Chinese martial arts, but now often practised by Southern styles as well.
	Iron sword	Qin dynasty.	The "iron sword", is a type of dao sword made entirely from iron and thrown at the enemy from a safe distance, so the thrower would not be harmed in the process. Iron Swords were first made in the Qin dynasty.
	Jian		The jian is a double-edged straight sword used during the last 2,500 years in China. The first Chinese sources that mention the jian date to the 7th century BC during the Spring and Autumn period;[41] one of the earliest specimens being the Sword of Goujian. Historical one-handed versions have blades varying from 45 to 80 centimeters (17.7 to 31.5 inches) in length. The weight of an average sword of 70-centimeter (28-inch) blade-length would be in a range of approximately 700 to 900 grams (1.5 to 2 pounds). There are also larger two-handed versions used for training by many styles of Chinese martial arts. In Chinese folklore, it is known as the "Gentleman of Weapons" and is considered one of the four major weapons, along with the gun (staff), qiang (spear), and the dao (sword).
	Liuyedao		The liuye dao, or "willow leaf saber", is a type of dao that was commonly used as a military sidearm for both cavalry and infantry during the Ming and Qing dynasties. This weapon features a moderate curve along the length of the blade. This reduces thrusting ability (though it is still fairly effective at same) while increasing the power of cuts and slashes.
	Miaodao	Republican era	The Miaodao (苗刀) is a Chinese two-handed dao or saber of the Republican era, with a narrow blade of up to 1.2 meters or more and a long hilt. The name means "sprout saber", presumably referring to a likeness between the weapon and a newly sprouted plant. While the miaodao is a recent weapon, the name has come to be applied to a variety of earlier Chinese long sabers, such as the zhanmadao and changdao. Along with the dadao, miaodao were used by some Chinese troops during the Second Sino-Japanese War.
	Nandao		Nandao is a kind of sword that is nowadays used mostly in contemporary wushu exercises and forms. It is the southern variation of the "northern broadsword", or Beidao. Its blade bears some resemblance to the butterfly sword, also a southern Chinese single-bladed weapon; the main difference is the size, and the fact that the butterfly swords are always used in pairs
	Niuweidao	Late Qing dynasty	A type of Chinese saber (dao) of the late Qing dynasty. It was primarily a civilian weapon, as imperial troops were never issued it.
	Piandao	Late Ming dynasty	A type of Chinese sabre (dao) used during the late Ming dynasty. A deeply curved dao meant for slashing and draw-cutting, it bore a strong resemblance to the shamshir and scimitar. A fairly uncommon weapon, it was generally used by skirmishers in conjunction with a shield.
	Wodao	Ming dynasty	(倭刀, literally "sword/knife of the wo people/Japanese") is a Chinese sword from the Ming dynasty. Apparently influenced by Japanese sword design, it bears a strong resemblance to a tachi or ōdachi in form: extant examples show a handle approximately 25.5 cm long, with a gently curved blade 80 cm long.
	Yanmaodao	Late Ming—Qing dynasties	The yanmao dao, or "goose-quill saber", is a type of dao made in large numbers as a standard military weapon from the late Ming dynasty through the end of the Qing dynasty. It is similar to the earlier zhibei dao, is largely straight, with a curve appearing at the center of percussion near the blade's tip. This allows for thrusting attacks and overall handling similar to that of the jian, while still preserving much of the dao's strengths in cutting and slashing.
	Zhanmadao	Song dynasty	(斩马刀; 斬馬刀; zhǎn mǎ dāo; "chopping horse saber") was a single long broad bladed sword with a long handle suitable for two-handed use. Dating to 1072, it was used as an anti-cavalry weapon.
			This list is incomplete. There are many more types of both jian and dao

See also

• Chinese swordsmanship
• Chinese armour
• Chinese siege weapons

References

Bibliography

• Andrade, Tonio (2016), The Gunpowder Age: China, Military Innovation, and the Rise of the West in World History, Princeton University Press, ISBN 978-0-691-13597-7 .
• Coyet, Frederic (1975), Neglected Formosa: a translation from the Dutch of Frederic Coyett's Verwaerloosde Formosa
• Crespigny, Rafe de (2017), Fire Over Luoyang: A History of the Later Han Dynasty, 23-220 AD, Brill
• Graff, David A. (2002), Medieval Chinese Warfare, 300-900, Routledge
• Graff, David A. (2016), The Eurasian Way of War: Military practice in seventh-century China and Byzantium, Routledge
• Kitamura, Takai (1999), Zhanlue Zhanshu Bingqi: Zhongguo Zhonggu Pian, Gakken
• Lorge, Peter A. (2011), Chinese Martial Arts: From Antiquity to the Twenty-First Century, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, ISBN 978-0-521-87881-4
• Lorge, Peter (2015), The Reunification of China: Peace through War under the Song Dynasty, Cambridge University Press
• Peers, C.J. (1990), Ancient Chinese Armies: 1500-200BC, Osprey Publishing
• Peers, C.J. (1992), Medieval Chinese Armies: 1260-1520, Osprey Publishing
• Peers, C.J. (1995), Imperial Chinese Armies (1): 200BC-AD589, Osprey Publishing
• Peers, C.J. (1996), Imperial Chinese Armies (2): 590-1260AD, Osprey Publishing
• Peers, C.J. (2006), Soldiers of the Dragon: Chinese Armies 1500 BC - AD 1840, Osprey Publishing Ltd
• Peers, Chris (2013), Battles of Ancient China, Pen & Sword Military
• Perdue, Peter C. (2005), China Marches West, The Belknap Press of Harvard University Press
• Robinson, K.G. (2004), Science and Civilization in China Volume 7 Part 2: General Conclusions and Reflections, Cambridge University Press
• Swope, Kenneth M. (2009), A Dragon's Head and a Serpent's Tail: Ming China and the First Great East Asian War, 1592–1598, University of Oklahoma Press
• Wood, W. W. (1830), Sketches of China
• Wagner, Donald B. (1996), Iron and Steel in Ancient China, E.J. Brill
• Wagner, Donald B. (2008), Science and Civilization in China Volume 5-11: Ferrous Metallurgy, Cambridge University Press
• Wright, David (2005), From War to Diplomatic Parity in Eleventh Century China, Brill
• Late Imperial Chinese Armies: 1520-1840 C.J. Peers, Illustrated by Christa Hook, Osprey Publishing «Men-at-arms», ISBN 1-85532-655-8

External links

• http://www.shadowofleaves.com/Chinese_Sword_History.htm
• http://www.chinesesword.net/Swordplay/Swordplay1E.htm