Battle of the Bagradas River (c. 240 BC)

The First Punic War ended with the Roman victory in the Battle of the Aegates Islands in March 241 BC and Carthage authorizing Hamilcar Barca to start peace negotiations with Rome. The eventual settlement between Rome and Carthage included evacuation of Sicily by Carthage and payment of 3,200 silver talents to Rome as war reparations: 1,000 (21 tons of silver) immediately and 2,200 (56 ton of silver) in ten yearly installments. After paying Rome the indemnity which was part of the treaty,[4] it could not easily pay the army of some 20,000 mercenaries it had employed to fight against Rome.[5]

Delays in dealing with the mercenaries eventually led to the gathering of the entire army and their families in Sicca Veneria (modern El Kef), where they demanded payment from the Carthaginian negotiator Hanno the Great.[6] The exact amount owned the mercenaries can only be guessed, but given the back pay, ration money and any other rewards promised, it probably was a substantial amount,[7] which the mercenaries inflated after they reached Sicca. When Hanno refused their demands, as Carthage actually hoped to reduce the payment amount, and mercenaries were unsympathetic about the financial difficulties of Carthage, the negotiations broke down and the mercenaries seized Tunis.[8] Carthage then sent provisions to Tunis and agreed to all the demands of the mercenaries, and sent Gisco to pay off the demanded amount.[9]

Gisco began to pay off the mercenaries nationality by nationality,[10] and events might have ended there, but two mercenary leaders, Spendius and Mathos, fomented revolt among the Libyan troops, for their own personal reasons, and were eventually able to persuade the entire mercenary army to revolt. The mercenaries seized the Carthaginian negotiators and the money. Matho used the funds to pay off the amount due to the mercenaries and fund the war effort.[11] After settling the mercenary payments, the rebels called upon the Libyan towns and cities under Carthaginian control to join the revolt. Several Libyan cities joined the revolt, providing men and funds (Libyan women donated personal possessions and jewels)[12] to gather a force of 70,000.[13] These events probably took place in the autumn-winter of 241 BC.

Matho divided the rebel army into several detachments. Matho took two armies to cut off the cities of Utica and Hippacritae, while an army took up position along the only bridge over the River Macar linking Carthage and Utica. Spendius cut off Carthage from the mainland[14] while rebels made Tunis their main base. The rebels had no siege weapons and decided not to assault the besieged towns, but they would from time to time advance on Carthage to terrorize the city.[15]

With their navy shattered in the First Punic War and their mercenaries in revolt, Carthage could do little but man the walls as an immediate response to the revolt. Carthage raised an army from citizens and mercenaries,[16] trained their cavalry, and refitted their navy,[17] which probably took until the spring of 240 BC. Hanno the Great was put in command of the army, which included 110 elephants,[18] but the exact number of troops is unknown. Hanno chose to relieve Utica,[19] since rebels had cut off Carthage from the mainland; Hanno and his army were probably ferried to Utica by the Punic fleet,[20] which was also under siege by the rebel army under Spendius. The exact size of the rebel force is not known. Hanno initially defeated the rebels encamped near Utica and captured the rebel camp, but his negligence and the lax discipline of the Carthaginian army enabled the rebels to regroup, launch a surprise attack, capture the Carthaginian camp, and drive the Carthaginian survivors into Utica.[19] Hanno’s army later left Utica but failed several times to engage the rebels under favorable conditions. Carthage decided to raise a new army and recalled Hamilcar Barca to command. The rebels continued their blockade of Carthage, Utica, and Hippo Acra.

While Hanno the Great was campaigning against the rebels, Carthage had cobbled together another army raised from citizens, rebel deserters, and newly hired mercenaries, numbering 8,000 foot, 2,000 horse and 70 elephants.[21] Hamilcar Barca was given command of this force, and he spent some time training his soldiers. Carthage made no fresh move against the rebels. Hanno and his army continued watching the two rebel camps at Hippo Acra. The rebel army under Spendius, numbering 15,000, was blockading Utica. Another 10,000 strong rebel army was encamped near the only bridge across the River Bagradas,[22] the exact location is not known.[23] Note that the course of the Bagradas river changed numerous times since the 3rd century BC[24], therefore the battle likely took place south of the current mouth of the river.

