Mpondo people

Genealogy of kings

The most prominent of all kings of the Mpondo nation is Faku (1780–1867); he resided in Qawukeni as it's still the tradition today. The Nyandeni house was established by Ndamase, Faku's right-hand son and a prominent general of the Mpondo army during the Mfecane wars.

The genealogy of Mpondo kings in order:^[7]

• Mpondo
• Sihula
• Mthwa
• Santsabe
• Mkhondwane
• Sukude
• Hlambangobubende
• Ziqelekazi
• Hlamandana
• Thobe
• Msiza
• Ncindisi
• Cabe
• Gangatha
• Bhala
• Chithwayo
• Ndayini
• Thahle
• Nyawuza
• Ngqungqushe
• Faku
• Mqikela
• Sigcau
• Marelane
• Mandlonke
• Bhota
• Mpondombini
• Zanozuko (current)

King Cabe was the first king of the Mpondo nation to cross Mthamvuna river and settled in Siphaqeni. King Ngqungqushe's mother was the first woman whose "ikhazi" (dowry) was paid for by the kingdom, which makes King Ngqungqushe the first "kumkani" in the modern sense. ^[9]

King Sigcau is known for his militancy in his fight against colonial rule and imposition of colonial policies, notably the hut taxes in the Mpondo Kingdom. He was later arrested for these actions and incarcerated in Robben Island. He remains a hero to the Mpondo people and admired for his bravery. King Sigcau Bravery Award was launched in his honour. His son King Marelane would become one of the founding Kings of the oldest political party in Africa the African National Congress in 1912 in support of the fight against colonial rule in South Africa. His grandson Nkosi Ntsikayezwe Sigcau would follow in the footsteps of his forefathers and become an ANC liberation activist, contributing in the struggle for liberation in South Africa. This also saw him arrested and harassed for his political activities.

Tributary clans

These tribes/ clans are not unique to Mpondoland, they usually are small groups in Mpondoland who left their tribes/kingdoms having been given land by Mpondo Kings and thus recognised as forming part of AmaMpondo Kingdom and paying tribute to Mpondo Kings.

• AmaTolo
• AmaZizi
• Bakwena (Sotho)
• Amahlabe
• AmaXhate (Xesibe)
• Other small groups from other kingdoms

Causes

There were varying reasons that lead to the revolts such as chiefs collaborating with the coloniser, the land rehabilitation programme, the Bantu Authorities System and the increase in taxes.

Chiefs collaborating with the coloniser

Traditionally, chiefs had been assigned with the task of communicating with the ancestors to boost the land’s fertility, livestock and rains whilst maintaining law and order. Thus, the chiefs’ roles were that of protecting and guarding the areas that they had control over.^[13] Upon asserting their rule in Pondoland, the colonisers had to use traditional means of asserting control over the people of Pondoland. Thus, they chose Chiefs to be administrators on their behalf, albeit the chiefs being bestowed limited powers over the land. Their limited powers included limited judicial powers, land allocations and tax collection. The chiefs who were chosen are said to not have posed any/limited threat to the colonial rule and order. The revolts were caused by the designated chiefs enforcing the colonizer’s policies without having consulted their people first, thus the people of Pondoland viewed these acts as a form of betrayal, hence the loss of trust between the chiefs and their people.^[13]

The land rehabilitation programme

The land reclamation programme was a system which entailed the colonisers keeping the fertile soils to themselves and allocating the less fertile lands to the local people.^[14] Thus the colonial government awarded chiefs who enforced such policies with fertile lands, hence the resentment towards the chiefs by their people, as the chiefs were regarded as ‘sellouts’.^[15] People believed that chiefs had no right selling the land as it belonged to the people of Pondoland. They revolted to protect what belonged to them.^[16]

The Bantu Authorities System

This system brought about tension between the people of Pondoland and their chiefs. The main cause of distrust was that of chiefs being appointed without their consultation. This was exacerbated by the fact that appointment of chiefs was by the colonial government itself, thus disrupting the Pondoland traditions of chieftaincy, Botha Sigcau was on these chiefs.^[12] The Bantu Authorities System created a pseudo sense of power as colonial authorities gave chiefs limited power, ensuring that administrative duties were still being assigned to the colonial government. This disrupted the system as people were used to being consulted at the Inkundla before decisions were made. Inkundla was when members of a community met together to discuss issues affecting the district/area and made decisions as a collective. However, they found that most decisions were being made on their behalf by the chiefs. Chiefs were now accepting decisions made on their behalf by the colonial government without their consultation. The effects of this was that Pondo chiefs were accepting bribes from the colonisers at the expense of their people.^[15] In return they would allocate people’s land to the colonisers. This caused mistrust between the chiefs and their people who could now only have access to land only if they paid the chiefs. This was previously unheard of since land was communally owned. The archives have it on record that chiefs started making people pay for land in the 1930s.^[15]

Increase in taxes

It is believed that Chief Botha Sigcau had a hand in the increment of taxes, mainly because he benefited from the increment as his loyalties lay with the colonial government rather than his people. In 1956–1960 there were increments which angered the local people, hence some chose to pay and some did not, and the latter resulted in arrests,^[16] which led to revolts in some areas.

Series of events leading to the 1960 revolts

The first signs of revolt were apparent through local vigilante groups such as the Makhuluspani. The Makhuluspani was a group that was created in a bid to combat stock theft in the districts of Tsolo and Qumbu in the 1950s. It is reported that these groups targeted headmen and chiefs who were cooperating or suspected to be cooperating with the colonial government.^[17] There were also conflicts around the Bizana area during that same year as the government intended to fence off a certain area on the coastal area to reserve the forests and coastal zones without having consulted the people of Pondoland. People were evicted out of their land, and at one stage during evictions police were attacked.^[15]

In 1959, in the Bizana district, Saul Mabude who was the chairman of the district authority and advocate for the Bantu Authorities system was asked to meet with the people of that community. He was tasked with explaining the Bantu Authorities system to them, however he did not show up as he feared for his life. The consequence to his actions resulted in him having his house burnt and the police terrorizing the people in that area. This did not deter the Pondo people from mobilising against the government, who made it clear to Chief Sigcau, who was the paramount chief loyal to the coloniser, that the Bantu system was not going to be enforced on their watch.^[12]

In June 1960 a meeting was called at Ngquza Hill. These meetings had become the norm during the apartheid era around that area as people used them to educate each other on the events that were taking place, thus the meetings on the hill were not held secretly. Chief Sigcau tipped the police about the meeting, who in turn upon their arrival fired on the people at the hill. This resulted in the arrest of 23 people and the death of 11 people.^[15] In retaliation, there was an ambush on a police patrol in Flagstaff. These people were shot at by the police, resulting in the injury of two policemen and the arrest of one headman.^[12]

In November 1960 in Flagstaff, a mass meeting was called at Ngqindile. Chief Sigcau’s brother Vukayibambe called the police and helped disperse the meeting. One of the protesters was killed, this resulting in Vukayibambe’s kraal being set on fire and his death. All those who had an affiliation with the chief and supported him were killed, injured and their kraals set alight. The police were sent to diffuse the situation.^[12]

Stabilisation of the revolts

A commission of inquiry was held right after the massacre. The demands from the people of Pondoland entailed the Bantu Authorities, Bantu Education Acts being withdrawn, the relief from taxes, removal of Botha Sigcau as the paramount chief and his representation in the colonial parliament.^[12] Their demands were not met, and in retaliation the Pondo boycotted all white owned stores in Pondoland.^[12]

By the end of November 1960, a state of emergency was declared in Pondoland, in Flagstaff, Bizana, Takankulu, Lusikisiki and Mount Ayliff. No one could access those areas without a permit, and the west of Umtata was closed off. The revolts were shut down through heavy policing and raiding tax evaders. The Bantu Home Guard was also established by the chiefs in a bid to shut down the revolts, with the aid of the military force that was sent by the state in a bid to subjugate the areas in Pondoland where the revolts had occurred till 1963.^[12]

In 1960, a total of 4769 had been imprisoned during this period of the revolts form 1950–1960, and 2067 brought to trial and it is reported that 30 people were sentenced to death during August and October in 1961.^[15]

Mpondo culture and heritage festival

Imfene, a Mpondo Dance Festival, Kennedy Road Shack Settlement, Durban (2008)

Mpondo Culture and Heritage Festival is celebrated annually by Mpondo to celebrate their culture and heritage. It is the biggest cultural event celebrated in the Kingdom attended by approximately over 15 000 people preceded by the Annual Mpondo Read Dance. It is held in September of every year at Lwandlolubomvu Great Place, Ntabankulu; palace of the customary head Jongilanga Sigcau. Ntabankulu is the mountainous part of the Mpondo Kingdom surrounded by the great Mzimvubu River. Ntabankulu in Mpondo language means Big Mountains. September is important in the Mpondo history as it was originally the Mpondo new year in the ancient Mpondo calendars and also two of the Mpondo Kings King Mqikela and King Sigcau were born on this month. The Mpondo Culture and Heritage Festival also celebrates the roles played by these icons, including the legendary Kings Faku and Mqikela amongst others. This events also seeks to promote cultural diversity through sharing of Mpondo Culture and heritage with other cultures from South Africa, broader African continent and beyond the Oceans. It attracts a lot of tourists both local and international tourists and is one of the biggest events in the Eastern Cape Province of South Africa.

Mpondo lunar calendar

According to the ancient AbaMbo people, including Mpondo September is the first month of the year. There are some Mpondo people who recognise the appearance of the Pleiades ("isilimela") to signal the beginning of the year,^[8] but it is most likely that this interpretation was adopted from the Xhosa people. Mpondo calendar is as follows commencing with uMphanda the first month of the year according to the ancient Mpondo Calendar.

• uMphanda (September)
• uZibandlela (October)
• uLwezi (November)
• uNtsinga (December)
• uNtlolanja (January)
• uNdazosela (February)
• um'Basa (March)
• utshazimpuzi (April)
• uNtlangula (May)
• uNtulikazi (June)
• uNcwabakazi (July)
• uMfumfu (August)