Once his army was properly trained, Hamilcar did not attack the rebels blockading Carthage head on. Instead, he sought to gain the freedom to maneuver and fight the rebels on his own terms. The rebel base at Tunis and rebel dispositions, which probably barricaded the passes on the hills between Djebdl Ammar and Djebel Nahli, cut Carthage off from the mainland.[23] Hamilcar had observed that, when the wind blew from a certain direction, a sandbar was uncovered on the river mouth, which made the Bagradas River fordable.

Hamilcar marched his army out of Carthage at night along the north shore of the isthmus towards the mouth of the Bagradas River. His movement was not detected by the rebels and at the first opportunity he crossed the Bagradas River along the sandbar. Hamilcar’s army was free to manoeuvre in the African countryside.

Hamilcar’s army completed the river crossing unmolested and undetected by the rebels, and then moved towards the rebel camp near the bridge. Spendius led 15,000 troops from Utica to confront Hamilcar, while 10,000 rebels from the camp near the bridge also advanced towards Hamilcar’s position.[25] Caught in a pincer movement, Hamilcar started to march north. The two rebels forces joined up and began to march north on a parallel course. The army of Spendius outnumbered Hamilcar’s army two to one, so he could afford to form his army in two lines, although the rebels had no elephants and nothing is known of their cavalry. Spendius extended his left flank to the north in an attempt to outflank the Carthaginians. His intention was to have his right flank stop the Carthaginian movement north while his main force attacked and pushed the Carthaginian army towards the river.[28]

About turn

Battle of Macar 240 BC. A generic representation, giving one possible scenario, not to exact scale and path of troop movement are inexact because of lack of primary source data

According to one line of thought,[30] the Carthaginian army's order of march had the War Elephants leading the column, with the light troops and cavalry behind the elephants. Heavy infantry formed the rearguard, and the whole army marched in a single file in battle formation.

When Hamilcar observed Spendius extending his battle line to outflank the Carthaginian right flank and cut off the Carthaginian army’s line of advance, he ordered his elephants to turn right, away from the rebel army. The cavalry and light infantry did the same after the elephants, while the heavy infantry continued to move forward. The rebels mistook this for a withdrawal and rushed forward to engage. This wild charge disordered their battle line, some rebel units moving ahead of others.[31]

The elephants then again turned right, followed by the Carthaginian light infantry and cavalry, so they were now moving south. Parallel to the heavy infantry in the opposite direction The Carthaginian infantry, moving northwards, stopped, turned left and formed a battle line, facing the onrushing rebels. The elephants, light infantry and cavalry are now positioned behind the Carthaginian heavy infantry battle line.

The Carthaginian elephants, light infantry and cavalry again turned right, divided into two divisions, and took their position on both flanks of the Carthaginian heavy infantry. The rebel formations no longer outflanked the Carthaginian army, and a solid battle line now confronted a disorderly rebel army.

The surviving rebels fled either to Utica or to their camp beside the bridge. Hamilcar, after mopping up the battle field, advanced on the rebel camp, forcing the rebels to flee to Tunes, where they were reunited with their commander Spendius. Hamilcar then moved towards Utica, forcing the rebels to flee to Hippo Acra. The rebel blockade of Utica was broken. Hamilcar had the choice to join up with Hanno and try to lift the rebel blockade of Hippo Acra as well. Instead he began to mop up the lands beside the Bagradas River, by force or diplomacy asserting Carthaginian authority over the rebel Libyan towns, thus cutting off the rebels from sources funds, recruits and provisions and ensuring Carthage can tap the same resources.